The English System of Units There are several systems of units, each containing units for properties such

as length, volume, weight, and time. In the English system the units are defined in an arbitrary way.

Length: inch (in), foot (ft), yard (yd), mile (mi) 12 in = 1 ft 5280 ft = 1 mi 3 ft = 1 yd 1760 yd = 1 mi Volume: fluid ounce (oz), cup (c), pint (pt), quart (qt), gallon (gal) 2 c = 1 pt 32 oz = 1 qt 2 pt = 1 qt 4 qt = 1 gal Weight: ounce (oz), pound (lb), ton 16 oz = 1 lb 2000 lb = 1 ton Time: second (s), minute (min), hour (h), day (d), year (y) 60 s = 1 min 24 h = 1 d 3651/4 d = 1 y 60 min = 1 h

Practice Problem 1
Convert 6.5 feet into inches. The Metric System The Metric System is based on the fundamental units of measure for length, volume, and mass.

Length: meter (m) Volume:liter (L) Mass : gram (g)

Base units in the Metric System can be converted into units that are more appropriate for the quantity being measured by adding a prefix to the name of the base unit. The common metric prefixes are given below. Metric System Prefixes

Prefix femtopiconanomicromillicentidecikilo-

Symbol f p n m c d k

Meaning x 1/1,000,000,000,000,000 (10-15) x 1/1,000,000,000,000 (10-12) x 1/1,000,000,000 (10-9) x 1/1,000,000 (10-6) x 1/1,000 (10-3) x 1/100 (10-2) x l/10(10-1) x 1,000 (103)

megagigatera-

M G T

x 1,000,000 (106) x 1,000,000,000 (109) x 1,000,000,000,000 (1012)

The base units of length and volume are linked in the metric system. By definition, a liter is equal to the volume of a cube exactly 10 cm tall, 10 cm long, and 10 cm wide. Because the volume of this cube is 1000 cubic centimeters and a liter contains 1000 milliliters, 1 milliliter is equivalent to 1 cubic centimeter. 1 mL = 1cm3 The base units of volume and weight are also linked. The gram was originally defined as the mass of 1 mL of water at 4 degrees Celsius. 1g = 1mL H2O at 4 C

Practice Problem 2:
Convert 0.135 kilometers into meters.
Mass Versus Weight Mass is a measure of the amount of matter in an object, so the mass of an object is constant. Weight is a measure of the force of attraction of the earth acting on an object. The weight of an object is not constant. Mass is a more fundamental quantity than weight. There is no English equivalent to the verb weigh that can be used to describe what happens when the mass of an object is measured. You are therefore likely to encounter the terms weigh and weight for operations and quantities that are more accurately associated with the term mass.

SI Units of Measure
In 1960 the International System of Units was proposed as a replacement for the Metric System. The seven base units for the SI system are given below. SI Base Units

Physical Quantity length

Name of Unit meter

Symbol m

mass time temperature electric current amount of substance luminous intensity

kilogram second kelvin ampere mole candela

Derived Si Units

kg s K D mol cd

The units of every measurement in the SI system must be derived from one or more of the seven base units. Some of the common derived SI units used in chemistry are given below. Common Derived SI Units in Chemistry

Physical Quantity density electric charge electric potential energy force frequency pressure velocity (speed) volume

Name of Unit coulomb volt joule newton hertz pascal meters per second cubic meter
Non-SI Units

Symbol kg/m3 C (A s) V (J/C) J (kg-m2/s2) N (kg-m/s2) Hz (s-1) Pa (N/m2) m/s m3

Strict adherence to SI units would require changing directions such as "add 250 mL of water to a 1-L beaker" to "add 0.00025 cubic meters of water to an 0.001-m3 container." Because of this, a number of units that are not strictly acceptable under the SI convention are still in use. Some of these non-SI units are given below. Non-SI Units in Common Use

Physical Quantity volume length pressure energy temperature concentration

Name of Unit liter angstrom atmosphere torr electron volt degree Celsius molarity
Unit Conversions

Symbol L (10-3 m3) D (0.1 nm) atm (101.325 kPa) mmHg (133.32 Pa) eV (1.601 x 10-19 J) EC (K - 273.15) M (mol/L)

Length 1 m = 1.094 yd Volume 1 L = 1.057 qt Mass 1 g = 0.002205 lb

1 yd = 0.9144 1 qt = 0.9464 1 lb = 453.6 g

Practice Problem 3
The record for the Kentucky Derby is held by Secretariat, who ran the 10 furlongs in 1 minute, 59.4 seconds. Calculate his average speed in miles per hour.

Practice Problem 4
Calculate the volume in liters of a cubic container 0.500 meter tall.

Practice Problem 5
What is the value of a gold ingot 20.0 cm long by 8.5 cm wide by 6.0 cm tall, if the mass of a cubic centimeter of gold is 19.3 grams and the price of gold is $356 per ounce?

Elements Any substance that contains only one kind of an atom is known as an element. Because atoms cannot be created or destroyed in a chemical reaction, elements such as phosphorus (P 4) or sulfur (S8) cannot be broken down into simpler substances by these reactions. Example: Water decomposes into a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen when an electric current is passed through the liquid. Hydrogen and oxygen, on the other hand, cannot be decomposed into simpler substances. They are therefore the elementary, or simplest, chemical substances elements. Each element is represented by a unique symbol. The notation for each element can be found on the periodic table of elements. The elements can be divided into three categories that have characteristic properties: metals, nonmetals, and semimetals. Most elements are metals, which are found on the left and toward the bottom of the periodic table. A handful of nonmetals are clustered in the upper right corner of the periodic table. The semimetals can be found along the dividing line between the metals and the nonmetals. Atoms Elements are made up of atoms, the smallest particle that has any of the properties of the element.John Dalton, in 1803, proposed a modern theory of the atom based on the following assumptions. 1. Matter is made up of atoms that are indivisible and indestructible. 2. All atoms of an element are identical. 3. Atoms of different elements have different weights and different chemical properties. 4. Atoms of different elements combine in simple whole numbers to form compounds. 5. Atoms cannot be created or destroyed. When a compound decomposes, the atoms are recovered unchanged. Compounds Elements combine to form chemical compounds that are often divided into two categories. Metals often react with nonmetals to form ionic compounds. These compounds are composed of positive and negative ions formed by adding or subtracting electrons from neutral atoms and molecules.

Nonmetals combine with each other to form covalent compounds, which exist as neutral molecules.

The shorthand notation for a compound describes the number of atoms of each element, which is indicated by a subscript written after the symbol for the element. By convention, no subscript is writte Characteristics of Ionic and Covalent Compounds Ionic Compounds Contain positive and negative ions (Na+Cl-) Solids suchs as table salt (NaCl(s)) High melting and boiling points Strong force of attraction between particles Separate into charged particles in water to give a solution that conducts electricity Covalent Compounds Exist as neutral molecules (C6H12O2) Solids, liquids,or gases (C6H12O6(s), H2O(l), CO2(g)) Lower melting and boiling points (i.e., often exist as a liquid or gas at room temperature) Relatively weak force of attraction between molecules Remain as same molecule in water and will not conduct electricity

Determining if a Compound is Ionic or Covalent Calculate the difference between the electronegativities of two elements in a compound and the average of their electronegativites, and find the intersection of these values on the figure shown below to help determine if the compound is ionic or covalent, or metallic.

Practice Problem 1:
For each of the following compounds, predict whether you would expect it to be ionic or covalent. (a) chromium(III) oxide, Cr2O3 (b) carbon tetrachloride, CCl4 (c) methanol, CH3OH (d) strontium fluoride, SrF2

Practice Problem 2:
Use the following data to propose a way of distinguishing between ionic and covalent compounds.

Compound Melting Point ( oC) Boiling Point ( oC) Cr2O3 SrF2 CCl4 CH3OH 2266 1470 -22.9 -97.8 4000 2489 76.6 64.7

Practice Problem 3:
Which of the following compounds should conduct an electric current when dissolved in water? (a) methanol, CH3OH (b) strontium fluoride, SrF2

Fundamental Subatomic Particles

Particle electron proton neutron

Symbol ep+ no

Charge -1 +1 0

Mass 0.0005486 amu 1.007276 amu 1.008665 amu

The number of protons, neutrons, and electrons in an atom can be determined from a set of simple rules.

The number of protons in the nucleus of the atom is equal to the atomic number (Z). The number of electrons in a neutral atom is equal to the number of protons. The mass number of the atom (M) is equal to the sum of the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus. The number of neutrons is equal to the difference between the mass number of the atom (M) and the atomic number (Z).

Examples: Let's determine the number of protons, neutrons, and electrons in the following isotopes.
12

13

14

14

The different isotopes of an element are identified by writing the mass number of the atom in the upper left corner of the symbol for the element.
12

C,

13

C, and

14

C are isotopes of carbon (Z = 6)

and therefore contain six protons. If the atoms are neutral, they also must contain six electrons. The only difference between these isotopes is the number of neutrons in the nucleus.
12

C: 6 electrons, 6 protons, and 6 neutrons C: 6 electrons, 6 protons, and 7 neutrons C: 6 electrons, 6 protons, and 8 neutrons

13

14

Practice Problem 1:
Calculate the number of electrons in the Cl- and Fe3+ ions.

Electromagnetic Radiation Much of what is known about the structure of the electrons in an atom has been obtained by studying the interaction between matter and different forms of electromagnetic radiation. Electromagnetic radiation has some of the properties of both a particle and a wave. Particles have a definite mass and they occupy space. Waves have no mass and yet they carry energy as they travel through space. In addition to their ability to carry energy, waves have four other characteristic properties: speed, frequency, wavelength, and amplitude. The frequency (v) is the number of waves (or cycles) per unit of time. The frequency of a wave is reported in units of cycles per second (s-1) or hertz (Hz). The idealized drawing of a wave in the figure below illustrates the definitions of amplitude and wavelength. The wavelength (l) is the smallest distance between repeating points on the wave. The amplitude of the wave is the distance between the highest (or lowest) point on the wave and the center of gravity of the wave.

If we measure the frequency (v) of a wave in cycles per second and the wavelength (l) in meters, the product of these two numbers has the units of meters per second. The product of the frequency (v) times the wavelength (l) of a wave is therefore the speed (s) at which the wave travels through space. vl = s

Practice Problem 2:
What is the speed of a wave that has a wavelength of 1 meter and a frequency of 60 cycles per second?

Practice Problem 3:
Orchestras in the United States tune their instruments to an "A" that has a frequency of 440 cycles per second, or 440 Hz. If the speed of sound is 1116 feet per second, what is the wavelength of this note?

Light and Other Forms of Electromagnetic Radiation Light is a wave with both electric and magnetic components. It is therefore a form of electromagnetic radiation. Visible light contains the narrow band of frequencies and wavelengths in the portion of the electro-magnetic spectrum that our eyes can detect. It includes radiation with wavelengths between about 400 nm (violet) and 700 nm (red). Because it is a wave, light is bent when it enters a glass prism. When white light is focused on a prism, the light rays of different wavelengths are bent by differing amounts and the light is transformed into a spectrum of colors. Starting from the side of the spectrum where the light is bent by the smallest angle, the colors are red, orange, yellow, green, blue, and violet. As we can see from the following diagram, the energy carried by light increases as we go from red to blue across the visible spectrum.

Because the wavelength of electromagnetic radiation can be as long as 40 m or as short as 105

nm, the visible spectrum is only a small portion of the total range of electromagnetic radiation.

The electromagnetic spectrum includes radio and TV waves, microwaves, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, x-rays, g-rays, and cosmic rays, as shown in the figure above. These different forms of radiation all travel at the speed of light (c). They differ, however, in their frequencies and wavelengths. The product of the frequency times the wavelength of electromagnetic radiation is always equal to the speed of light. vl = c As a result, electromagnetic radiation that has a long wavelength has a low frequency, and radiation with a high frequency has a short

Practice Problem 4:

Calculate the frequency of red light that has a wavelength of 700.0 nm if the speed of light is 2.998 x 108 m/s.