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Enhanced Wind Tunnel Techniques

and Aerodynamic Force Models
for Yacht Sails
Heikki Hansen
A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for

the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Mechanical Engineering,
The University of Auckland, 2006.
Supervised by
Associate Professor Peter J. Richards
&
Professor Peter S. Jackson
Department of Mechanical Engineering

The University of Auckland
Auckland, New Zealand
Copyright Heikki Hansen 2006. All rights reserved.

Department of Mechanical Engineering
The University of Auckland
Auckland, New Zealand
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Abstract
Accurate prediction of performance is an important aspect of modern sailing yacht design and
provides a competitive advantage on the racecourse and in the marketplace. Although wind
tunnel testing of yacht sails is a common tool for obtaining input data for Velocity Prediction
Programs, its results have not been validated against aerodynamic full-scale measurements as
quality full-scale data is rare. Wind tunnel measurements are conducted at the Twisted Flow
Wind Tunnel of The University of Auckland and are compared to the full-scale aerodynamic
force measurements from the Berlin Sail-Force-Dynamometer. To realise this comparison
wind tunnel techniques and aerodynamic force models for yacht sails are enhanced; this in
turn also improves the accuracy of Velocity Prediction Programs.
Force and surface pressure measurements were conducted demonstrating that the interaction
of the hull/deck with the sails has a significant effect on the side force and the force
perpendicular to the deck plane, and that this should be considered in aerodynamic analysis of
sails and the performance prediction of yachts.
The first Real-Time Velocity Prediction Program for wind tunnel testing has been developed
and implemented as an additional module of FRIENDSHIP-Equilibrium. Model sails can
now be trimmed based on the full-scale performance of the yacht, and at the correct heel
angle, which makes the trimming process in the wind tunnel much more similar to the real
life situation.
Improved aerodynamic force models have been developed from realistically depowered sail
trims obtained with the Real-Time Velocity Prediction Program. An empirical model that
describes the force and moment changes due to depowering in detail has been developed and
implemented. The standard semi-empirical trim parameter model, which expresses
depowering in a more generic way, has been enhanced based on aerodynamic principles and
validated against the wind tunnel results.
Utilising the enhanced wind tunnel techniques and aerodynamic force models, a generally
good qualitative and quantitative agreement with the full-scale data is achieved. Remaining
challenges associated with full-scale and wind tunnel tests are however also highlighted and,
based on this work alone, a conclusive judgement that scaling effects are negligible cannot be
made.
Hansen: Enhanced Wind Tunnel Techniques and Aerodynamic Force Models for Yacht Sails
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Acknowledgements
During the course of this project, lasting several years, I had the privilege to receive guidance
and support from numerous exceptional, dedicated and inspiring people. It is very gratifying
to have the opportunity to thank some of them here now.
First and foremost I want to thank my supervisors Professor Peter Jackson and Associate
Professor Peter Richards. Peter Jackson, thank you very much for encouraging me to come to
New Zealand to take on this research, developing the idea for the project, guiding me through
the early part of this work and remaining involved after your move to the University of
Canterbury. Peter Richards, thank you very much for taking over as my main supervisor and
always providing accessible, dedicated and practical guidance. I am also extremely
appreciative of the input from my advisory committee; Burns Fallow and Professor John
Chen.
Working with the staff and postgraduate students of the Yacht Research Unit and the
Mechanical Engineering Department has been inspiring and made this a very educational and
enjoyable journey. I feel blessed to have spent time in your company and thank you all.
David Le Pelley, your patience, dedication and hands-on approach played an important role
in this project and enriched the work environment at the Yacht Research Unit immensely.
Professor Richard Flay and Angelo Tempia, our discussions about wind tunnel testing and
aerodynamic force modelling were especially enlightening. I am also very thankful to the
technicians, Ken Brich, Brian Watson and Grant Clendons team, for producing excellent
models and equipment.
An integral part of the project was the cooperation with the Technical University Berlin and
FRIENDSHIP SYSTEMS and I am extremely grateful to Dr. Karsten Hochkirch for the fullscale data, the use of his source-code and the continual software development. Karsten, thank
you very much for being an inspiring mentor and sharing your knowledge. Without your
enthusiastic support much less would have been achieved. At the Technical University Berlin
I especially recognise Professor Gnther Clauss and Bernhardt Krger for giving me the
opportunity to take part in their research and making the full-scale data available. At both
institutions staff and students made me feel incredibly welcome and it was an honour to work
with you. I had a great time. Bardo Krebber, your full-scale sail shape analysis was very
helpful and was much appreciated.
Acknowledgements
At several conferences I had interesting conversations with numerous colleagues and received
important feedback for which I am very thankful. Professor Lars Larsson and Ian Campbell,
discussions with you were of particular relevance. Invaluable data and information was also
provided by Efva Ingebrigtsen of North Sails Denmark, Nick Locke of Opus Central
Laboratories and Chris Mitchell of Applied Engineering Services. Donna, thank you very
much for proofreading the thesis.
The IPENZ Craven Scholarship and the Yacht Research Unit lessened the financial burden of
being a postgraduate student and their contribution was much appreciated. I am also grateful
to the Research Committee for providing means to present this work at international
conferences through the Graduate Research Fund.
Distractions provided by PGSA and spark* greatly enriched my postgraduate experience and
taught me a lot. I thank everybody who was part of them; friendships forged in battle are
rarely forgotten.
Finally and most importantly I thank my family for their love, unconditional support,
enduring encouragement and financial contribution. Wewett, Harald, Schura, Omi and Opa;
this is yours
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Table of Contents
Abstract..................................................................................................................................... iii
Acknowledgements ....................................................................................................................v
Table of Contents .................................................................................................................... vii
List of Figures........................................................................................................................... xi
List of Tables........................................................................................................................ xxiii
Nomenclature .........................................................................................................................xxv
Symbols .............................................................................................................................xxv
Greek Symbols...................................................................................................................xxx
Subscripts and other Notations ........................................................................................ xxxi
Abbreviations and Names............................................................................................... xxxii
1 Introduction
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
Preface ..........................................................................................................................1
Velocity Prediction Programs ......................................................................................2
Large-Scale Testing......................................................................................................3
Twisted Flow Wind Tunnel..........................................................................................6
1.4.1
Wind Tunnel Testing as a Sail Design Tool ..................................................8
1.4.2
Trimming and Depowering of Sails .............................................................10
Motivation ..................................................................................................................11
Project Objectives ......................................................................................................12
Methodology ..............................................................................................................13
2 Wind Tunnel Testing of Yacht Sails

2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
15
Introduction ................................................................................................................15
Terminology of Sailing ..............................................................................................15
Aerodynamics of Sailing ............................................................................................17
2.3.1
Effective Angle Theory................................................................................21
2.3.2
Vertical Speed Gradient and Twist in Onset Flow ......................................24
2.3.3
Position of Centre of Effort..........................................................................29
Twisted Flow Wind Tunnel........................................................................................31
2.4.1
Force Measurements ....................................................................................32
2.4.2
Scaling Effects .............................................................................................36
Experimental Set-Up ..................................................................................................38
2.5.1
Wind Tunnel Model .....................................................................................38
2.5.2
Vertical Speed Gradient and Twist Profiles.................................................39
Summary ....................................................................................................................41
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3 Hull and Sail Force Interaction

3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
43
Introduction................................................................................................................ 43
Force Measurements of Hull and Deck Forces.......................................................... 44
Pressure Measurements.............................................................................................. 47
Comparison of Force and Pressure Measurements.................................................... 52
Lift and Drag Forces of Hull/Deck and Rig .............................................................. 53
3.5.1
Influence of Sails on Hull/Deck Lift and Drag............................................ 59
Hull/Deck Forces Perpendicular to Deck Plane ........................................................ 63
3.6.1
Forces Perpendicular to Deck Plane at Heel ............................................... 65
Sail Forces Perpendicular to Deck Plane................................................................... 67
VPP Modelling of Forces Perpendicular to Deck Plane............................................ 68
Conclusions................................................................................................................ 69
4 Real-Time Velocity Prediction Program

4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
71
Introduction................................................................................................................ 71
Standard Semi-Empirical VPPs ................................................................................. 75
4.2.1
Aerodynamic Sail Force Model with Trim Parameters............................... 76
Real-Time VPP Implementation................................................................................ 80
4.3.1
Real-Time VPP LabVIEW Application ...................................................... 81
4.3.2
FRIENDSHIP-Equilibrium ......................................................................... 88
4.3.3
Aerodynamic Wind Tunnel Force Model.................................................... 91
Wind Tunnel Constraints ........................................................................................... 93
4.4.1
Maximising Speed for Constant Effective Wind Angle.............................. 93
4.4.2
Maximising Speed for Constant Apparent Wind Angle.............................. 96
4.4.3
Effective Angle Correction.......................................................................... 98
Real-Time VPP Applications..................................................................................... 99
Conclusions.............................................................................................................. 101
5 Aerodynamic Force Modelling

5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
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103
Introduction.............................................................................................................. 103
Testing Procedure .................................................................................................... 103
Improved Aerodynamic Moment Model ................................................................. 105
Depowering Model with Trim Parameter Power .................................................... 115
5.4.1
Comparison to Real-Time VPP Results .................................................... 121
5.4.2
Generic Power Model ............................................................................. 125
5.4.3
Depowering Changes to xCoE and CMf ........................................................ 129
5.4.4
Direct Force and Moment Power Model ................................................ 131
Assessing the Standard Trim Parameter Model....................................................... 135
Improved Flat and Twist Depowering Model.......................................................... 144
Conclusions.............................................................................................................. 157
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6 Wind Tunnel and Full-Scale Comparison

6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
6.8
Introduction ..............................................................................................................159
Full-Scale Aerodynamic Data Acquisition ..............................................................159
Wind Tunnel Study of Flow Above Mast ................................................................164
6.3.1
Analysis of Cobra Probe Measurements ....................................................167
6.3.2
Influence of Sails on Flow Above Mast.....................................................169
6.3.3
Model for Correcting Full-Scale Wind Measurements..............................176
Full-Scale Aerodynamic Data Analysis ...................................................................179
Wind Tunnel Data ....................................................................................................192
Comparison of Aerodynamic Forces: Mainsail & Spinnaker ..................................194
Comparison of Aerodynamic Forces: Mainsail & Jib..............................................200
6.7.1
Comparison of Sail Shapes ........................................................................209
Conclusions ..............................................................................................................212
7 Conclusions and Recommendations

7.1
7.2
159
215
Conclusions ..............................................................................................................215
Recommendations for Future Work .........................................................................217
Appendices
A Wind Tunnel Model of Dyna
221
223
A.1 Design Considerations..............................................................................................223

A.2 Model Rig.................................................................................................................225
A.3 Model Sails...............................................................................................................229
B Experimental Procedures
231
B.1 Corrections for Hull/Deck Force Measurements .....................................................231

B.2 Meshing of Hull/Deck for Pressure Mapping ..........................................................232
B.3 Airflow below Model in Wind Tunnel Trough ........................................................234
C Velocity Prediction Program Definitions
239
C.1 Coordinate Systems..................................................................................................239

C.2 Real-Time VPP Output File Structure .....................................................................242
C.3 FRIENDSHIP-Equilibrium User Manual ................................................................243
C.3.1 WindTunnel Force Module .....................................................................243
C.3.2 HansenRig Force Module........................................................................244
C.3.3 HansenRigDirect Force Module..............................................................247
C.4 Hydrodynamic Model of Dyna in FRIENDSHIP-Equilibrium................................249
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D Mathematical Techniques
D.1
D.2
D.3
D.4
253
General Force and Moment System......................................................................... 253

Central Axis System ................................................................................................ 254
Lifting-Line Theory to Model Sail Twist ................................................................ 256
Transformation of Flow Measurements to Heeled Plane ........................................ 260
References
263
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List of Figures
Page
Figure 1.1: The Berlin Sail-Force-Dynamometer Dyna ..........................................................4
Figure 1.2: The original Twisted Flow Wind Tunnel (TFWT) for testing yacht sails at
The University of Auckland..................................................................................7
Figure 2.1: Diagram showing components of a yacht ...........................................................15
Figure 2.2: Pressure distribution along the chord of a sail and the resulting lift and
drag......................................................................................................................17
Figure 2.3: Apparent wind angle, angle of attack and sheeting angle relationship ...............19
Figure 2.4: Lift and drag coefficient of mainsail and jib combination against apparent
wind angle ...........................................................................................................19
Figure 2.5: The wind triangle ................................................................................................21
Figure 2.6: Diagram of onset flow in the horizontal plane....................................................22
Figure 2.7: Diagram of onset flow component in the heeled plane.......................................22
Figure 2.8: Atmospheric boundary layer ...............................................................................25
Figure 2.9: Vertical speed gradient and twist in onset flow onto a sail of a yacht on
port tack ignoring the leeway angle ....................................................................25
Figure 2.10: Speed profiles for a 10m IMS cruiser/racer and a Volvo Ocean 60 for true
wind angles of 40 and 160 .................................................................................27
Figure 2.11: Twist profiles for a 10m IMS cruiser/racer and a Volvo Ocean 60 for true
wind angles of 40 and 160 .................................................................................27
Figure 2.12: A (twist) over span of sails plotted as a function of T and VS/VT for a
VO60 yacht .........................................................................................................28
Figure 2.13: A (twist) over span of sails plotted as a function of T and VS/VT for a
10m IMS cruiser/racer.........................................................................................28
Figure 2.14: Twisted Flow Wind Tunnel (TFWT) with and without flow twisting vanes
installed ...............................................................................................................31
Figure 2.15: Schematic diagram of the Twisted Flow Wind Tunnel (TFWT) ........................31
Figure 2.16: Engineering drawing of the Twisted Flow Wind Tunnel (TFWT) .....................32
Figure 2.17: Six-component force balance under the TFWT floor .........................................33
Figure 2.18: Origin of force balance and location of LVDTs .................................................33
Figure 2.19: Definition of the coordinate systems and sign convention .................................34
Figure 2.20: Membrane fold height ratio.................................................................................37
Figure 2.21: Computer representation of wind tunnel model of Dyna....................................39
Figure 2.22: Internal frame of model with remote control winches ........................................39
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Figure 2.23: Vertical speed gradient and twist profiles for upwind and downwind
conditions calculated for Dyna and modelled in wind tunnel plotted
against ratio of mast height on vertical axis ....................................................... 40
Figure 3.1: Wind tunnel model with internal six-component force balance and
connection showing internal framework structure and hull shell detached
and assembled ..................................................................................................... 45
Figure 3.2: Hull/deck shell of model connected to internal frame through sixcomponent force balance .................................................................................... 45
Figure 3.3: Mechanism to connect or disconnect hull/deck from internal frame ................. 45
Figure 3.4: Application of load for offset zero measurement of MZ ..................................... 46
Figure 3.5: Components of pressure tapped model............................................................... 48
Figure 3.6: Inside picture of pressure tapped model ............................................................. 48
Figure 3.7: Outside picture of pressure tapped model .......................................................... 48
Figure 3.8: Location and numbering sequence of pressure taps on hull and deck of
wind tunnel model .............................................................................................. 49
Figure 3.9: Computer model for mapping the measured surface pressures with the
mesh consisting of 7856 elements and divided into five regions ....................... 50
Figure 3.10: Triangular element i of the boundary mesh........................................................ 51
Figure 3.11: Comparison of CD, CL and CFz of hull/deck calculated from force and
pressure measurements for model without sails in upwind configuration at
0 heel ................................................................................................................. 52
Figure 3.12: Comparison of CD, CL and CFz of total and above water hull/deck from
pressure measurements for model without sails in upwind configuration at
0 heel ................................................................................................................. 52
Figure 3.13: Windage drag coefficient in horizontal plane with upright model in upwind
configuration....................................................................................................... 54
Figure 3.14: Windage lift coefficient in horizontal plane with upright model in upwind
configuration....................................................................................................... 54
Figure 3.15: Surface pressure plots for model without sails on port tack at A of 90 and
0 heel showing leeward and windward side of hull .......................................... 58
Figure 3.16: Horizontal drag coefficient (CDA) of hull/deck for the model with and
without sails in upwind and downwind configuration........................................ 59
Figure 3.17: Horizontal lift coefficient (CLA) of hull/deck for the model with and
without sails in upwind and downwind configuration........................................ 59
Figure 3.18: Drag coefficient of hull/deck for the model with and without sails in
upwind configuration at different heel angles plotted in horizontal plane
(coordinate system A) as CDA and in the heeled plane (coordinate system
B) as CD .............................................................................................................. 61
Figure 3.19: Lift coefficient of hull/deck for the model with and without sails in upwind
configuration at different heel angles plotted in horizontal plane
(coordinate system A) as CLA and in the heeled plane (coordinate system
B) as CL ............................................................................................................... 61
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Figure 3.20: Surface pressure plots for model on port tack at 0 heel without sails and
with mainsail and jib at two apparent wind angles showing leeward and
windward side of hull..........................................................................................62
Figure 3.21: Drive force and side force coefficient (CFx and CFy) of total model with
mainsail and jib and of hull/deck with and without sails for the upright
model in upwind configuration ...........................................................................62
Figure 3.22: Force coefficient perpendicular to deck plane (CFz) of hull/deck for model
with and without sails in upwind and downwind configuration .........................63
with mainsail and jib at different apparent wind angles .....................................64
with mainsail and spinnaker at different apparent wind angles ..........................65
without sails at different heel angles ...................................................................66
Figure 3.26: Surface pressure plots for model on port tack at 30 apparent wind angle
without sails and with mainsail and jib at different heel angles .........................66
with mainsail and jib at different heel angles......................................................67
Figure 3.28: Force coefficient perpendicular to deck plane (CFz) of mainsail, jib and rig
at different heel angles ........................................................................................67
Figure 3.29: Surface describing the total force coefficient perpendicular to deck plane
(CFz) as a function of effective wind angle (eff) and heel angle.........................68
Figure 3.30: Boat speed (VS) with and without including force perpendicular to deck
plane (FZ) for different true wind angles (T) and true wind speeds (VT) ...........68
Figure 4.1: Traditional wind tunnel test procedure ...............................................................72
Figure 4.2: Wind tunnel test procedure with the Real-Time VPP .........................................74
Figure 4.3: Forces and moments acting on a sailing yacht that are modelled and
balanced by a three equation VPP.......................................................................75
Figure 4.4: Generic semi-empirical VPP with flat (f) and reef (r) as trim parameters ..........75
Figure 4.5: Schematic description of the implementation of the Real-Time VPP in the
TFWT ..................................................................................................................81
Figure 4.6: Screen shot of the graphical user interface of the Real-Time VPP
LabVIEW application .........................................................................................82
Figure 4.7: Reduction in apparent wind speed (VA/VAref) with height (z/zmast) modelled
in Real-Time VPP and calculated from vertical speed profiles .........................85
Figure 4.8: Schematic description of FRIENDSHIP-Equilibrium and the Real-Time
VPP module for wind tunnel testing ...................................................................89
Figure 4.9: Screen shot of the graphical user interface of FRIENDSHIP-Equilibrium ........90
Figure 4.10: VS optimised using r and f for either constant T or eff at different VT...............94
Figure 4.11: VS ratio of optimisation for constant eff against constant T at different VT.......94
Figure 4.12: Set of achievable VS at eff=40 and 65 for VT=12m/s using reef and flat
between 1 and 0.6 in increments of 0.05.............................................................95
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Figure 4.13: Polar plot of VS optimised at VT=12m/s using reef and flat for either
constant T (left) or eff (right)............................................................................ 95
Figure 4.14: VS ratio of optimisation for constant A against constant T at different VT ....... 97
Figure 4.15: Set of achievable VS at A=40 and 65 for VT=10m/s using r and f between
1 and 0.6 in increments of 0.05........................................................................... 97
Figure 4.16: The Real-Time VPP predictions (left value is VS and right value is heel
angle ()) for two sail trims with the model dynamically heeled to the
predicted ........................................................................................................ 100
Figure 5.1: Residual pure moment coefficient about y-axis (CM0y) for fully powered-up
sails against eff ................................................................................................. 106
Figure 5.2: Pitching moment coefficient (CMy) for fully powered-up sails against
effective wind angle (eff) ................................................................................. 106
Figure 5.3: The ratio p of the moment coefficient in line with the force (CMf) and the
force coefficient (CF) against eff ...................................................................... 107
Figure 5.4: Magnitude of the total moment coefficient (|CM|) and the components
perpendicular to and in line with the resultant force (|CMv| and |CMf|) vs. eff .. 107
Figure 5.5: x and y-axis components of total moment coefficient (CM) and the
component perpendicular the resultant force (CMv) vs. eff .............................. 108
Figure 5.6: x-direction component of moment perpendicular to resultant force (MVx)
against x-direction component of moment (MX) for different force types ....... 109
Figure 5.7: y-direction component of moment perpendicular to resultant force (MVy)
against y-direction component of moment (MY) for different force types........ 110
Figure 5.8: Force direction () in the deck plane for hull, rig and sails, and the total
model against eff .............................................................................................. 111
Figure 5.9: x-component of the moment coefficient in line with the force (CMfx) for
hull, rig and sails, and the combination of the two vs. eff ............................... 111
Figure 5.10: y-component of the moment coefficient in line with the force (CMfy) for
hull, rig and sails, and the combination of the two vs. eff ............................... 111
Figure 5.11: Total CMf of mainsail, jib, rig and hull for different heel angles vs. eff ........... 112
Figure 5.12: Measured total CMf of mainsail, jib, rig and hull and VPP B-spline fit ............ 112
Figure 5.13: Boat speed of Dyna under mainsail and jib calculated with and without
considering CMf for different VT vs. eff ............................................................ 113
Figure 5.14: Heel angle of Dyna under mainsail and jib calculated with and without
considering CMf for different VT vs. eff ............................................................ 113
Figure 5.15: Measured total CMf of hull, rig and mainsail with jib, genoa and spinnaker
based on sailcloth area ...................................................................................... 114
Figure 5.16: Lift coefficient (CL) from wind tunnel tests with Real-Time VPP for
different true wind speeds (VT) ......................................................................... 116
Figure 5.17: Surface describing the lift coefficient (CL) as a function of effective wind
angle (eff) and the depowering parameter power............................................. 116
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Figure 5.18: The optimum lift coefficient (CLopt) as a function of effective wind angle
(eff) ...................................................................................................................117
Figure 5.19: Surface describing the lift coefficient ratio (RL) as a function of eff and
power.................................................................................................................117
Figure 5.20: Lift coefficient (CL) for all tested true wind speeds (VT) from Real-Time
VPP and modelled by power.............................................................................118
Figure 5.21: Surface describing the parasitic drag coefficient ratio (RDp) as a function of
eff and power ....................................................................................................119
Figure 5.22: CDp for all tested true wind speeds (VT) from Real-Time VPP and modelled
by power............................................................................................................119
Figure 5.23: Surface describing the centre of effort height ratio (RzCoE) as a function of
eff and power ...................................................................................................120
Figure 5.24: zCoE for all tested true wind speeds (VT) from Real-Time VPP and
modelled by power ...........................................................................................120
Figure 5.25: Measured xCoEopt of mainsail, jib, rig and hull and VPP B-spline curve fit .....122
Figure 5.26: Measured CFzOpt of mainsail, jib, rig and hull and VPP B-spline curve fit .......122
Figure 5.27: Values of trim parameter power for four true wind speeds (VT) from RealTime VPP and power model VPP calculations ..............................................123
Figure 5.28: Boat speed (VS) for four true wind speeds (VT) predicted by Real-Time
VPP and VPP with power parameter ................................................................123
Figure 5.29: Heel angle () for four true wind speeds (VT) predicted by Real-Time VPP
and VPP with power parameter.........................................................................124
Figure 5.30: Lift coefficient (CL) for four true wind speeds (VT) from Real-Time VPP
and power model VPP calculations ................................................................124
Figure 5.31: Centre of effort height (zCoE) for four true wind speeds (VT) from RealTime VPP and power model VPP calculations ..............................................124
Figure 5.32: Parasitic drag coefficient (CDp) for four true wind speeds (VT) from RealTime VPP and power model VPP calculations ..............................................124
Figure 5.33: CL/CLopt ratio plotted against trim parameter power for different effective
wind angles (EWA) ...........................................................................................125
Figure 5.34: zCoE/zCoEopt ratio plotted against trim parameter power for different
effective wind angles (EWA)............................................................................125
Figure 5.35: CDp/CDpOpt ratio plotted against trim parameter power for different
Figure 5.36: CD/CDopt ratio plotted against trim parameter power for different effective
wind angles (EWA) ...........................................................................................126
Figure 5.37: Values of trim parameter power from Real-Time VPP measurements and
VPP calculations using standard and generic form of power............................127
Figure 5.38: Centre of effort height (zCoE) predicted by Real-Time VPP and VPP with
trim parameter power in standard and generic form .........................................127
Figure 5.39: Drag coefficient (CD) predicted by Real-Time VPP and VPP with trim
parameter power in standard and generic form.................................................128
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Figure 5.40: Boat speed ratio of VS predicted by Real-Time VPP and generic power
model relative to VS from standard power model .......................................... 128
Figure 5.41: Drag coefficient (CD) predicted by Real-Time VPP and VPP with trim
parameter power in standard and second generic form .................................... 129
Figure 5.42: Boat speed ratio of VS predicted by Real-Time VPP and second generic
power model relative to VS from standard power model............................. 129
Figure 5.43: xCoE/xCoEopt ratio plotted against trim parameter power for different
effective wind angles (EWA) ........................................................................... 130
Figure 5.44: CMf/CMfOpt ratio plotted against trim parameter power for different effective
wind angles (EWA) .......................................................................................... 130
Figure 5.45: CFz/CFzOpt ratio plotted against trim parameter power for different effective
wind angles (EWA) .......................................................................................... 131
Figure 5.46: Boat speed ratio of VS predicted by Real-Time VPP and advanced power
model, which additionally adjusts xCoE and CMf, relative to VS from
standard power model .................................................................................... 131
Figure 5.47: CFx/CFxOpt ratio plotted against trim parameter power for different effective
wind angles (EWA) .......................................................................................... 132
Figure 5.48: CFy/CFyOpt ratio plotted against trim parameter power for different effective
wind angles (EWA) .......................................................................................... 132
Figure 5.49: CMy/CMyOpt ratio plotted against trim parameter power for different
Figure 5.50: CMz/CMzOpt ratio plotted against trim parameter power for different
Figure 5.51: Values of trim parameter power from Real-Time VPP measurements and
VPP calculations using advanced and direct form of power ............................ 134
Figure 5.52: Boat speed ratio of VS predicted by Real-Time VPP and VPP with direct
power model relative to VS from advanced power model ........................... 134
Figure 5.53: Windage drag coefficient of hull and rig in upwind configuration at 0 heel
vs. eff ................................................................................................................ 136
Figure 5.54: Parasitic drag coefficient (CDp) of mainsail and jib with and without
windage compnent at 0 heel vs. eff ................................................................ 136
Figure 5.55: Flat and reef values chosen by VPP in different VT for a range of eff............. 138
Figure 5.56: Flat and twist values chosen by VPP in different VT for a range of eff with
twist relative to boom and ct=8 ......................................................................... 138
twist relative to DWL and ct=8 ......................................................................... 139
twist relative to DWL and ct=12 ....................................................................... 139
Figure 5.59: Centre of effort height (zCoE) for four true wind speeds (VT) from VPP
calculations using trim parameter power and different combinations and
versions of reef, flat and twist........................................................................... 140
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Figure 5.60: Lift coefficient (CL) for four true wind speeds (VT) from VPP calculations
using trim parameter power and different combinations and versions of
reef, flat and twist ..............................................................................................141
Figure 5.61: Total drag coefficient (CD) for four true wind speeds (VT) from VPP
calculations using trim parameter power and different combinations and
versions of reef, flat and twist ...........................................................................142
Figure 5.62: Boat speed (VS) four true wind speeds (VT) from VPP calculations using
different combinations and versions of reef, flat and twist as ratio of VS
obtained using power model...........................................................................143
Figure 5.63: Base twist (t0) for fully powered-up mainsail and jib vs. eff assuming
zCoEminDi is 42% of mast height ..........................................................................146
Figure 5.64: zCoE for four VT from VPP calculations using power model or flat and
twist with t0 and CDp function of (CL/CLopt)2......................................................146
Figure 5.65: CL for four VT from VPP calculations using power model or flat and twist
with t0 and CDp function of (CL/CLopt)2 ..............................................................146
Figure 5.66: CD for four VT from VPP calculations using power model or flat and twist
with t0 and CDp function of (CL/CLopt)2 ..............................................................147
Figure 5.67: VS for four VT from VPP calculations using flat and twist with t0 and CDp
function of (CL/CLopt)2 plotted as ratio of VS obtained with power model......147
Figure 5.68: Calculated CD plotted against CD measured in the wind tunnel with the
Real-Time VPP for sails at different depowering levels for a range of
Figure 5.69: Parasitic drag coefficient (CDp) excluding windage calculated from RealTime VPP measurements plotted against CL/CLopt for different eff ..................149
Figure 5.70: Parasitic drag coefficient (CDp) excluding windage calculated from RealTime VPP measurements plotted against (CL/CLopt)2 for different eff ..............149
Figure 5.71: CD calculated from twist with t0 and ct=8 and CDp function of (CL/CLopt)2
plotted against CD measured in the wind tunnel with the Real-Time VPP .......151
Figure 5.72: CL/CLopt from depowering sails with Real-Time VPP at different eff
plotted against 1-zCoE/zCoEopt ..............................................................................151
CL a function of twist.........................................................................................154
Figure 5.74: zCoE for four VT from VPP calculations using power or flat and twist with
CL a function of twist.........................................................................................155
Figure 5.75: CL for four VT from VPP calculations using power or flat and twist with CL
a function of twist..............................................................................................155
Figure 5.76: CD for four VT from VPP calculations using power or flat and twist with CL
a function of twist..............................................................................................155
Figure 5.77: VS for four VT from VPP calculations using flat and twist with CL a
function of twist plotted as ratio of VS obtained with power model ...............155
Figure 6.1: Schematic diagram of the Berlin Sail-Force-Dynamometer Dyna with its
internal rigid aluminium frame which allows the aerodynamic and
hydrodynamic forces to be measured separately...............................................160
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Figure 6.2: Aluminium frame of Dyna looking forward towards mast............................... 161
Figure 6.3: Aluminium frame of Dyna inside the hull shell with arrows indicating the
position and orientation of the six force transducers that connect the
internal frame to the hull shell to make up the six-component force balance
to measure the aerodynamic rig loads .............................................................. 162
Figure 6.4: Cup anemometer with direction vane and calorimetric sensor anemometer
on Dyna............................................................................................................. 164
Figure 6.5: Flow measurements above the mast with a Cobra Probe attached to free
standing support rig .......................................................................................... 165
Figure 6.6: Cobra Probe positioned 127mm above the mast head with model heeled ....... 165
Figure 6.7: Change in wind speed for back-to-back runs with and without adjusting for
fluctuations in reference pressure (qref) ............................................................ 168
Figure 6.8: Reference flow speed factor (fVref) due to the presence of the model in the
tunnel for different sail sets vs. eff ................................................................... 168
Figure 6.9: Change in wind speed (V/V) 127mm above mast due to presence of
mainsail with jib or spinnaker........................................................................... 169
Figure 6.10: Change in wind speed (V/V) 127mm above mast due to presence of
mainsail with genoa .......................................................................................... 169
Figure 6.11: Change in effective wind angle (eff) 127mm above mast due to presence
of mainsail with jib or spinnaker ...................................................................... 170
Figure 6.12: Change in effective wind angle (eff) 127mm above mast due to presence
of mainsail with genoa...................................................................................... 170
Figure 6.13: Illustration of change in effective wind angle (eff) due to upwash in zplane.................................................................................................................. 171
Figure 6.14: Change in inclination angle () 127mm above mast due to presence of
mainsail with jib or spinnaker........................................................................... 172
Figure 6.15: Change in inclination angle () 127mm above mast due to presence of
mainsail with genoa .......................................................................................... 172
Figure 6.16: Inclination angle () 127mm above mast without sails and for mainsail
with jib or spinnaker ......................................................................................... 173
Figure 6.17: V/V at different positions in z-plane 127mm above mast for mainsail
with genoa at A of 25 and 0 heel .................................................................. 173
Figure 6.18: eff at different positions in z-plane 127mm above mast for mainsail with
genoa at A of 25 and 0 heel .......................................................................... 174
Figure 6.19: at different positions in z-plane 127mm above mast for mainsail with
genoa at A of 25 and 0 heel .......................................................................... 174
Figure 6.20: eff, and V/V vs. height above the mast with mainsail and genoa at
A of 25 and 0 heel......................................................................................... 174
Figure 6.21: eff, and V/V vs. height above the mast with mainsail and spinnaker
at A of 180 and 0 heel................................................................................... 174
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Figure 6.22: eff, and V/V vs. heeling moment 127mm above mast for mainsail
with genoa at eff of 25 and 0 heel .................................................................175
Figure 6.23: Change in effective wind angle (eff) as modelled for the full-scale data
correction...........................................................................................................177
Figure 6.24: Wind speed factor (fV=V/V) as modelled for the full-scale data correction ....177
Figure 6.25: Change in inclination angle () as modelled for the cup anemometer
calibration..........................................................................................................179
Figure 6.26: Cup anemometer speed (VAnemometer) vs. Vane for full-scale mast twist
measurements used in analysis..........................................................................180
Figure 6.27: Mast twist (Mast) as a function of side force (FY) measured on Dyna and
linear regression fit............................................................................................180
Figure 6.28: Heel angle () of Dyna with mainsail and jib plotted against effective wind
angle (eff)..........................................................................................................182
Figure 6.29: Inclination angle of free-stream flow () plotted against effective wind
angle (eff)..........................................................................................................182
Figure 6.30: V plotted against fAnemometer and showing calibration measurements and
fitted response surface.......................................................................................183
Figure 6.31: Different wind speed ratios plotted against inclination angle () .....................183
Figure 6.32: V plotted against fAnemometer showing calibration measurements and linear
and second order regression fit .........................................................................184
Figure 6.33: True wind speed (VT) during selected full-scale runs with mainsail and
spinnaker plotted against eff .............................................................................188
Figure 6.34: True wind speed (VT) during full-scale runs with mainsail and jib plotted
against eff ..........................................................................................................188
Figure 6.35: Heel angle () during full-scale runs with mainsail and jib plotted against
eff ......................................................................................................................188
Figure 6.36: Heel angle () during selected full-scale runs with mainsail and spinnaker
plotted against eff..............................................................................................188
Figure 6.37: Effective wind angle (eff) offset correction for full-scale measurements
with mainsail and jib .........................................................................................190
Figure 6.38: Effective wind angle (eff) offset correction for full-scale measurements
with mainsail and spinnaker..............................................................................191
Figure 6.39: Wind tunnel model of Dyna in downwind configuration with mainsail and
spinnaker and in upwind configuration with mainsail and jib ..........................193
Figure 6.40: Comparison of force and moment coefficients from selected full-scale runs
and wind tunnel measurements with mainsail and spinnaker plotted against
eff ......................................................................................................................195
Figure 6.41: Effective wind speed (Veff) during selected full-scale runs with mainsail
and spinnaker plotted against eff ......................................................................197
Figure 6.42: Comparison of CL from selected full-scale and wind tunnel runs with
mainsail and spinnaker vs. eff...........................................................................197
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List of Figures
Figure 6.43: Comparison of CD from selected full-scale and wind tunnel runs with
mainsail and spinnaker vs. eff .......................................................................... 197
Figure 6.44: Comparison of CDp from selected full-scale and wind tunnel runs with
Figure 6.45: Comparison of CL/CD from selected full-scale and wind tunnel runs with
Figure 6.46: IMS CL and CDp for individual sails based on cloth sail area plotted against
eff ..................................................................................................................... 198
Figure 6.47: Comparison of zCoE from selected full-scale and wind tunnel runs with
Figure 6.48: Comparison of zCoE from selected full-scale and wind tunnel runs with
mainsail and spinnaker vs. ............................................................................ 199
Figure 6.49: Comparison of xCoE from selected full-scale and wind tunnel runs with
Figure 6.50: Comparison of xCoE from selected full-scale and wind tunnel runs with
mainsail and spinnaker vs. ............................................................................ 199
with VT<4m/s and wind tunnel measurements with mainsail and jib plotted
against eff ......................................................................................................... 201
Figure 6.52: Comparison of CL from full-scale runs with VT<4m/s and wind tunnel runs
with mainsail and jib vs. eff ............................................................................. 202
Figure 6.53: Comparison of CD from full-scale runs with VT<4m/s and wind tunnel runs
with mainsail and jib vs. eff ............................................................................. 203
Figure 6.54: Comparison of CDp from full-scale runs with VT<4m/s and wind tunnel
runs with mainsail and jib vs. eff ..................................................................... 203
and wind tunnel measurements with mainsail and jib plotted against eff........ 204
Figure 6.56: Comparison of CL from full-scale and wind tunnel runs with mainsail and
jib vs. eff ........................................................................................................... 205
Figure 6.57: Comparison of CD from full-scale and wind tunnel runs with mainsail and
jib vs. eff ........................................................................................................... 206
Figure 6.58: Comparison of CDp from full-scale and wind tunnel runs with mainsail and
jib vs. eff ........................................................................................................... 206
Figure 6.59: Comparison of zCoE from full-scale and wind tunnel runs with mainsail and
jib vs. eff ........................................................................................................... 207
Figure 6.60: Comparison of xCoE from full-scale and wind tunnel runs with mainsail and
jib vs. eff ........................................................................................................... 207
Figure 6.61: Comparison of CL/CD from full-scale and wind tunnel runs with mainsail
and jib vs. eff .................................................................................................... 208
Figure 6.62: Boat speed (Vs) of Dyna with mainsail and jib and from VPP using wind
tunnel data and power model vs. eff .............................................................. 208
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Figure 6.63: Screen shot of sail shape analysis program SailTool showing the
parameters sail twist, boom angle and sail camber obtained from wind
tunnel picture.....................................................................................................209
Figure 6.64: Range of eff vs. VT for analysed full-scale sail shape pictures .........................210
Figure 6.65: Mainsail twist vs. VT on Dyna and in wind tunnel with Real-Time VPP for
close hauled eff .................................................................................................210
Figure 6.66: Boom angle vs. VT on Dyna and in wind tunnel with Real-Time VPP for
close hauled eff .................................................................................................211
Figure 6.67: Mainsail camber vs. VT on Dyna and in wind tunnel with Real-Time VPP
for close hauled eff ...........................................................................................211
Figure A.1: Three main components of the Dyna wind tunnel model; cradle, internal
load carrying frame and hull/deck shell ............................................................224
Figure A.2: Sailpan of Dyna.................................................................................................226
Figure B.1: Measurement errors in vertical force (FZ) applied at different x-positions
along centreline of model..................................................................................231
Figure B.2: Measurement errors in pitching moment (MY) applied at different xpositions along centreline of model ..................................................................231
Figure B.3: Corrected vertical force (FZcorrected) applied at different x-positions along
centreline of model............................................................................................232
Figure B.4: Measurement errors in side force (FY) to starboard applied at different xpositions along the model..................................................................................232
Figure B.5: Coarsest and finest mesh used in sensitivity analysis .......................................233
Figure B.6: Interpolated pressure for coarsest and finest mesh at A of 30 and 0 heel.....233
Figure B.7: Hull/deck surface area for different grid densities............................................234
Figure B.8: CL , CD and CFz of hull/deck at 0 heel for A of 30 and 90 obtained with
different grid densities.......................................................................................234
Figure B.9: Model with cradle sitting in trough of turntable so that waterline coincides
with wind tunnel floor .......................................................................................235
Figure B.10: CL with constant mainsail and jib trim at 0 heel for trough open, covered
with cardboard and filled with water ................................................................235
Figure B.11: CD with constant mainsail and jib trim at 0 heel for trough open, covered
Figure B.12: CFz with constant mainsail and jib trim at 0 heel for trough open, covered
Figure B.13: CL, CD and CFz on hull/deck from pressures above waterline ...........................237
Figure C.1: Coordinate systems used in FRIENDSHIP-Equilibrium and the wind
tunnel.................................................................................................................239
Figure C.2: Geometry of hull, keel and rudder modelled from offset tables by
FRIENDSHIP-Equilibrium ...............................................................................249
Figure C.3: Residuary resistance coefficient curve vs. Froude number used by
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List of Figures
Figure D.1: General force and moment system.................................................................... 253
Figure D.2: Schematic of lifting line with element of planar trailing vortex sheet (y) of
width ds ............................................................................................................. 256
Figure D.3: Fourier series terms of n=1 to n=3 in span loading distribution and
downwash ......................................................................................................... 257
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List of Tables
Page
Table 2.1:
Alphabetic listing of sailing specific terms.........................................................16
Table 3.1:
Hull and rig windage coefficients for equations (3.11) and (3.12) obtained
from wind tunnel tests .........................................................................................57
Table 4.1:
Inputs required in the Real-Time VPP LabVIEW Application...........................83
Table 5.1:
Regression parameters a1 to a6 to model the depowering of CL , zCoE and

CD as a function of p obtained for eff between 25 and 90 .............................127
Table 5.2:
Set-up summary of the four sets of performance predictions carried out to

investigate the standard trim parameter model .................................................138
Table 6.1:
Regression parameters a1 to a5 obtained from wind tunnel tests to account

for changes in the flow field at the position of the cup anemometer of
Dyna ..................................................................................................................178
Table 6.2:
Regression parameters a1, a2 and b1 obtained from cup anemometer

calibration tests on Dyna ...................................................................................183
Table 6.3:
Summary of the test series used in the analysis of the full-scale data ..............187
Table 6.4:
Wind tunnel test matrix .....................................................................................193
Table A.1:
Principal dimensions of wind tunnel models in TFWT ....................................223
Table C.1:
Definition for coordinate systems used in FRIENDSHIP-Equilibrium and

the wind tunnel ..................................................................................................240
Table C.2:
List of parameters contained in the output file of the Real-Time VPP

LabVIEW application .......................................................................................242
Table C.3:
Input parameters of the WindTunnel force module of FRIENDSHIPEquilibrium........................................................................................................243
Table C.4:
Input parameters of the HansenRig force module of FRIENDSHIPEquilibrium........................................................................................................245
Table C.5:
Input parameters of the HansenRigDirect force module of

Table C.6:
Hydrodynamic Force modules used for modelling Dyna in FRIENDSHIPEquilibrium........................................................................................................250
Table C.7:
Input data for Mass force module of Dyna.....................................................250
Table C.8:
Additional input data for Displacement, GenericHull and Propeller

force modules of Dyna ......................................................................................251
Table C.9:
Input data for Keel and Rudder force module of Dyna ...............................251
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Nomenclature
Symbols
Page
a
Point on central axis that is closest to origin, (ax, ay, az)T [m] ........................ 29, 255
A, B, C
Position vectors of nodes of triangular mesh element [m]...................................... 50
a0,, an Free parameters obtained from regression fit [-] .................................... 55, 177, 231
Ai
Area of mesh element i [m2] ................................................................................... 51
APxHull
Area of hull above DWL projected onto x-plane [m2]............................................ 54
APxRig
Area of rig projected onto x-plane [m2] .................................................................. 54
APyHull
Area of hull above DWL projected onto y-plane [m2]............................................ 54
APyRig
Area of rig projected onto y-plane [m2] .................................................................. 54
AR
Geometric aspect ratio [-] ....................................................................................... 20
Aref
Reference area [m2]................................................................................................. 18
AS
Reference sail area [m2] .......................................................................................... 18
ASm
Reference sail area of model [m2]........................................................................... 35
ASmain
Cloth area of mainsail [m2] ..................................................................................... 18
Position of coordinate system B origin in coordinate system T [m]....................... 34
B0
Position of coordinate system B origin at m=0 in coordinate system T [m]........ 34
Calibration matrix [N/V, Nm/V]............................................................................. 84
Point on central axis [m] ......................................................................................... 30
CD
Drag coefficient in coordinate system B [-]............................................................ 19
CD0
Drag coefficient at zero lift [-] ................................................................................ 19
CDA
Horizontal drag coefficient in coordinate system A [-] .......................................... 36
CDf
Skin friction drag coefficient [-] ........................................................................... 207
CDhull
Drag coefficient of hull [-] ...................................................................................... 54
CDi
Induced drag coefficient [-] .................................................................................... 20
CDmax
Maximum drag coefficient of hull or rig [-] ........................................................... 53
CDmin
Minimum drag coefficient of hull or rig [-] ............................................................ 53
CDp
Parasitic drag coefficient in coordinate system B [-]............................................ 119
CDpOpt
Optimum parasitic drag coefficient in coordinate system B [-]............................ 119
xxv
Nomenclature
CDrig
Drag coefficient of rig [-] ........................................................................................ 54
CDs
Separation drag coefficient [-]................................................................................. 19
CDvis
Viscous drag coefficient [-] ..................................................................................... 20
CDwindage Windage drag coefficient in coordinate system B [-]............................................ 136

CDxRig
Drag coefficient of rig in x-direction [-] ................................................................. 54
CDyRig
Drag coefficient of rig in y-direction [-] ................................................................. 54
CF
Force coefficient in coordinate system B [-] ........................................................... 18
CF
Force coefficient vector is coordinate system B [-] ................................................ 35
CFT
Force coefficient vector in coordinate system T [-] ................................................ 84
CFx
Force coefficient in x-direction (drive force) in coordinate system B [-] ......... 62, 78
CFy
Force coefficient in y-direction (side force) in coordinate system B [-] ........... 62, 78
CFz
Force coefficient in z-direction in coordinate system B [-]............................... 63, 79
CFzOpt
Optimum force coefficient in z-direction in coordinate system B [-] ........... 121, 133
CL
Lift coefficient in coordinate system B [-] .............................................................. 19
Cl
Sectional lift coefficient [-] ................................................................................... 153
CLA
Horizontal lift coefficient in coordinate system A [-] ............................................. 36
CLmax
Maximum lift coefficient of hull or rig [-] .............................................................. 56
ClminDi
Sectional lift coefficient for loading that has minimum induced drag [-] ............. 153
CLopt
Optimum lift coefficient in coordinate system B [-] ............................................... 76
Clopt
Optimum sectional lift coefficient [-].................................................................... 153
CM
Moment coefficient in coordinate system B [-]....................................................... 18
CM
Moment coefficient vector is coordinate system B [-] ............................................ 35
CMf
Coefficient of moment in line with force in coordinate system B [-] ................... 112
CMf
Coefficient vector of moment in line with force vector (F) in coordinate

system B [-] ........................................................................................................... 107
CMfOpt
Coefficient of optimum moment in line with force in coordinate system B [-] .... 121
CMT
Moment coefficient vector in coordinate system T [-]............................................ 84
CMv
Coefficient vector of moment perpendicular to force vector (F) in coordinate

system B [-] ........................................................................................................... 107
CMx
Moment coefficient about x-axis in coordinate system B [-] ................................ 116
CMxOpt
Optimum moment coefficient about x-axis in coordinate system B [-] ................ 116
CoA
Centre of area position vector [m]........................................................................... 50
CoE
Centre of effort position vector in coordinate system B, (xCoE, yCoE, zCoE)T [m] ..... 29
CP
Pressure coefficient [-] ...................................................................................... 17, 50
cq
Dynamic pressure factor [-]..................................................................................... 35
cs
Separation drag constant [-] .................................................................................... 20
ct
Twist weight constant [-]................................................................................. 78, 137
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Symbols
ctL
Twist weight constant for lift [-]........................................................................... 153
Heel constant [-]...................................................................................................... 84
Distance between mast and clew of mainsail [m]................................................... 15
Oswald efficiency factor [-] .................................................................................... 20
Youngs modulus of elasticity [Pa]....................................................................... 227
Force in coordinate system B [N] ........................................................................... 18
Force vector in coordinate system B, (FX, FY, FZ)T [N] .................................... 29, 34
Trim parameter flat [-] ...................................................................................... 76, 77
Unit vector of F [-]................................................................................................ 254
FA
Force vector in coordinate system A [N] ................................................................ 80
fAnemometer Rotational frequency of cup anemometer [Hz]..................................................... 183

ft
'Flattening' of sail due to twist [-].......................................................................... 153
FT
Force vector in coordinate system T, (FXT, FYT, FZT)T [N]................................ 34, 85
FT(6)
Force and moment vector in coordinate system T, (FXT, FYT, FZT, MXT, MYT,
MZT)T [N, Nm]......................................................................................................... 84
fV
Flow speed factor [-] ............................................................................................. 177
fVA
Apparent wind speed factor [-] ............................................................................... 55
fVref
Factor between reference flow speed with and without model in tunnel [-] ........ 168
FX
Force in x-direction (drive force) in coordinate system B [N] ............................... 72
FY
Force in y-direction (side force) in coordinate system B [N] ............................... 180
FZ
Force in z-direction in coordinate system B [N]..................................................... 44
Acceleration due to gravity [m/s2] .......................................................................... 25
Position of heel axis of model in coordinate system T [m] .................................... 34
hS
Significant wave height [m].................................................................................. 187
Height of fore triangle [m] ................................................................................ 15, 18
Second moment of area [m4]................................................................................. 227
Distance between forestay/deck attachment point and mast [m]...................... 15, 18
Number of samples the pressure reading is delayed [-] .......................................... 85
Length of beam in bending moment equation [m]................................................ 227
Reference length [m]....................................................................................... 36, 254
Moment in coordinate system B [Nm].................................................................... 18
Moment vector in coordinate system B, (MX, MY, MZ)T [Nm].......................... 29, 34
M0
Moment vector of pure couples in coordinate system B, (M0X, M0Y, M0Z)T

[Nm] ........................................................................................................................ 29
MA
Moment vector in coordinate system A [Nm] ........................................................ 80
MF
Moment vector in line with force vector (F) in coordinate system B [Nm] . 106, 254
xxvii
Nomenclature
MT
Moment vector in coordinate system T, (MXT, MYT, MZT)T [Nm] ...................... 34, 85
MV
Moment vector perpendicular to force vector (F) in coordinate system B

[Nm] .............................................................................................................. 106, 254
MX
Moment about x-axis (heeling moment) in coordinate system B [Nm]............ 10, 71
MZ
Moment about z-axis (yaw moment) in coordinate system B [Nm] ................. 10, 71
Number of samples [-]............................................................................................. 85
Vector normal to triangular mesh element [m2] ...................................................... 51
Distance between boom and top of mast [m] .......................................................... 15
Trim parameter power [-] ...................................................................................... 116
Dynamic pressure [Pa] ............................................................................................ 18
Scalar factor in central axis equation [m/N]............................................ 30, 106, 254
qA
Apparent dynamic pressure [Pa] ............................................................................. 19
qAm
Apparent dynamic pressure in wind tunnel [Pa] ..................................................... 35
qeff
Effective dynamic pressure [Pa].............................................................................. 24
qeffm
Effective dynamic pressure in wind tunnel [Pa]...................................................... 35
qref
Reference dynamic pressure [Pa] ............................................................................ 35
Trim parameter reef [-]...................................................................................... 76, 77
RDp
Power ratio of parasitic drag [-] ............................................................................ 119
Re
Reynolds Number [-]............................................................................................... 36
RFx
Power ratio of force in x-direction [-] ................................................................... 132
RFy
Power ratio of force in y-direction [-] ................................................................... 132
RFz
Power ratio of force in z-direction [-] ................................................................... 130
RL
Power ratio of lift [-].............................................................................................. 118
RMf
Power ratio of moment in line with force [-]......................................................... 130
RMy
Power ratio of moment about y-axis [-] ................................................................ 133
RMz
Power ratio of moment about z-axis [-]................................................................. 133
RxCoE
Power ratio of longitudinal centre of effort position [-]........................................ 129
RzCoE
Power ratio of centre of effort height [-] ............................................................... 121
Signal vector, (SX1, SY1, SY2, SZ1, SZ2, SZ3)T [V]........................................................ 83
S0
Zero signal vector [V] ............................................................................................. 84
Position of coordinate system T origin in coordinate system T [m] ....................... 34
Trim parameter twist [-]........................................................................................... 78
t0
Base twist when sails are fully powered-up [-] ..................................................... 145
TAB
Rotational transformation matrix from the absolute coordinate system

(coordinate system A) to the body fixed coordinate system (coordinate system
B) [-] ........................................................................................................................ 23
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Symbols
TBA
Rotational transformation matrix from the body fixed coordinate system

(coordinate system B) absolute coordinate system (coordinate system A) [-] ...... 34
Transformation matrix to rotate about z-axis by angle [-]................................. 261
Flow speed [m/s]....................................................................................... 18, 36, 167
Free-stream flow speed [m/s]................................................................................ 167
Unit vector of flow velocity [-] ............................................................................. 261
VA
Apparent wind speed [m/s] ..................................................................................... 19
VA
Apparent wind velocity vector in coordinate system A, (VAx, VAy, VAz)T [m/s] ...... 23
VAref
Reference apparent wind speed [m/s] ..................................................................... 26
Veff
Effective wind speed [m/s] ..................................................................................... 21
Veff
Effective wind velocity vector in coordinate system B, (Veffx, Veffy, Veffz)T [m/s].... 23
VS
Boat speed [m/s]...................................................................................................... 20
VT
True wind speed [m/s]............................................................................................. 20
xCoE
Longitudinal position of centre of effort in coordinate system B [m] .................... 29
xCoEopt
Optimum longitudinal centre of effort position in coordinate system B [m].. 79, 121
Deflection of beam in bending moment equation [m] .......................................... 227
Height above the water in coordinate system A [m]......................................... 25, 28
z0
Terrain roughness length [m].................................................................... 25, 39, 192
zAnemometer Height of the anemometer above DWL in coordinate system B [m].................... 185
zboom
Boom height above DWL in coordinate system B [m]........................................... 79
zCoA
Height of the geometrical centre of sail area above DWL in coordinate system
B [m] ....................................................................................................................... 28
zCoE
Centre of effort height in coordinate system B [m] ................................................ 29
zCoEminDi Centre of effort height for minimum induced drag in coordinate system B
[m]................................................................................................................... 78, 144
zCoEopt
Optimum centre of effort height in coordinate system B [m]......................... 78, 121
zfoot
Height of the sail foot above DWL in coordinate system B [m] ............................ 27
zm
Height above wind tunnel floor in coordinate system A [m].................................. 35
zmast
Height of mast above DWL in coordinate system B [m]........................................ 20
zref
Reference height above the water (usually taken as 10m) in coordinate system
A [m] ....................................................................................................................... 24
xxix
Nomenclature
Greek Symbols
Page
S
Change in signal vector [V]..................................................................................... 83
Change in flow speed [m/s]................................................................................... 167
Change in apparent wind angle [] .............................................................. 26, 27, 55
eff
Change in effective wind angle [].................................................................. 98, 167
Change in inclination angle [].............................................................................. 167
Angle of attack [] ................................................................................................... 17
Apparent wind angle [] .......................................................................................... 19
Am
Apparent wind angle of model in wind tunnel []................................................... 35
eff
Effective wind angle [] .......................................................................................... 21
effm
Effective wind angle of model in wind tunnel [] ................................................... 98
Offset
Offset in measured wind direction [-] ................................................................... 190
True wind angle [].................................................................................................. 20
Vane
Flow direction measured by direction vane on top of mast [] ............................. 179
Inclination angle of flow from z-plane in coordinate system B []....................... 167
Rudder angle [] ................................................................................................ 10, 76
Inclination angle of free-stream flow from z-plane in coordinate system B

[]................................................................................................................... 169, 182
Angle between force vector (F) and moment vector (M) [] ................................ 254
Heel angle []........................................................................................................... 21
Heel angle of model in wind tunnel [] ................................................................... 34
Sheeting angle [] .................................................................................................... 19
Resultant force direction in z-plane of coordinate system B [] ............................. 30
Leeway angle [] ......................................................................................... 10, 20, 76
Viscosity [Pas]........................................................................................................ 36
Kinematic viscosity [m2/s] ...................................................................................... 36
Pitch (trim) angle []................................................................................................ 22
Pitch (trim) angle of model in wind tunnel [] ........................................................ 34
Density [kg/m3] ................................................................................................. 18, 36
air
Density of air [kg/m3].............................................................................................. 79
Mast
Mast twist [] ......................................................................................................... 180
xxx
The
University
of Auckland
YACHT
RESEARCH
UNIT
Subscripts and other Notations
Subscripts and other Notations
Scalar X
|X|
Absolute value of scalar X
Vector X or matrix X
|X|
Magnitude (length) of vector X
Unit vector of vector X
XT
Transpose of vector X or matrix X
XA
X in coordinate system A
X in coordinate system B
XT
X in coordinate system T
XX, Xx
X in direction of x-axis
XY, Xy
X in direction of y-axis
XZ, Xz
X in direction of z-axis
XAnemometer X measured at anemometer position above mast

XCobra
X measured by Cobra Probe
Xeff
Effective X in z-plane
Xm
X in the wind tunnel (in relation to model)
XminDi
X at loading distribution that results in minimum induced drag
Xopt
X at optimum fully powered-up sail trim
Xref
Reference X
X of free-stream flow
xxxi
Nomenclature
Abbreviations and Names

Page
A/D
Analogue to Digital converter ................................................................................. 81
BLWT
Boundary Layer Wind Tunnel................................................................................... 6
CFD
Computational Fluid Dynamics................................................................................. 1
DLL
Dynamic Link Library............................................................................................. 89
DWL
Design Waterline, flotation line of upright yacht as defined in design

specification................................................................................................. 16, 20, 49
Dyna
Yacht name of the Berlin Sail-Force-Dynamometer................................................. 4
FOG
Fibre-Optic-Gyro........................................................................................... 163, 239
FPP
Forward Perpendicular, most forward point where hull intersects DWL ..... 162, 240
GRP
Glass-fibre Reinforced Plastic............................................................................... 224
GUI
Graphical User Interface ......................................................................................... 82
IACC
International Americas Cup Class................................................................ 2, 3, 223
IMS
International Measurement System ....................................................................... 2, 5
LDV
Laser Doppler Velocimetry ................................................................................... 162
LP
Low Pass.................................................................................................................. 81
LVDT
Linear Voltage Displacement Transducer ............................................................... 32
MIT
Massachusetts Institute of Technology ..................................................................... 3
PBL
Planetary Boundary Layer....................................................................................... 17
PPP
Performance Prediction Program ........................................................................ 3, 88
RANSE Reynolds Avaraged Navier-Stokes Equations ...................................................... 5, 9

TFWT
Twisted Flow Wind Tunnel....................................................................................... 6
VMG
Velocity Made Good to windward or leeward .................................................. 16, 73
VO60
Volvo Ocean 60......................................................................................... 26, 53, 223
VO70
Volvo Open 70 ................................................................................................ 27, 223
VPP
Velocity Prediction Program ........................................................................... 1, 2, 71
xxxii
The
University
of Auckland
YACHT
RESEARCH
UNIT

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Enhanced Wind Tunnel Techniques

A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for

Professor Peter S. Jackson

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Copyright Heikki Hansen 2006. All rights reserved.

2 Wind Tunnel Testing of Yacht Sails

3 Hull and Sail Force Interaction

4 Real-Time Velocity Prediction Program

5 Aerodynamic Force Modelling

6 Wind Tunnel and Full-Scale Comparison

7 Conclusions and Recommendations

A.1 Design Considerations..............................................................................................223

B.1 Corrections for Hull/Deck Force Measurements .....................................................231

C Velocity Prediction Program Definitions

C.1 Coordinate Systems..................................................................................................239

General Force and Moment System......................................................................... 253

Alphabetic listing of sailing specific terms.........................................................16

Inputs required in the Real-Time VPP LabVIEW Application...........................83

Regression parameters a1 to a6 to model the depowering of CL , zCoE and

Set-up summary of the four sets of performance predictions carried out to

Regression parameters a1 to a5 obtained from wind tunnel tests to account

Regression parameters a1, a2 and b1 obtained from cup anemometer

Wind tunnel test matrix .....................................................................................193

Principal dimensions of wind tunnel models in TFWT ....................................223

Definition for coordinate systems used in FRIENDSHIP-Equilibrium and

List of parameters contained in the output file of the Real-Time VPP

Input parameters of the WindTunnel force module of FRIENDSHIPEquilibrium........................................................................................................243

Input parameters of the HansenRig force module of FRIENDSHIPEquilibrium........................................................................................................245

Input parameters of the HansenRigDirect force module of

Hydrodynamic Force modules used for modelling Dyna in FRIENDSHIPEquilibrium........................................................................................................250

Input data for Mass force module of Dyna.....................................................250

Additional input data for Displacement, GenericHull and Propeller

Position vectors of nodes of triangular mesh element [m]...................................... 50

Area of mesh element i [m2] ................................................................................... 51

Area of hull above DWL projected onto x-plane [m2]............................................ 54

Area of rig projected onto x-plane [m2] .................................................................. 54

Area of hull above DWL projected onto y-plane [m2]............................................ 54

Area of rig projected onto y-plane [m2] .................................................................. 54

Geometric aspect ratio [-] ....................................................................................... 20

Reference area [m2]................................................................................................. 18

Reference sail area [m2] .......................................................................................... 18

Reference sail area of model [m2]........................................................................... 35

Cloth area of mainsail [m2] ..................................................................................... 18

Position of coordinate system B origin in coordinate system T [m]....................... 34

Position of coordinate system B origin at m=0 in coordinate system T [m]........ 34

Calibration matrix [N/V, Nm/V]............................................................................. 84

Point on central axis [m] ......................................................................................... 30

Drag coefficient in coordinate system B [-]............................................................ 19

Drag coefficient at zero lift [-] ................................................................................ 19

Horizontal drag coefficient in coordinate system A [-] .......................................... 36

Skin friction drag coefficient [-] ........................................................................... 207

Drag coefficient of hull [-] ...................................................................................... 54

Induced drag coefficient [-] .................................................................................... 20

Maximum drag coefficient of hull or rig [-] ........................................................... 53

Minimum drag coefficient of hull or rig [-] ............................................................ 53

Parasitic drag coefficient in coordinate system B [-]............................................ 119

Optimum parasitic drag coefficient in coordinate system B [-]............................ 119

Drag coefficient of rig [-] ........................................................................................ 54

Separation drag coefficient [-]................................................................................. 19

Viscous drag coefficient [-] ..................................................................................... 20