9

Flow in pipes

o Sewer / Culverts ---> Open channel flow o Work- energy principle o Continuity Equation o Principles & Equation of fluid resistance

9.1 Fundamental Equations:

Work-energy Equation:
1 2

Head Loss Engineering:

v 2 v 2 p p hL12 = 1 + 1 + z1 2 + 2 + z2 2gn 2gn

Exact:

v 2 p v2 p hL12 = 1 1 + 1 + z1 2 2 + 2 + z2 2gn 2gn

1 = 2 v

v dA vdA
3 A A

1 , = v

v dA vdA
2 A A

, are dimensionless, coefficients that represent correction factors to the conventional

v2 velocity head and Momentum QV , respectively. 2gn

Uniform velocitiy = = 1 Non-uniform velocity > > 1

Total Kinetic energy (J / s) =

v dA
3 A

(1)

v v2 using mean velocity Q ( ) = gn Q 2gn 2gn 1 = 2 v

v dA
3 A

1 = 2 v

v dA v dA
3 A A A

Momemtum flux (M) = v 2 dA (1) Mean velocity = Qv 1 = v z1 +

v dA v dA
2 A A

p1 v2 p v2 + 1 1 = z2 + 2 + 2 2 + hL 2gn 2gn

In most pipe flow problems is omitted for several reasons:

1. Most engineering pipe flow problems atre turbulent --> is only slightly bigger than 1. 2. In laminar glow where is large, velocity head are usually negligible when compared to to other terms. 3. Velocity heads in most pipe flows are usually so small compared to other terms. 4. Engineering answers are not usually required to an accuracy which would justify the inclusion of . Including depens on: + an understanding of the factors which afect the head loss hL. + the methods available for calculating this quantity. 2

Darcy-Weiscbach Eq. (1850):

flows in long, straight, cylindrical pipes

hL = f

l v2 (1) , f : friction factor (dimensionless) d 2gn f depends on roughness, velocity & diameter

d2 l A d 4 l hL = o , Hydraulic radius : Rh = = 4 = , then hL = o (2) Rh p d 4 d (1) & (2) 4 o l l v2 fv 2 f = f o = o =v gn d d 2gn 8 8

friction velocity : v* =

f =v 8

Example: Obtain v*

l v2 h d 2g hL = f f = L 2 n d 2gn lv 5.33 0.15 2 9.81 f = = 0.026 30 (4.5) 2 v* =

f 0.026 =v = 4.5 = 0.26 m /s 8 8

9.2 Laminar flow:

Assumptions: Symetrical distribution of shear stress & velocity. Maximum velocity at the center of the pipe, no-slip condition on the pipe wall (v = 0 at the wall).

Linear
hL =

shear-stress

distribution

in

the

fluid

given

by:

h l A d r , Rh = = = = L r 2l Rh p 4 2

Shear stress in laminar flow =

dv dy

Find velocity profile:

r = R y dr = dy h dv dv = L r = = 2l dy dr
At the wall : r = R , y = 0

hL R h L = 0 2l 2l R dv 1 h 1 1 1 0 1 2 = L r = 0 r v = 0 r dr = r +C dr 2l R R R2
0 = 1 0 R2 R 2

at r = R, v = 0 C =

v=

0 (R 2 r 2 ) 2 R

parabolic profile (9.5)

at r = 0 v = v c =

0R 2 2 R

r 2 v = v c 1 2 R

(9.5)

v* = v=

= v v = * (R 2 r 2 ) v* 2 R v v* y 2 = y v* 2R

2 v* (R 2 r 2 ) 2 R 2

r 2 = (R y )

Velocity profile : v(y,v* ), distance from wall v* : characteristic "velocity", y : lamin ar profile y2 << y y << 2R or y << R 2R v v* y = velocity profile near the wall is essentially linear v*
5

when

Flow rate Q:
R

(Q = v A = v 2r dr)
R

Q=

v (2r dr) = 2R (R
0 R 2 2

r 2 )(2 r) dr

Q= 0 R

R 0 2 1 2 1 4 0 R 4 R 4 0 R 3 (R r )r dr = R R 2 r 4 r = R 2 4 = 4 0 0

0 =

hL R R 4 hL d 4 h L Q= = 2l 8 l 128 l R 2 hL d 2 hL = 8 l 32 l

(Hagen Poiseuille Law)

Q = R 2v v =

Head Loss hL =

32 l d 2

(9.9)

In laminar flow, head loss varies with first power of the velocity:

Darcy Weisbach : hL = f l v2 d 2gn f = 64 64 = v d Re (9.10)

In laminar flow, friction factor depends only on Reynold number.

Example 1:

Kg 400 l/minute of oil = 855.6 3 , = 71.8 10 3 flow throught an 8cm diameter m

pipeline. Calculate the centerline velocity, head loss in 300 m of pipe, and shear stress & velocity at a point 2cm from the centerline. d = 0.08m l = 300m Q

Q = 400

l 0.4m 3 m3 = = 0.0067 , l = 300m, d = 0.08 min 60s s

v=

Q 0.067 0.067 m = 2 = 2 = 1.33 d A s (0.08) 4 4

Re =

Vd 855.6 1.33 0.08 = = 1268 Re < 2100 lamin ar flow 71.8 10 3

32 lv 32 71.8 10 3 300 1.33 = = 17.065m 2 d2 855.6 9.81 (0.08)

hL =

h 855.6 9.81 17.065 = L r = 0.02 2l 2 300

R 2 0 R hL R 2 855.6 9.81 17 (0.04 ) m at centerline, r = 0 v = v c = 0 = = = = 2.65 3 2 R 2 4 l 4 71.8 10 300 s

1 v = A 1 v dA = R 2 A
R r 2 2v c 1 2 1 4 2v R 2 R 2 1 v c 1 2 2r dr = 2 r r = 2c = v c v c = 2v R R 2 4R 2 0 R 2 4 2 0 R

(0.02) 2 r 2 v = v c 1 2 = 2.651 2 = R (0.08)

Example 2: 100 mm d = 4mm, Q = ?, hL = 1 m, v = ?

Q=

Volume 1300 10 6 m3 d 4 h L d 4 g hL = = 2.17 10 6 , Q= = time 600 s 128 l 128 l

4

3 d 4 g hL 3.14 ( 4 10 ) 9.81 1 m2 = = = 28 10 5 128Q l 128 2.17 10 6 0.1 s

v=

Q 2.17 10 6 m v d 0.17 4 10 3 = = 0.17 , Re = = = 2.4 Flow is Lamin ar A 4 10 3 2 s 28 10 5 ( ) 4

9.3 Turbulent flow - Smooth pipes:

Chaotic / iregular moving in time & space Diffusivity High Re 3D vorticity fluctuation Dissipation of KE of the turbulent by viscous shear stress Boundary layer Boundary layer: existence of a viscous sublayer near to the pipe walls

= ( + )

dv , : inludes viscous effect, dy

: includes turbulent effect

v x = Vx + v x v y = Vy + v y v z = Vz + v z

= v iv j , Re ynolds stress
2D : = v x v y dv : viscous stress, v x v y : turbulent stress dy

dv = v x v (9.11), dy

Pie de figura: Re >> 2100

Re ~ 5104

Laufer (1954) NACA

Re ~ 5105 (N.A.C.A : National Advisory Commitee for Aeronautics NASA: Aeronautics & Space Administration) + Most of flow, turbulent stress dominates: Maximum stress = viscous stress at the wall where turbulent stress is zero. to represent Reynolds stress, Prandtl's mixing length theory:
dv 2 = v iv j = l dy
2

(9.11)

+ Due to the fact that turbulent stress dominates in most of flow situations, Analytical treatment assuming that the viscous stress in Eq. (9.11) is negligible over most flows. The same as in laminar flow we have Linear shear stress:

h y = L r = 0 r = ...(r = R y)... = 0 ( R y ) = 0 1 (2) 2l R R R 2 y 2 dv 0 1 = l R dy

(9.11) & (2)

(9.12)

In BL we have l = k y, (near wall y << R),

k : Von Karman constant = 0.4 dv = 0 (or both) dy

at the center line : y = R

Nikuradse' equation:

l =0

or

He measured the velocity profile in smooth pipes (5105 < Re < 3106), pipewall: uniform sand grain roughness

vc v y = 2.5 ln( ), For all pipes (not just smooth ones) R v*

We are going to prove this formula by analytical methods:

10

as eq (9.12) says :

2 y 2 dv 0 1 = l R dy
2

dv y = v* 1 dy R

dv 1 y ~ ) l y 1 dy y R

(near wall,

y 0 l = ky

0 dv 2 l dv v 02 2 = l 2 = l = * k y dy ky ky dy
if v = v c at v* v ln( R) + C C = v c * ln( R) k k

Integrating : v =

v* ln( y ) + C, k

y=R

vc =

v v = v c + * (ln( y ) ln( R)) k

y vc v = 2.5 ln , R v*

( proved !)

For smooth pipes: turbulent velocity profile

v vy = 2.5 ln( * ) + 5.5, v*

or :

v vy = 5.75 log( * ) + 5.5, v*

(9.17)

Near to the smooth wall in the viscous sublayer, the laminar shear stress:

v v* y = v*

where y << R

(9.7)

Intersection of velocity profiles between viscous sublayer with turbulent profile at y':

v* y' v y' v y' = 5.75 log( * ) + 5.5 * = 11.6 v Sublayer thickness v = y' * v = 11.6 v = 11.6 v*
Flowrate Q in a turbulent pipe flow:

Q=

R v ( R r) v (2r) dr =2v* 5.75 log * + 5.5 rdr, 0 0 R

ln(x)dx = x ln(x) x, Q Q v= = 2 A R v*

x ln(x)dx = x
2

ln(x) 1 v R Q Integrating : 2 = 5.75log * +1.75, 2 4 R v*

v R v = 5.75log * +1.75 (Smooth pipes) (9.19) v*

11

From Eq. (9.17) at y = R , where v = v c :

vc v R From Eq (9.17) at y = R, where v = v c : = 5.75 log( * ) + 5.5, v* v R v vc v and Eq (9.19) : = 5.75log * +1.75 = 3.75 v* v* vc as v* = v f 8 v c v = 3.75v f 8 = 3.75 f 8 +1 v v adjusting this expression : c = 4.07 f 8 +1 (9.20) v

v* = v

8,

Re =

vd 2vR = ,

v R v = 5.75log * +1.75, v* 1 = 2.0log Re f 0.8, f

v R f = 8 5.75log +1.75, v f 8 v (Smooth pipes)

32.8 v d

adjusting
v* = v f 8 ,

this expression :
v = 11.6 v , *

(9.21)

v as Re ,

v 11.6 11.6 32.8 = = = , d v* d v d f 8 Re f

Re f =

(9.22)

Sublayer thickness as Re 1 32.8 = 2.0log v f d 0.8

Substituting into Eq. (9.21) :

(9.23)

For turbulent flow over smooth walls, the friction factor is a function only of the ratio

of the sublayer thickness to the pipe diameter.

12

Example 1: d = 75mm

Smooth pipe Knowing that at 20 C = 998 Kg/m3, 0 = 3.68 N/m. Calculate: Thinkness of viscous sublayer v Mean velocity v frition factor f Flow rate Q Centerline velocity vc hL in 1000m

v, at 25mm from centerline

10 6 m 2 /s 3.68 N /m 2 4 =11.6 , v* = = 0.061 m /s v = 11.6 = 1.9 10 m v* 998 Kg /m 3 0.061m /s 1 32.8 0.8 = 7.42 = 2.0log v f d

f =

1 = 0.018 (7.42) 2

v R v d = 5.75log * +1.75 = 21.1 R = v = 21.1 v* = 21.1 0.061 = 1.29m /s v* 2 2 Q = v A = 1.29 (0.075) = 0.0057m 3 /s, 4 vc = 1+ 4.07 f 8 = 1.193 v c = 1.193 1.29 = 1.54m /s v v y 0.061 0.0125 v v = 5.75log * + 5.5 ( y = 37.5 25 = 12.5mm) = 5.75log + 5.5 = 22.1 v* v* 10 6 v = 22.1 0.061 = 1.35m /s Shear stress is linearly with radius : 25 2 2 2 l v2 1000 (1.29) 2 = , = 0 = 3.68 = 2.45N /m 2 Head loss : hL = f = 0.018 = 20.4m 37.5 3 3 3 d 2gn 0.075 2 9.81

Blasius (German, 1913): a) Empirical, b) Mathematical

Empirical work, representing the friction factor for 3.000 < Re < 100.000 13

f =

0.316 Re 0.25

Blasius (9.24)
l v2 d 2gn hL v1.75

Substituting into Darcy- Weisbach: hL = f

for turbulent flow in smooth pipes with Re < 10 5

2 1 7 3 f 0.316 v 2 1 v 0 = = = 0.0332 4 R 4 v 4 4 0.25 8 8 2Rv

f v* = 0 = v l 8

(9.25)

Blasius assumed that the turbulent velocity profile could be aproximated by a power

relationship: Fig.
1 v= A

m v y = v c R

R m 2v c 2 v= = v , (m +1)( m + 2) ( m +1)(m + 2) y

m 1 R y v dA = R 2 v c R (2r)dr r = R y vR 2 = A 0

y m v c R 2 (R y )(dy ) 0
R

v = v c (m

Substituting into (9.25) :

7 4 1 7 3 2 1 + 7m 7m 0 = 0.0332 4 R 4 4 v 4 y 4 4 ( m +1)( m + 2)

However, wall shear stress could depend only on velocity and fluid properties, not on the

1 7m 1 Radius of the pipe R so that, + =0 m = 4 4 7

Seventh-root law for turbulent velocity distribution:
v y = v c R
1 7

m=

1 7

v 49 = v c 60
1 4

v=

49 v 60 c

Substituting into (9.25) 0 = 0.0464 v c R

2 v c 2

14

Example 2: Fig. (same as previous example)

Knowing that v = 1.29 m/s, d = 75mm and water at 20C. Calculate: Wall shear stress 0 frition factor f Centerline velocity vc

v at 25mm from centerline usinf seventh-root law

0.316 0.316 0.316 f = = = = 96.750 v d 1.29 0.075 Re 10 6

v 49 = v c 60 vc = 60 60 v = 1.29 = 1.58m/s 49 49

v d = 96750 in the range of Blasius 3000 < Re Re =

2 0.25 v c 10 6 0.25 998 1.58 2 0 = 0.0464 = 0.0464 = 3.70 Pa 2 2 1.58 0.375 v c R

Using seventh root law : (@25mm) v 25 y = v c R

1 7

0.0125 = 0.0375

= 0.855

v 25 = 1.35 m /s

15

9.4 Turbulent-flow
Nikuradse:
y vc v = 2.5ln R v* for rough pipes :

Rough pipes

for all pipes,

y v R v = 5.75log + 8.5 e : roughness height, Smooth pipe log * e v* R R Q Q and flowrate Q : Q = R 2v* 5.75log + 4.75 v = = 2 = v* 5.75log + 4.75 e e A R R v for rough pipes : = 5.75log + 4.75 e v* Substituting : v* = v f /8 R 1 = 2.0log +1.68 e f

adjusting by Nikuradse's experiment :

R d 1 1 = 2.0log +1.75 or = 2.0log +1.14 for rough pipe e e f f

Example:

d = 300 mm

v = 3 m/s

Knowing that Relative roughness, e /d = 0.002 ,and kinematic viscosity of the water,

= 9 10 7 m 2 /s . Calculate:
frition factor f , Centerline velocity vc, v at 50mm from pipewall (y=50mm) and hL 300m

16

d 1 1 = 2.0log +1.14 = 2.0log +1.14 = 6.54 e 0.002 f

f =

1 = 0.0234 6.54 2

v* = v f /8 = 3

0.0234 = 0.162m /s 8 R 1 v = 5.75log + 4.75 = 5.75log + 4.75 v* = 0.162m /s e 0.004 v* e = 0.002 e = 0.02 0.3 = 0.0006m d yc 0.150 = = 250 e 0.0006

y v = 5.75log + 8.5 e v*

v c = 0.162(5.75log(250) + 8.5) = 3.61m /s yc 0.050 = = 83.3 v 50 = 0.162(5.75log(83.3) + 8.5) = 3.17m /s e 0.0006

l v2 300 32 head loss : hL = f = 0.0234 = 10.7m d 2gn 0.3 2 9.81

9.5 Classification of Smoothless & Roughness

Friction factor Velocity profiles

Turbulent flows in smooth pipe : 1 32.8 0.8, friction factor depends on : Sublayer thickness ( ) and characteristic lenght = 2.0log v v f d Turbulent flows in rough pipe : In transition flow : d 1 = 2.0log +1.14, e f

f = f (e,d)

e must be significant parameter In laminar flow : v = R b c the viscous effects dominate the whole flow e 64 << & Experiments confirmed that effects of roughness in laminar flows are negligible f = Re R

17

In laminar sublayer :

v 32.8 = , d Re f

e ed e Re f = = , v v d d 32.8

e e Re f = 32.8 d v

(9.32)

For rought pipe :

d 1 2.0 log = 1.14 plot : e f

d 1 2.0 log versus e f

e Re f d

For smooth pipe :

32.8 1 = 2.0 log 0.8 = 2.0 log Re f 0.8 f v d

d e 1 2.0 log = 2.0 log Re f 0.8 plot in Fig. e d f e Re f 10 d e 10 < Re f < 200 d 200 e Re f d

(9.7)

For smooth flow : For transition flow : For turbulent flow :

e v or from (9.3.2) 0.3 < 6 e v

0.3 e <6 v

(See on top of

Fig. 9.7)

18

General conclusion: The effect of roughness is dependent on the size of the roughness relative to the thickness of the viscous sublayer. Unfortunately, Nikuradse's formula cannot be applied to engineering problems, b/c roughness patterns of commercial pipes are different to artificial roughneses. Colebrook (1939) suggested:
d 1 9.28 = 2log = 1.14 2log 1+ e f Re e d f

Another means of classifying roughness effects by using the velocity profile directly.

19

 For smooth flow :

y vc v = 2.5ln R v*

R vc v = 5.75log v* y

For rough flow :

R R v v = 5.75log + 8.5 Apply for v c : c = 5.75log + 8.5 e e v* v* R R y vc v = 5.75 log log = 5.75log , It shows this formula is valid for both smooth rough flow e v* e y y v e y y v vc = + 5.75log = c + 5.75log + 5.75log = A + 5.75log R v* R e e v* v*

(9.36)

Suggests that A = const. in the full rough flow, in fact A = 8.5 according experimental data.For smooth fl v y v y v = 5.5 + 5.75log * = 5.5 + 5.75log * v* v e where A = 5.5 + 5.75log * , and Fig. 9.8 plots A versus log( For smooth flow : For transition flow : For turbulent flow : v e y y e = 5.5 + 5.75log * + 5.75log = A + 5.75log e e e v*e = Roughness Reynolds Number

(9.37)

v*e ) for Nikuradse's sand roughness data This suggests : v*e e 3.5 0.3 v ve e 3.5 < * < 70 0.3 < <6 v ve e 70 * 6 v

20

Example: Check previous problems whether or not the flow is truly rough:

d = 300 mm

v = 3 m/s
v*e 70 e = 0.006m

For rough flow : v* = 0.0162 m /s

= 9 10 7 m 2 /s

v*e = 108 > 70

d = 300, v = 3m /s relative roughness of pipe =

e = 0.002 e = 0.0006 d f = 0.0234

d 1 1 = 2.0log +1.14 = 2.0log = 6.54 e 0.002 f v* = v f 8 = 3 0.0234 = 0.162 m s 8

21

9.6 Pipe friction factors:

0 = f (v,d,e, , ), ( 0 ,v,d,e, , ) = 0, Friction Factor :
f = f (Re,e /d ) e /d : relative roughness

Friction factors of a number of pipes will be the same if their Re, roughness patterns and

relative roughnesses are the same.

Blasius-Stanton diagram with Nikuradse's experimental data.

Fig 9.9: logarithmic plot of friction factor versus Re. The Fig 9.9 flow Nikuradge's data plotted in BlasiusStanton format revealing the relationship between f , R, e/d. Foundamentals:

1. Physical difference between the laminar & turbulent flow regimes is indicated by
the change in the relationship of f to R near the critical Reynolds number of 2100. 2. Laminar regime is given by eq. f = 64 Re for all surface roughnesses. This confirm that head loss in laminar l v2 hL = f f v d 2gn flow is independent of surface roughness:

l v 2 64 v d 2gn
22

3. For example see at Fig.(9.9), once e d f , but once Re f doesn't change.

l v2 4. Re >>, f = const. and f (e d ) only Darcy Weisbach : hL = f hL v 2 d 2g n for completely turbulent flow over rough surfaces.

5. 5000 < Re < 50.000 Many og Nikuradge's rough pipe test results coincide, Roughness is submerged in the viscous sublayer. Blasius: 3000 < Re < 100.000
0.316 f = 0.27 Re Smooth pipes, Darcy Weisbach hL = f l v2 hL v1.75 d 2g

6. The series of curves for rough pipes diverges from the smooth pipe curve as the

Re the thickness of viscous sublayer as Re .

v 32.8 = . d R f

Example:

Water @ 30C flows in 75mm pipe @ Re=80.000. Pipe: uniform sand grain 0.15mm.

Obtain: hL in 300m and hL in 300m if the pipe is smooth . Relative roughness of the pipe:

e 0.15 = = 0.002, From Fig(9.9) d 75

f 0.021

l v2 Darcy Weisbach hL = f d 2g vd Re 0,8 10 6 80000 6 v = ? Re = = 0.85m /s (water @ 30 C = 0.8 10 ) v = d = 0.075 hL = 0.021 300 (0.85) = 3.09m 0.075 2 9.81
2

For the smooth pipe : since 3000 < Re = 80000 < 10 5 Blasius formula : f = 0.316 l v2 hL = f =? R 0.25 d 2g

23

Fig. 9.10: Relation of friction factor, Reynolds number, and roughness for commercial pipes.

24

In Fig. 9.10, Moody presented the equations of Colebrrok (9.34) in a graphycal form using te Blasius-Stanton format: Moody diagram.

Fig. 9.11 given e-values for commercial pipes.

25

It must be said the roughness of commercial pipe materials varies widely with the manufacturer, with year in service, and with the liquid conveyed. A difficult problem por the engineers is to predict these friction factors. Example: Water flows at 30C in 75mm pipe, Re = 80000. this is a commercial pipe with an equivalent sand grain roughness of 0.15mm. Obtain hL in 300m.
e 0.15 = = 0.02 (relative roughness) d 75 Using Moody diagram from Commercial pipe to find f

f = 0.026
2

Re 0.8 10 6 80000 l v 300 (0.85) = = 0.85 m s hL = f = 0.026 = 3.83m d 0.075 d 2g n 0.075 2 9.81 Commercial pipes have higher head losses
v=

Example: Crude Oil at 20C flows in a riveted steel pipe. d = 1m, v=2 m/s. What is the range of hL in 1000 km of pipeline.

Crude oil @ 20C : = 855.6 km/m3, = 71.8 10 4 Pa s v d 855.621 Re = = = 2.4 10 5 71.8 10 4 Look at Fig. 9.11 for riveted steel: f [0.0009 ~ 0.009] upper : e = 0.009 d f = 0.0365, lower : e = 0.009 d f = 0.0205

Darcy Weisbach : l v2 1000 22 hL = f = 0.0365 = 7.4 m, d 2 gn 1 2 9.81 h : 4.2 ~ 7.4 ] m L [ hL = 0.0205 1000 22 = 4.2 m 1 2 9.81

26


9.7 Pipe Friction in non-circular pipes
Non-circular pipes:
d2 A Area d Rh = = , Circular pipe : Rh = 4 = P Wetted perimeter d 4

the Hydraulic Radius

Hydraulic Radius :

d = 4 Rh

v ( 4Rh ) l v2 Darcy Weisbach hL = f Re = , d 2g hL can be used in Moody diagram (Fig. 9.10) in term of d = 4 Rh

Viscous sublayers, turbulence, roughness, shear stress, etc. for nonciurcular conduits may

be obtained as the same as circular pipes. However this method might be subject to certain limitations. Example:

Fig. P=101.3 kPa

Pipe: 600m x 450mm x 360mm hL = ?,

v = 3m/s Airflow at 15C P

A 0.45 0.3 = = 0.09m p 2 (0.45 + 0.3)

Air at 15 C = 1.225 kg /m 3 , = 1.789 10 5 Pa s, Rh = Re =

( 4Rh ) v 1.225 4 0.09 3 = = 73950, using Moody Diagram (Fig. 9.10) for smooth pipe f 0.019 1.789 10 5
l v2 600 3 = 0.019 = 14.5m (of air) 4 Rh 2gn 4 0.09 2 9.81

hL = f

P = hL = ghL = 1.225 9.81 14.5 174 Pa

27

9.8 Pipe Friction

Empirical formulas

+ Darcy-Weisbach's formula + Hazen- williams formula: + +

0.63 v = 0.849 Chw Rh S 0.54 0.63 0.54 v =1.318 Chw Rh S

(SI units) (US units)

Rh : Hydaraulic radius

S : head loss per unit length = hL l Chw : roughness - coefficient associated with pipe material. (Table 1)

Darcy-Weisbach's formula can be applied to both laminar & turbulent flow over a wide range of fluid & temperatures. Hazen-Williams formula is restricted to turbulent flow of water at normal temp in a limited size range relatively smooth pipes. This formula can calculate V through a given head loss. In the same circumstances, D-W requires a trial solution an estimating Re to find a friction factor f . To find the corresponding relation between Hazen-Williams & Darcy-Weisbach:

28

 d 0.63 h 0.54 v = 0.849 Chw L , 4 l

d h h 1.85 Rh = and S = L v = (0.3545) C1.85 d1.17 L hw 4 l l 133 f = 1.85 0.15 Chw ( vd) d 0.02

133 l v2 l v2 hl = 1.85 = f 0.15 d 2g n Chw ( vd) d 0.02 d 2g n

Taking a nominal -value of 10-6 m2/s for water the equivalent f -value for Hazen

Williams formula: f =

Manning Equation:

1.85 hw

1056 Re 0.15 d 0.02

Can be used for pipe flow and open channels:

1 2 v = Rh 3 S1 2 n

(SI units)
S=

1.49 2 3 1 2 v = n Rh S

(US units)

Rh is hydraulic radius,

hL , n is roughness coefficient l

Find a relationship between Manning & Darcy-Weisbach formula:

23 12 1 d hL v = , n 4 l

v=

1 d 4 3 hL 6.35 n 2 l

124n 2 l v 2 hL = 1 3 , d d 2gn

124n 2 " f "= 1 3 d

+ n0 Reynolds number effect, the formula must be used only in the wholly rought flow zone

where its horizontal slope can accurately match D-W values. Fairly strong relative roughness effect, a larger pipe will have a smaller friction factor. Formula is valid only for rough pipes, the rougher the pipe, the more likely the Manny formula will apply.

29

Example: A pipeline flowrate 0.5 m3/s of water 2 reservoirs 8km appart and 60m differente elevation. Considering only pipe friction losses, use: Hazen-Williams, Manning and Darcy-Weisbach formulas to select a diameter of welded steel pipe that will meet this requirement.

Hazen Williams :

(from Table 1, we have Chw = 135)

d 0.63 hL 1 0.63 60 2 2.63 Q = A v = d 0.849 Chw 0.5 = d 0.849 135 4 4 4 l 4 8000 0.5 d 2.63 = = 1.78 d = 1.25m 0.28 " f "= 1056 vd 0.411.25 1056 = = 5.16 10 5 = = 0.0167 0.15 0.02 = Re = 6 1.85 Re d 10 135 7.2 0.15 1.25 0.02

1.85 hw

Manning solution : Q = A v =

(from Table 1, we have n = 0.012)

2/3 1/ 2 2 1 2 / 3 1/ 2 2 1 d hL 0.5 d Rh S = d d8/3 = = 2.22 d = 1.35m 4 n 4 n 4 l 0.225

124 n 2 " f "= = 0.0162 d1/ 3 Darcy Weisbach formula : We need to guess Re e d, then adjust again from Fig. 9.11, we have e = 0.045mm. e 0.045 10 3 From last calculation, we guess d 1.2m = = 3.75 10 5 d 1.2 v d Q d Q d 4Q 40.5 Re = = = = = = 5.3 10 5 2 d 10 6 1.2 A d 4 l v2 l Q2 1 l Q2 16 1 16 l Q2 From Fig. 9.10, we have f 0.0135 : hL = f = f 2 = f 2 4 = 2 f 5 d 2g d A 2g d d 2g d 2g 16 l Q2 16 8000 (0.5) d5 = 2 f = 2 0.0135 = 0.0372 hL 2g 60 2 9.81
2

d = 0.52m

30

9.9 Local losses in Pipelines

+ Due to changes of crosssection, bends, elbows, valves, etc. + Long pipelines have a minor losss and can be ignored without serious errors + Short pipelines, local losses have to take in account Study of the flow phenomena in abrupt obstruction of pipelines:

v2 Experiment: h L = K L 2gn

at high Re

K L : Loss coefficient

For an abrupt enlargement: (Section 6.2)

2 (v1 v2 ) h L = KL 2gn

in which

KL = 1

31

For gradually enlargement, Gibson (Fig. 9.15), concial enlargement:

Fig. 9.15 flows: 1 = 7: Optimal cone angle 2 = 60 => maximum KL better abrupt enlargement than = 60 (KL =1) => desing of connector of pipelines. Example:

P300 = 140 kPa

300 mm

600mm

20

Flowrate: Q = 0.3 m3/s.

Calculate: P600 in the larger pipe, neglecting pipe friction

32

P300 v 2 P v2 + 300 = z600 + 600 + 600 + hL , 2gn 2gn Q Q 0.3 4 Q v 300 = = = v 600 = = 1.06m /s, 2 2 = 4.24 m /s d300 (0.3) A300 A600 4 0.6 2 A1 d2 600 From Fig. 9.15, = 20 and = = = 4, given K L 0.43 0.3 A2 d2 300 z300 + hL = K L

(v300 v600 )
2gn

= 0.43

(4.24 1.06) 2
2 9.81

= 0.2216

Taking the datum at the CL to eliminate z from the Eq : 140 10 3 (4.24) P600 (1.06) = + 0.2216 3 + 3 + 2 9.81 9.81 10 2 9.81 9.81 10
2 2

P600 = 143 kPa

Another abrupt contraction form:

Experimental measurements of K L [0.5, 1],

A2 = [0, 1], A1

Cc =

Ac A2

33

A2 =0 A1 See Table 2 : A2 =1 A1

(Fig.)

K L 0.5 for high Re

(Fig.)

K L 0.8

Hamilton:

34

r > 0.14d will prevent the formation of a vena contracta, and thus eliminate the head loss due to flow deceleration. KL 0.1, exact value depends on the detailed geomtry of the entrance & boundary layer. For short well-streamlined contraction: KL 0.04 For long contraction: KL > 0.04 Losses of head in smooth pipe bends due to effects of separation, wall friction & secondary flow. Head loss coefficients for smooth pipe bends are shown in Fig 9.20. KL (Shape of bend: R d )

R d = 0,

K L 1.1, miter bend usin g in large duct as wind & water tunnels

The losses of head caused by commercial pipe fittings occur because of their rough &

irregular shapes. Values of KL in the Engineering Date Book are given in Table 3.

35

Example: A pipeline lenght = 3 km, diameter = 75mm carries water at v = 70 cm/s, has a pipe friction loss of 25m, neglecting local losses. If the line contains a sharp-edged reservoir entrance, a wide-open, screwed global valued, and four 90 regual, screwed elbow, and exits directly into a reservoir. Calculate: local losses in the line & the percent error incurred by neglecting them

v2 hL = K L , Need K L = ? 2g n Sharp edged entrance : K L = 0.5 Wide open, screw globe value Table 3, given K L = 10 90 regular, screwed elbows Table 3, given K L = 1.5 Exit into reservoir K L = 1 v2 0.7 2 = (0.5 +10 +1.5 +1) = 0.325m 2gn 2 9.81 local Loss 0.325 percent error = 100% = 100% = 1.3% pipe friction Loss 25 Total local loss = K L
36

9.10 Pipeline problems - Single pipes

Engineering pipe-flow problems usually consist of: 1. Calculation of hL and p from flowrate and pipeline characteristics. 2. Calculation of flowrate Q from pipeline characteristics and hL. 3. Calculation of required pipe diameter to pass a given flowrate Q between 2 regions of known p. P1. Can be solved directly. P2 & Pe: using trial-and-error solution because friction factor f and loss coefficients KL depend on Re, Re(flowrate [P.2], d [P.3]). Construction of Energy & Hydraulic Grade lines for some typical pipelines problems may frequently be used in the solution of Engineeering problems.

Head loss due to friction hL f , abrupt entrance hLe , and abrupt exit to another tank hLx :
l v 2 hLe + hL f + hLx = H 0.5 + f +1 =H d 2gn v2 neglected entirely, increasing l /d also decreases . 2gn l v2 EL HGL hL = f =H d 2gn

The effects of local losses in pipelines of common lengths is so small, which may often be

37

Example: A clean cast iron pipeline has d=0.3m, length = 300m connects two reservoirs having surface elevations of 60 & 75m. Calculate the flowrate through the line, assuming water at 10C and squared-edged entrance.

vd v0.3 = = 229.000V 1.306 10 6 from Fig. 9.11 for clean cast iron pipe, given e /d = 0.00083 water at 10 C,

= 1.306 10 6 m 2 /s Re =

l v2 v 2 m s . (Since in D-W formula hL = f Using iteration procedure, guess , need f, d 2g

in order to find f from figure 9.10, we need a Re number!) Re = 458000 .

From Fig 9.10, with e /d= 0.00083, Re = 458 10 3 given f 0.02, K Le = 0.5, K Lx = 1.

Chosen points 1&2 on the surfaces of 2 reservoirs work-energy Eq:

z1 +
2 p1 v1 p v2 + = z2 + 2 + 2 + hL, 2g 2g

l v 2 p1 = p2 = 0, v1 = v 2 = 0, 75 + 0 + 0 = 60 + 0.5 + f +1 d 2gn

vd 3.70.3 Recalculate Re to find f -value & v again. Re = = = 847250 1.306 10 6

300 v 2 15 = 0.5 + 0.02 +1 v = 3.7m /s 0.3 2 9.81

From Fig 9.10, with Re = 847250 & e /d= 0.00083 given f 0.0193 :
300 v 2 75 + 0 + 0 = 60 + 0.5 + 0.0193 +1 0.3 2gn

v = 3.76m /s Q = v A = 3.76

0.32 = 0.266 m 3 s 4

38

Example: A smooth PVC pipeline 60m long carries a flowrate 0.003 m3/s between 2 water tanks with a difference in water surface elevation of 1.5m. If there is a squared-edged entrance and water at 10C, calculate the diameter of the required pipe.
water at 10 C, = 1.306 10 6 m 2 /s vd Qd Qd 4Q 40.003 14700 Re = = = = = 2 = d d A d 1.036 10 6 d 4 4 l v 2 60 v 2 Work energy equation : 0.5 + f +1 = 1.5 0.5 + f +1 = 1.5 2gn d 2gn d using Excel to find : d = 0.036m

In the main line velocity head is neglected

EL HGL

. Velocity head at nozzle exit

cannot be neglected work-done Energy Equation: (z0 at reservoir)

39

2 2 p1 v12 p v2 l v1 v2 l v1 + = z2 + 2 + 2 + hL , hL = hLe + f = K Le 1 + f 2g 2g d1 2gn 2gn d1 2gn Setting the datum at the CL of pipe (nozzle) 2 v2 v 2 v2 l v1 H + 0 + 0 = 0 + 0 + 2 + hL , H = 2 + K Le 1 + f 2g 2gn 2gn d1 2gn d 2 2 2 d1 2 d1 d2 l v 2 A1 v1 = A2 v 2 v1 = v 2 v 2 = v1 H = 1 + K Le + f 1 d 4 4 d1 2gn d2 2

z1 +

+ If we know the flowrate, we can solve this equation directly. + If we know H, this equation can be solved by trial- and error. desing: Sprinkler system, fire supression hoses,.... - Turbine, where the power in the jet is converted to electrical energy.

40

 v 2 v 2 Nm v2 J power = (Q N /s) m = Q = Q 2gn s 2gn s 2gn neglecting local losses, we obtain :

2 v2 l v1 l Q2 2 =H f =H f 2 2gn d1 2gn d1 2gn A1

f l Q2 power = Q H 2 2 d1 gn A1 dP f l = 0 H 3Q2 = 0 2 dQ 2 d1 gn A1

To find maximum of jet power :

2 f l Q2 H f l v1 H v2 2 H 2 = = = 2 2 d1 gn A1 3 2 d1 gn 3 2 gn 3 it shows when the maximum power may be expected.

Work - energy equation : z1 + Horsepower of Machine = 1hp = 0.746kW

p1 v12 p v2 + + E P = z2 + 2 + 2 + ET 2g 2g (US) Kilowatts of Machine = v2 ) 2g Q E P (US, 9.49a) 550 Q E P (SI, 9.49a) 1000 Q ( E P or E T ) 1000 (SI)

Q ( E P or E T ) 550

(Kynetic Energy per unit weight

p v2 p v2 z1 + 1 + 1 + E P = z2 + 2 + 2 + hL 2gn 2gn

WHP =

WkW =

+ Usually, we have been working with gravity-flow, however a more common ocurrence is the pumped pipeline (water supply). + Where the pumps are located at the upcstream end of the pipeline: sourcer pupms, the draw liquid from wells, reservoirs, tanks, etc. + Where the pumps are located at some intermediate point in the pipeline: boosten pumps. Using formula (9.49), WHP (WkW) represent the power added to the fluid by the pump.

41

Most engineering liquids contain dissolved gases, they move with liquids as large bubbles, collected in high point of the pipeline, reducing the flow along a crosssection, and are sent to disrupt the flow. In practice, large negative pressures in pipes should be avoided if possible by design improvements. Where such negative pressures cannot be avoided they should be prevented from exceeding about 2/3 of the different barometric and vapor pressures. ( Example:

patm pv ).

(1330m, ridge-1313m (distance from upstream), 1230m, pipeline 20km long) There is concern that the ride is too high and will create an unacceptable low preassure in the pipeline. What is your recommendation as to the feasibility of proposed location of the pipeline? Neglecting of this falling.

local

losses

&

considering

EL HGL .

EL-HGL

is

falling

1330 m 1230 m = 100 m over 20 km. the ridge distance from upstream 4km is about 1/5

Elevation of EL-HGL of ridge = 1330 100 1/5 = 1310m . It means that the preasure head at ridge is -3m. The negative preasure head of water is approximately -10m, the preasure haed at ridge = -3m is about 1/3 of this limitation. p p 101Pa 2.3Pa 10m Note: 0 35 C 10m( at 20 C), he = atm v = 9.81

42

Example: Calculate the horse power that the pump must supply to the water at 10C in order to pump 0.07m3/s through a clean cust iron pipe from the lower reservoir to uuper reservoir. Neglecting local loses and velocity heads.

Q E p 1000 2 p v p v2 we need to find E p z1 + 1 + 1 + E p = z2 + 2 + 2 + hL 2gn 2gn Q 0.07 0.07 v = : v 0.2 = v 0.15 = = 3.96 m /s 2 = 2.22 m /s A (0.2) (0.15) 2 4 4 v d 2.22 0.2 v d 3.96 0.15 5 R0.2 = 0.2 = R0.15 = 0.15 = = 454800 6 = 3.4 10 1.306 10 1.306 10 6 water at 10 C,

= 1.306 10 6 m 2 /s WkW =

e Fig 9.10 = 0.012 Fig. 9.11 f = 0.021 d 0.2 e = 0.0018 Fig. 9.11 f = 0.024 d 0.2 Head losses l v2 300 (2.22) 600 ( 3.96) hL0.2 = f 0.2 = 0.021 = 7.91 m hL0.15 = 0.024 = 76.73 m d 2gn 0.2 2 9.81 0.15 2 9.81 hL = 7.91 m + 76.73 m = 84.64 m
2 p1 v1 p v2 + + E p = z2 + 2 + 2 + hL 15 + 0 + 0 + E p = 45 + 0 + 0 + 84.64 2gn 2gn QE p 0.07 9.8 116.64 WkW = = = 0.08kW WHP = 0.746 0.08 = 0.06hp 1000 1000 2 2

z1 +

E p = 116.64 m

43

9.11 Pipeline Problems - Multiple pipes

+ 2 pipes separating & rejoining

+ More complex system

44

The basic principles of analysis are the same although the techniques of analysis vary depending on the system complexity. Assumptions: - - Velocity heads & local lsses are neglected EL HGL Variation of the friction factor f with the Re are often neglected (unless handling by a computer program). One loop network:

+ Parallel laying is standard method: a) increasing capacity b) flexibility to repair. - The head loss through bouth the branches of the loop mush be the same, if ELEGL network above the pipes is to be continous throughout the system + Continuity equation: Q = QA + QB , hLA = hLB Darcy-Weisbach for head loss:

hL = f

l 16 Q2 16 f l l v2 2 = f = Q d 2gn 2gn d 2 d 4 2 2 gn d 5
n n k A QA = kB QB , Q = QA + QB

General writing of this equation: hL = k Qn

45

Solution of this equation system allows prediction of the division of a flowrate Q into QA & QB when the pipe characteristics are known. Example:

d = 300mm, l = 1500m, Q = 0.15 m3/s. This pipe is looped with 600m pipe of the same material & size parallel and connected to it. What % increase in maximum flowrate may be expected? Neglectic local losses and velocity head EL HGL
hL = 16 f l Q2 2 2 gn d 5 ( k l) hL = k Q2 k1500 = hL 24 = 1067 (1500m pipeline) 2 = Q (0.15) 2

600 1067 = 427 1500 900 For the unlooped section : k 900 = 1067 = 640 1500 For the loop section : k600 = For the original pipe, the head loss in the looped & uplooped portions :
2 2 hL = 24 = k 900 Q2 + k 600 QA = 640 Q2 + 427 QA 2 2 For the new pipe : hL = 24 = k 900 Q2 + k 600 QB = 640 Q2 + 427 QB

Solving this equations, we obtain : QA = QB

Q = QA + QB

QA =

Q 2

Q 2 640 Q2 + 427 = 24 640 Q2 +106.75 Q2 = 24 Q = 0.18 m 3 s 2 0.18 0.15 percentage increasing = 100% = 20% 0.15

46

Multiple pipes system connects 3 reservoirs (or more)

Scenarios: 1. Flow from reservoir A into reservoirs B & C 2. Flow from A to C without flow in & out from B 3. Flow from A to B into C Situation (1):
n n hA /C = k A QA + kC QC n n hA / B = kA QA + k B QB n n zA zB = kA QA + k B QB

n n zA k A QA = kC QC n n Set(1) zA k A QA = zB + k B QB QA = QB + QC

Situation (3):

n n zA kA QA = kC QC n n zB k B QB = kC QC n n Set(2) zA k A QA = zB k B QB QA + QB = QC

Situation (2), the same as above, just set QB=0

In view of physical flow only one of these sets of equations can be satisfied: 47

If QA > QC : using Set (1)

If QA < QC: using Set (2)

After identification of the set of equations, these may be solved (by trial) to yield the flowrates QA, QB and QC. Multiple pipe systems are complicated problems of distribution of low in pipe networks (e.g. city water supply system). + One Method is presented here to illustrate the bais principles: Network consisting of various sizes, geometry, hydraulic characteristics, pumps, valves, etc. Assumptions: o Flows are assumed positive in a clockwise direction around each loop. o The continuity principle states that the net flowrate into any pipe junction must be zero:

= 0.

o The work-energy principle requires that at any junction there is only one position of

EL-HGL, which means the net head loss around any single loop of the network must be zero.

Applying into the following network:

48

Equation for loop I : (the similar will be done in every loop)

Q = Q
A F

+ Q2 Q1 = 0
F

Q = Q + Q
1

Q3 = 0

Q = Q
E B

Q4 Q8 = 0
2

Q = Q
I

+ Q4 + Q5 + Q7 = 0

3 3 n = k1 Q13 + k 3 Q3 + k 4 Q4 + k 2 Q2 = 0

Assuming that: pipe sizes, lengths, hydraulic characteristics, Network in/out flows, pump

station & pump characteristics, and Network layout & elevations Qi solved.

i = 1, ...,10 will be

There are several ways to solve for those flowrates, the simplest and easiest one is Hardy Cross Method. Hardy Cross Method (Iteration Method): The essence of the method is to start with a best estimate of initial values, If the first estimates are reaonably accurate, Q0i, the first iteration:

Qi = Q0i i

(9.52)

Sign ( ) depends on the direction assumed for Q0, L , is the correction in a loop L.

For example: Q3 = Q03 + I , Q8 = Q08 + II , but Q4 = Q04 + I II

In general a head loss equation has a form: hLi = k Qin = 0

L L

(9.53)

The sign ( ) depends on the flow direction, Qi is the magnitude of the flowrate, for
example:
Loop I Loop II Loop III

n n n k1Q1n + k3Q3 + k 4 Q4 + k 2Q2 = 0 n n n n k8Q8 + k10Q10 + k 7Q7 k 4 Q4 = 0 n n n n k 5Q5 k 7Q7 + k 9Q9 + k8Q8 = 0

Substitute (9.52) into (9.53) we got:

h
L

Li

= k i (Q0i L ) = 0
L

49

1
Expanding (using binomial theorem!)

1 1 1 3 2

1 1 3 1

neglecting higher order terms of L

h
L

Li

k i Qn Qn 1 L + ( L ) = 0 L = n 0i 0i
L

k Q
i L

n
0i

nk Q
i L

n 1
0i

This equation is used to calculate flowrate correction L for each loop of the nerwork. The

iteration equation:

(Lj +1) =

k (Q )
( j)
i

nki Q(i j )
L

( )

n 1

j : jth - iteration step for loop L

When a pump is added to a pipe in the network, an expression representing the head

increase is a polynomial equation:

E p i = a0 + a1 Qi + a2 Qi2 + a3 Qi3 + ...

with as many ai coefficients as necessary to provide a good representation of the pump

curve. For example if the pump added to the line 8 in the loop II:

h = k Q ( a
Li 8 n 8 II

2 n n + a1 Q8 + a2 Q8 + ...) + k10Q10 + k 7Q7 = 0

50

Example:

o Paralel commercial steel pipe o By accident a valve in time in line BC was open. What are the resulting flowrates in all the pipes, neglecting local losses, and assuming that the flows are wholly rough: Darcy-Weisbach:
pipe Nr. 1 2 3 4 5

ki =

16 f i li 2 2 gn di5
Diameter (m) 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.3 e/d 910-5 110-4 110-4 910-5 110-4 f 0.012 0.012 0.012 0.012 0.013 Ki 31.7 96.8 9.7 31.7 442.0

Length (m)

1000
1000 100 1000 1000

Equation for L for each Loop:

2 2 2 k1 Q01 + k 2 Q02 + k3 Q03 I = 2 k1 Q01 + k 2 Q02 + k3 Q03

( first iteration step), II =

2 2 2 k3 Q03 + k 5 Q05 k 4 Q04 2 k3 Q03 + k 5 Q05 + k 4 Q04

51

The adjustment equations are:

Initial Calculation Q1 = Q01 + I Loop I Q2 = Q02 + I Q3 = Q03 + I II Q3 = Q03 + II I Loop II Q2 = Q04 + II Q3 = Q05 + II
Take a look at problem 9.21

Subsequent Calculation Q1j +1 = Q1j + jI Q2j +1 = Q2j + jI Q3j +1 = Q3j + jI jII Q3j +1 = Q3j + jII jI Q4j +1 = Q4j + jII Q5j +1 = Q5j + jII

9.12 Pipe flow: Unsteady Flow

o Unsteady flow is important in engineering practice: - - Cause escessive pressures, vibration, cavitation Cause physical or performance failure of a System

o In many cases, the analysis of unsteady flow recurrin in pipeline system is based on steady analysis flow recurring in pipeline system is base on steady analysis because its transient nature and change with a small magnitude. o We consider few cases, wherein significant changes in velocity cause large changes in pressure. o Unsteady flows in pipeline system are far too complex and too uncertain to permit accurate simulation by mathematical means. It requires considerable judgment to simplify the problem to one that can be analyzed. Two methods using to analyze unsteady flow in pipeline: 1. Rigid water column theory: treats the fluid as an inelastic substance obtain ODE equations and find a numerical solution. 2. Elastic or waterhammer theory, wherein the elasticity of both the fluid & the pipe walls is taken into account in the calculation. (Deforming)

52

Action of Water hammer in a simple pipelne situation:

Friction loss is neglected, velocity head is small: EL HGL . Water hammer will be introduced into de system by suddenly closing the valve. The activity will occur both upstream & downstream of the valve, we will observe only what occurs on the upstream of the valve. + Suddenly close the valve, velocity of the water at the valve is forced to be zero (B.E.) pressure head at the valve H, Pressure at the valve stretching of the pipe and increasing of the density of fluid. + Preassure increase propagates upstream at a wave speed a.

53

54

9.13 Rigid water column Theory: Euler's Equation

Rh =

d y

Rh =

A P

P =

4A , d

Shear stress = P s

F = m a
4A v z A s s = A s pA gnsA 4 = ... d t s d v 1 p z 4 1 v ... = A s = t s s d gn t pA ( p + p) A gnsAcos When the control volume diameter is expanded to the size of the pipe diameter 1 p z 4 1 v = s s d gn t 1 p z f v2 1 v = s s 2 gn d gn t r r hL = 0 , 0 = , = r R R 2l

z is a function of only s partial derivative total derivative 1 p z f v2 1 v = (9.56) s s 2 gn d gn t This is unsteady equation can be used to solve a wide range of pipeline problem.

55

We will address some basic problems:

If the discharge in this pipeline is controlled by the value at the downstream end. The preassure in the pipe = H0 when the valve is closed. When the valve is suddenly opened the pressure at the valve drops instantly to zero and the fluid begins to accelerate. Integrating (9.56) with respect to s from point 1 to 2.

1 p ds s

dz ds ds

f v2 ds = 2g n d

g1

dv ds, dt

horizontal

dz = 0, ds

v = v(t) only

Assuming that the value of f in unsteady = f in steady flow, we obtain : P1 P2 f L 2 L dv P1 f L 2 L dv v = , = H 0 = const. and P2 = 0 at t > 0 H 0 v = 2g n d g n dt 2g n d g n dt Intregrating by separating variables :

dt = gL
n

dv f L 2 H 0 v 2g n d

t=

2g d H f L + v Ld n 0 ln 2g n f H 0 2g n d H 0 f L v

If the local losses are neglected, then 2g n d H 0 f L = v 0 ( steady flow velocity), then : t= v + v L v 0 n 0 2g n f H 0 v 0 v

As steady flow v v 0 t ; unacceptable. Lv We propose that when v = 0.99v 0 , we have essentially steady flow, and : t gg = 2.65 gn H 0

56

9.14 Elastic Theory (Water hammer)

Using the impulse - momentum equation We know that a change in velocity v will cause a pressure head H to propagate upstream at apeed a. Calculate H & a.

Assume a = const, change reference frame mving with speed a unsteady steady (important technique!) One dimensional impulse-momentum equation (Chapter 6)

57

F F

ext

(Qv) (Qv)
out

in

, Q = disch arge, density of the fluid, Fext sum of external forces m = Q = constant

ext

= m ( v out v in ),

(9.67),

using (9.67) consider rigid pipe and that F3 is neglected F1 F2 = m ( v v + a - v - a) = m ( v ) where m = Qp = ( v + a) Ap and v is reduction in velocity p A ( p + p) ( A + A) = ( v + a) Ap( v ) pA - pA p A = ( v + a) Ap( v ) p = H,

A is very small compared to H, A &

p av v v ( v + a) H = 1 + gn a

we drop the small HA = ( v + a) Ap( v ) H = In engineering practice

v av < 0.01 H = H = f (a) a gn we need to find a by using the mass conservation

During dt :

M = vAt ( v - v) ( + ) ( A + A)t L expanding and neglecting small terms, we obtain : M = Avt = Av a

(9.70)

Because the pressure has increased, the volume of liquid in the section will compress slightly to higher density. The hulk modulus of elasticity:

E=

dp dV V

(Chapter 1),

E :hulk modulus of elasticity of the fluid,

p,V : pressure & Volume

V p, ( E : relatively constant over a wide range of pressure in the absence of free or entrainced air) L A V p , V is change in volume of fluid in the pipe section L E
Because when the pressure increases stretching the pipe, the result of this stretching gives (by evaluation):

58

 V = d 2 L ( 1 + 2 2 ) 4 1, 2 represent unit strain in longitudinal & radial directions, respectively

If the pipe is restrained from longitudinal streching then:

1 2 p d p V = d 2 L E e , 4 p p

e p : pipe wall thickness,

E p :Modulus of elasticity

p :Poisson's ration of pipe material

From (9.70), Mass changes in the L pipe section:

M = ( p + p) ( A L + V ) A L

(9.73)

Combine (9.70) & (9.73) and substituting (9.71) & (9.72) we got :
a= 1+ E E d 2 1 p E p ep

59