Passive RC Filter Circuits A passive low-pass filters using RC is shown below.

The reactance of the capacitor is dependent on frequency, X c = 1 2 f c . As the frequency goes up, the reactance, X c of the capacitor goes down. The resistance of a resistor is constant with changes in frequency. By examining the low-pass filter, it is a voltage divider made up of R and X c . The output is taken across X c . At low frequencies, X c is much larger than R , and most of the input voltage is across the output. At high frequencies, X c becomes smaller than R , and most of the input voltage is dropped across R , causing the output to be small.

1 1 V 1 jC jC H ( ) = out = = = j RC + 1 1 + j RC Vin R + 1 jC jC

H ( ) =

1 1 = 2 1 + j RC 1 + 2 ( RC )

= 2 f

V ; RC = time constant ; dB = 20 log10 out Vin

1 10RC

H ( )

Approximation for H ( )

1 1 + j ( 0.1)

1 or 0 dB 0.707 or -3 dB 0.1 or -20 dB 0.01 or -40 dB

1 RC 10 RC 100 RC Note: 1 = 2 f c = cutoff frequency RC

1 1+ j 1 1 + j (10 )
1 1 + j (100 )

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For the high-pass filter, the components have been reversed. The high frequencies will be passed and the low frequencies will be attenuated.

H ( ) =

Vout R 1 = == 1 1 Vin R + 1+ jC j RC

H ( ) =

1 1 1+ j RC

1 j 1 RC

= 1+

1 1

( RC )
2

= 2 f

V ; RC = time constant ; dB = 20 log10 out Vin

1 100RC 1 10RC 1 RC 10 RC No

H ( )

Approximation for H ( ) 0.01 or -40 dB

1 1 j100 1 1 j10 1 1 j 1 1 j ( 0.1)

0.1 or -20 dB 0.707 or -3 dB 1 or 0 dB

Fig. 1 shows a low-pass filter and Fig. 2 shows a high-pass active filter. The circuits consist of a passive RC filter connected to an op-amp follower stage. The voltage at the output of the follower is the same as the voltage at the non-inverting input.

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First-order Active Filters

Fig. 1 shows a low-pass filter and Fig. 2 shows a high-pass active filter. The circuits consist of a passive RC filter connected to an op-amp follower stage. The voltage at the output of the follower is the same as the voltage at the non-inverting input.
+V

_ R1 +
VS C1

RL

Fig. 1: Low-pass Filter

_
C1

+V

+
VS R1

RL

Fig. 2: High-pass Filter

These circuits have the same output as single-stage passive filters. Since the RC filter is connected to the high impedance input of the non-inverting amplifier, the RC filter will not be loaded by the next stage. It is possible to replace the op-amp follower circuit with an opamp non-inverting amplifier and obtain voltage gain. Filters can be classified by the steepness of their roll-off. The roll-off is a measurement of how a reference output signal in the pass-band to the output signal at a given frequency beyond cutoff. Fig. 3 shows the Bode plot for three different orders of filters. The passive filters are limited to a roll-off of 20 dB/decade or 6 dB/octave and are called first-order filters. A roll-off of 20 dB/decade means that as the frequency is increased by ten times, the

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amplitude of the output signal is reduced to one-tenth. First-order filters use only one RC network and are also called single-pole filters.
0 db 1V Cutoff frequency Roll-off 20 dB/decade -20 dB 100 mV Roll-off 40 dB/decade - 40 dB 10 mV
10 KHz

Roll-off 60 dB/decade - 60 dB 1 mV

- 80 dB 0.1 mV
100 KHz 1 KHz 10 KHz 1 MHz

Fig. 3: Bode plot of different order filters

Higher-order Active Filters:

Filters can be made closer to the ideal by increasing the number of RC networks or poles. If a filter has a roll-off of 40 dB/decade, it has two RC networks and is referred to as a secondorder, or double-pole, filter. If a filter has a roll-off of 60 db/decade, it has three RC networks and it is referred to as a third order or three-pole filter. Adding additional RC networks will increase the steepness of the roll-off. The roll-off of a filter can be expressed in dB per octave. For example, a first order filter has a roll-off of 20 dB/decade, which is equal to 6 dB/octave. Fig. 3 shows a roll-off of 20 dB/decade equal to 6 dB/octave, a roll-off of 40 dB/decade equal to 12 dB/octave, and a rolloff of 60 dB/decade equal to 18 dB/octave. By putting two first-order active filters in series, a second-order filter can be formed. However, this requires two op-amps. Figs 4 & 5 show a method of obtaining a second-order filter using only one op-amp. Fig. 4 is a low-pass filter, and Fig. 5 is a high-pass filter. The gain of the circuit is unity, and the filtering components must have the relationship shown in Figs 4 & 5 for proper operation. The cutoff frequency of both circuits can be found using the 1 following formula: f cutoff = 2 R1 R 2C1C2

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C2

_
R1

+V

AV = 1 R1 = R 2 2 C 1 = C2

R2 +
V RL

Rf = 0 R in =

VS

C1

Fig. 4: Second-order Low-pass filter with unity gain

R2

_
C1 C2

+V

AV=1 R1 = 2 R 2 C 1 = C2

+
VS R1

RL

Rf =0 R in =

Fig. 5: Second-order High-pass filter with unity gain

Figs 4 & 5 show a second-order filter that uses equal value filtering capacitors and resistors. In order for this circuit to work properly, the gain must be set to 1.586. The gain is calculated using the normal voltage gain formula for a non-inverting amplifier, Av = 1 + ( R f R in ) .

When equal value filtering components are used, the cutoff frequency for the total circuit is calculated by calculating the cutoff frequency for one pole using the formula: f cutoff = 1 ( 2 RC ) .

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Higher-order filters can be made by cascading stages of first- and second-order filters. For example, Fig. 6a shows a third-order low-pass filter constructed by using a second-order lowpass filter followed by a first-order low-pass filter. The roll-off of the first stage is 40 db/decade, and the second stage has a roll-off of 20 db/decade. The total roll-off is equal to 60 db/decade. Fig. 6b shows a high-pass active filter with a total roll-off of 60 db/decade. If steeper roll-offs are needed, they can be obtained by adding more stages. If all the filtering capacitors and resistors are equal, the formula f cutoff = 1 ( 2 RC ) can be used to calculate the cutoff frequency of the filter circuit. In order to use equal value filtering components, the voltage gain of each stage must be set to a specific value using resistors Rf and Ri in each stage. The calculations for these gains are not discussed here. Table 1 shows the voltage gains needed to design up to six-order filter circuits using equal value components. C2
R f1 R i1 R f2 R i2 +V

_ +

+V

_ +

R1
R2 VS C1 V

R3
C3

RL

Fig. 6a:

Third-order low-pass filter (60 dB/decade roll-off) R2

R f1 R i1 R f2 R i2 +V

_ +

+V

_ +

C1
C2

C3 R3

RL

VS

R1

Fig. 6b:

Third-order high-pass filter (60 db/decade roll-off) 6

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Table 1 Order 1 2 3 4 5 6 Roll-off DB/decade 20 dB 40 dB 60 dB 80 dB 100 dB 120 dB 1st stage Poles Av 1 Optional 2 1.586 2 2.000 2 1.152 2 2.000 2 1.068 2nd stage Poles Av 3rd stage Poles Av Total Av Optional 1.586 4.000 2.575 6.583 4.204

1 2 2 2

2.000 2.235 1.382 1.586

1 2

2.382 2.382

Note: The voltage gain of the total circuit is equal to the product of each stage.

Bandpass Filters

Bandpass filters are designed to pass a band of frequencies between a low cutoff frequency, f1, and a high cutoff frequency, f2. The frequency in the center of the band is called the center frequency, f0. Both response curves in Figure 7 have an output signal of 1 V at the center frequency, f0, of 100 KHz. Since they are bandpass filters, each response curve has a low cutoff frequency, f1 and a high cutoff frequency, f2. The magnitude of the output signal at the cutoff frequency is equal to 70.7% of the magnitude at the center frequency, or in this case 0.707 V. The bandwidth (BW) is defined as the difference between the high and low cutoff frequencies (BW = f2 - f1 ). The response curve in Figure 7a shows a bandwidth of 20 KHz, whereas the response curve in Figure 7b shows a bandwidth of 2 KHz.

V f 1 = 0.707 V V f 0 = 1V V f 2 = 0.707 V

V f 1 = 0.707 V V f 0 = 1V V f 2 = 0.707 V

f1
f 1 = 90 KHz f 0 = 100 KHz f 2 = 110 KHz

f0

f2
f 1 = 99 KHz f 0 = 100 KHz f 2 = 101 KHz

f1 f 0 f 2

BW = 20 KHz Q = 100 20 = 5 Roll -off = 20 dB / decade (a)

BW = 2 KHz Q = 100 2 = 50 Roll -off = 40 dB / decade (b)

Fig. 7: Bandwidth comparison

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Q is equal to the center frequency divided by the bandwidth (Q = f0 /BW). The Q value is useful when comparing filter circuits. For example, both response curves in Fig. 7 have a center frequency of 100 KHz, but the Q in Fig. 7a is 5, and the Q in Fig. 7b is 50. The higher the Q, the more selective the filter will be. Filter circuits with a Q below 10 are called low-Q filters, and filter circuits with a Q above 10 are called high-Q filters. Low-Q filters are wide bandpass circuits, and high-Q filters are narrow bandpass circuits. Fig. 8a shows the frequency-response curve for a bandpass filter circuit, and Fig. 8b shows the Bode plot for the same circuit. The Bode plot shows the output signal as a constant 2 V across the bandwidth, and then a constant rate of roll-off beyond cutoff. The filter has a lowend roll-off and high-end roll-off. Normally both ends roll off at the same rate (as shown in Fig. 8), but it is possible to have a band-pass filter circuit with different roll-off rates on the low and high ends. To calculate the high-end roll-off in dB/decade, the center frequency output signal is divided into the output signal at a frequency of one decade above cutoff. To calculate the low-end roll-off, the center frequency output signal is divided into the output signal at a frequency of one decade below cutoff. Example 1 shows how to evaluate a bandpass filter by examining its frequency-response curve.
Example 1: Calculate the center frequency, bandwidth, Q, and roll-off for the filter response curve shown in Fig. 8b.

0 dB -10 dB -20 dB -30 dB -40 dB -50 dB 0.9 9 10 11 110

2V 1.414 V

2V 1.414 V

0.2 V KHz 0.9 9 10 11 110

0.2 V KHz

(a) Fig. 8: Band response and Bode plot curves

(b)

Step 1: Step 2: Step 3:

From the Bode plot, determine the low cutoff frequency.

f 1 = 9 KHz

From the Bode plot, determine the high cutoff frequency. f 2 = 11 KHz Calculate the center frequency. For a circuit with a Q of two or higher, the center frequency can be calculated by dividing the sum between f2 and f1 by two. f 0 = ( f 1 + f 2 ) 2 = ( 9 KHz + 11 KHz ) 2 =10 KHz
Calculate the bandwidth of the filter: BW = 11 KHz 9 KHz = 2 KHz Calculate the Q of the filter: Q 0 = f 0 BW = 10 KHz 2 KHz = 5

Step 4: Step 5:

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Step 6:

Step 7:

Calculate the low-end roll-off in dB/decade. The low cutoff frequency is 9 KHz. Therefore, read the magnitude of the signal at one-tenth of the cutoff (900 Hz) from Fig. 8b. The output at 900 Hz is 0.02 V. V0.1 f 1 0.02 V Low-end roll-off = 20 log = 20 log = 40 dB / decade Vf 2V 0 Calculate the high-end roll-off in dB/decade. The high cutoff frequency is 11 KHz. Therefore, read the magnitude of the signal at ten times of the cutoff (110 KHz) from Fig. 8b. The output at 110 KHz is 0.02 V. V10 f 1 0.02 V High-end roll-off = 20 log = 20 log = 40 dB / decade Vf 2V 0

Fig. 9 shows a bandpass filter using a second-order low-pass filter followed by a secondorder high-pass filter. The upper cutoff frequency (f2 ) is determined by calculating the cutoff frequency of the low-pass filter, and the lower cutoff frequency (f1 ) is determined by calculating the cutoff frequency of the high-pass filter. This type of filter is used for wide bandpass filters. The Q of this filter will be below two; consequently, the center frequency should be calculated using the formula: f 0 = f 1 f 2 . This formula is valid for calculating the center frequency of all bandpass filters; however, for bandpass filters with Qs higher than two, the formula f 0 = ( f 1 + f 2 ) 2 gives approximately the same results.
Example 2: Calculate the low and high cutoff frequencies, the bandwidth, the center frequency, and the Q of the filter circuit as shown in Fig. 9. Draw a Bode plot of the frequency response curve.

C 2 0.001 F
R f 1 5.86 K R i1 10 K

R 3 6.8 K R f 2 5.86 K R i 2 10 K

_ +

+V

_ +

+V

R1
2.2 K

R2
2.2 K

C3
V

C4
V RL

VS

C1 0.001 F

0.001 F 0.001 F

R4 6.8 K

Fig. 9: Bandpass filter

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Step 1:

Calculate the low cutoff frequency. The low cutoff frequency is a function of the high-pass filter stage.

f1 =
Step 2:

1 1 = = 23 KHz 2 R 3C 3 2 6.8K 0.001 F

Calculate the high cutoff frequency. The high cutoff frequency is a function of the low-pass filter stage.

f2 =
Step 3: Step 4: Step 5: Step 6:

1 1 = = 72 KHz 2 R1C 2 2 2.2 K 0.001 F

Calculate the center frequency:

f0 =

f 1 f 2 = 23 KHz 72 KHz = 40.7 KHz BW = f 2 f 1 = 72 KHz 23 KHz = 49 KHz Q = f 0 BW = 40.7 KHz 49 KHz = 0.83

Calculate the bandwidth: Calculate the Q: The Bode plot:

40 dB/decade

23 KHz

72 KHz

Fig. 10: Bandpass Filter Frequency response

Multiple-feedback Bandpass Filter:

C f 0.005 F R f 20 K Ri
1K

Ci 0.01 F R1
1K

_ +

+V

f0 =

1 2

( R // R ) R C C
i 1 f i

Vin

V V out

Q = f 0 R f C iC f

Fig. 11:

Multiple-feedback bandpass filter

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10

Fig. 11 is a multiple-feedback bandpass filter. The circuit is essentially an inverting amplifier with two feedback paths. At frequencies in the bandpass, capacitors Ci and C f are at moderate impedance values, permitting the circuit to function as an inverting amplifier. In the bandpass area, the main factors controlling voltage gain are resistors R f and R i ( Av = R f R i ). At frequencies below the bandpass, the main factors controlling the voltage gain are the resistance of R f and the impedance of capacitor Ci ( Av R f C i ) .Since Ci has high impedance at low frequencies, the gain is low, resulting in a small output signal. At frequencies above the bandpass, the main factors controlling the voltage gain are the impedance of capacitor C f and the resistance of R i ( Av C f R i ). Since C f has low impedance at high frequencies, the gain is low, resulting in a small output signal. Once the Q and center frequency, f0, are known, the bandwidth can be calculated by using the formula, BW = f 0 / Q . Since approximately half of the bandwidth is above the center frequency and half below, the upper and lower cutoff frequencies can be approximated.
Example 3: Calculate the center frequency, the Q, the bandpass, the low cutoff frequency, and the high cutoff frequency for the circuit in Fig. 11. Step 1:

Calculate the center frequency: 1 f0 = = 2 ( Ri // R1 ) R f C i C f 2

(1K //1K ) 20 K 0.01 F 0.005 F

= 7.1 KHz

Step 2:

Calculate the Q: Q = f 0 R f C i C f = ( 7.1 KHz )( 20 K ) 0.01 F 0.005 F = 3 Calculate the Bandwidth: BW = f 0 Q = 7.1 KHz 3 = 2.36 KHz Calculate the low cutoff frequency (f1 ): f 1 = f 0 ( BW 2 ) = 7.1 KHz ( 2.36 KHz 2 ) = 5.92 KHz Calculate the high cutoff frequency (f2 ): f 1 = f 0 + ( BW 2 ) = 7.1 KHz + ( 2.36 KHz 2 ) = 8.28 KHz

Step 3: Step 4:

Step 5:

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11