Internship Report FFC

AN INTERNSHIP At FAUJI FERTILIZER COMPANY
Internship Report
M UHAMMAD H ASSAN
Seat No: D_10_ES_1050 Final Year ( Electronics Engineering) Dawood University of Engineering & Technology Internship Duration ( 14 February 2013 to 27 March 2013)
Submitted to: Technical Training Center to: (TTC) Mirpur Mathailo
DAWOOD UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY KARACHI
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Dawood University of Engineering & Technology
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Acknowledgement
Ultimately, I have completed my report with all the hard work which I have been doing for the last six weeks. First and foremost, thank you Almighty Allah for giving me the strength to finish up this report. Without Your Willingness I would not have been able to complete any work. I would never forget to mention the names, which played a great role in the successful completion of this project, and helped me, whenever I required any guidance from them, provided me with whenever books for assistance and gave me ideas on different thoughts. I would like to take this opportunity to express my deepest gratitude to Mr.Arif JAMAL & Mr.Anjum Beig who have given me their constant encouragement constructive advises and their patience in monitoring my progress. I am also grateful to my coordinators Mr. Muhammad Fahad Sayeed & Mr. Umair Akbar Khan who were a great help for me by monitoring my learning and helping me understand the pro process in numerous interactions. Finally, I would like to extend my sincere gratitude to Mr. Aftab Ahmed Mazari for his helpful nature and valuable guidance provided time and again. Without your willingness, suggestions and insights, this project would not have been completed. have I am very much thankful to FFC which provided me a chance to integrate my classroom knowledge with industrial practical knowledge in a 6 weeks internship program. I would not forget to mention about all the kind panel boardmen and operators who had been a very useful guide in the Central operators Control Room and on the plant site, respectively. At last, I can say that my work was just an effort but wouldnt have been an effort discernibly without the support of all acknowledged people.
PREFACE
The purpose of this report is to explain what I did and learned during my internship period with the Fauji Fertilizer Company Mirpur Mathelo. The report is also a requirement for the partial fulfillment of FFC MM internship program. The report focuses primarily on the assignments handled, working primarily environment, successes and shortcomings that the intern did encounter when handling various tasks assigned to him by the coordinator .Because the various parts of the report reflect the interns shortcomings, successes ,observations and comments, it would be imperative that the esses
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recommendations are also given. Therefore the report gives a number of comments and recommendations on the internship program. It is hoped that this report would serve as a cardinal vehicle to the improvement of the internship program.
INTRODUCTION TO FFC
For an agricultural country like Pakistan, Urea carries a paramount importance. Keeping this in view Fauji Fertilizer Company (FFC) was incorporated in 1978 as a private limited company with a vision to acquire self - sufficiency in fertilizer production in the country. This was a joint venture between Fauji Foundation (a leading charitable trust in Pakistan and Haldor Topsoe A/S of Denmark.Fauji Fertilizer Company Ltd Pakistan) .Fauji is the leading urea producing compan in the Pakistan, with brand name SONA UREA.FFC company UREA commenced commercial production of urea in 1982 with annual capacity of 570,000 metric tons. First plant of the FFC is located at GOTH MACHI in SADIQABAD. TH After the excellent performance and the successful achievements of the first plant, FFC installed the second plant at the same place in the year 1993. First plant is called the BASE UNIT and the second plant plant is called the EXPANSION UNIT. This enhanced Production capacity with annual capacity of 635,000 metric tons of urea. In the year 2002, FFC acquired ex Pak Saudi Fertilizers Limited (PSFL) Urea Plant situated at Mirpur Mathelo, District Ghottki from National Fertilizer Corporation (NFC) through privatization tki process of the Government of Pakistan. It has annual production capacity of 574,000 metric tons urea which has been revamped to 718,000 metr tons urea in 200 metric
SAFETY TRAINING
FFC produces about 60 % of markets urea producti production. Not preparing for plant safety may not or only result in decrease of company production and sale but also in shortage of fertilizer in market. This may affect the countrys agriculture growth and thus shortage of food for public followed by price hiking. FFC ensures safe work environment by providing safety training to all personnel on plant. As per the company pol policy all news personnel on plant receive safety training prior taking charge of their e responsibilities The training comprised of:
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Importance of Safety at Plant afety Use of Personal Protective Equipment Use of Fire Extinguishers Ammonia Disaster
PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT

Personal protective equipment (P.P.E) must not be .P.E) regarded as a substitute for safe working practices. Minimum personal protective equipment is as follow. Safety Helmet Safety boot/shoes Escape respirator (Half Face Mask) Ear protection (designated areas) Safety Spectacles.
Your life is precious
The correct use, care and regular cleaning of the above equipment is the responsibility of each individua individual.
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INSTUMENTATION & CONTROL ORIENTATION

TOPIC Introduction to instrumentation & control. Sample Control Loop. ple Introduction to Documentation, Drawings, P & Is. Types of instruments. Introduction to Intrinsic Safety.
CO-ORDINATOR SAEED ENGR. MUHAMMAD FAHAD SAEED
INSTRUMENTATION
Instrumentation is the art of measuring the value of some plant parameter Pressure, flow, level or , temperature to name a few and supplying a signal that is proportional to the measured parameter. The output signals are standard signal and can then be processed by other equipment to provide indication, alarms or automatic control. There are a number of standard signals; however, those most common in the plant are the 4-20 mAmps Electronic signal and 3-15 psi pneumatic signal.
CONTROL TECHNOLOGY
Control of the processes in the plant is an essential part of the plant operation. There must be enough water in the boilers to act as a heat sink for the reactor but there must not be water flowing out the top of the boilers towards the turbine. The level of the boiler must be kept within a certain range. The heat transport pressure is another critical parameter that must be controlled. If it is too high the system will
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burst, if it is too low the water will boil. Either condition impairs the ability of the heat transport system to ater cool the fuel. The usual objective of control theory is to calculate solutions for the proper corrective action from the controller that result in system stability, that is, the system will hold the set point and not oscillate around it. The first automatic feedback controller used in an industrial process was James Watts flyball governor, developed in 1769 for controlling the speed of a steam engine.
CONTROL LOOP
A control system consists of subsystems and plants(processes) assembled to control output of process.
A simple control loop

A simple closed loop control requires feedback; information sent back direct from the process or s ystem to a controller which manipulates it keeping set point in view and produces the corresponding output to control final control element. Feedback control is a fundamental fact of modern industry and society. Driving an automobile is a pleasant task when the auto responds rapidly to the drivers commands. Many cars have power steering and brakes, which utilize hydraulic amplifiers for amplification of the force to the brakes or the steering force wheel.
A simple block diagram of an automobile steering control system is shown,
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The desired course is compared with a measurement of the actual course in order to generate a measure of the error .This measurement is obtained by visual and tactile(body movement) feedback. There is an additional feedback from the feel of the steering wheel by the hand (sensor) A basic, manually controlled closed-loop system for regulating the level of fluid in a tank is shown in Figure .The input is a reference level of fluid that the operator is instructed to maintain.(This reference is memorized by the operator.) The power amplifier is the operator, and the sensor is visual .The operator compares the actual level with the desired level and opens or closes the valve (actuator), adjusting the fluid flow out, to maintain the desired level.
Introduction to Documentation, Drawings, P & I's:

Documentation is done to keep the record of all the things, instruments & Chemical being used in plant. All the departments in the industry have their own literature about their concern things and they go through the literature of all the things that they need to use, to repair or install. Here in instrument department all the instruments have their records collected in files with their vendor's name and specifications. ecords In industry we keep the records of following: History cards (Switches, Transmitters, Valves, P SV's). Calibration cards. Warehouse Documents which includes MOR (Manual Order Request), MRF (Material Reservation Form), MIV (Material Issue Voucher), MWR (Maintenance Work Request). Set point changing form Cabinet daily monitoring form Power supply load checking DCS vibration probe history etc. In industries there are some field places where the loops of a system is long Enough to understand .For where this purposed designers make drawings on big Sheets that shows all the process and instruments involve esigners in those processes. A line diagram that helps us to understand the whole process including fun function of each instrument is called Process & Instrument diagrams.
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TYPES OF INSTRUMENTS
Here in FFC MM we use several types of instruments that have their specific function and use according to the requirements .The major instruments which we use here are: Transmitters, Thermocouples, E /P, Speed Probes, Vibration Probes, Pressure gauges, Controllers, Recorders, Indicators, Switches, Temperature Indicators local, Petitioners, Pressure switches Analyzers, SOV's, Tachometers.
FIELD INSTRUMENT INSTRUMENTATION

TOPIC
Level, Flow, Pressure &Temperature measuring techniques & instrument being used. Switches (Level, Flow, Temperature & Pressure) Float type level indicator Transmitters & I/Ps SOVs Analyzers
CO-ORDINATOR ENGR.UMAIR AKBAR
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PRESSURE
Pressure is probably one of the most commonly measured variables in the Power plant. It includes the measurement of steam pressure; feed water pressure, condenser pressure, lubricating oil pressure and many more. In many ways, pressure is the primary element in many of the process measurement, such as: , Flow (measuring pressure drop across restriction by creating differential pressure) Level (measuring the pressure c created by vertical fluid column) Pressure is the force exerted by fluid or gas and it is transmtted in all directions throughout the Pressure fluid /gas. Pressure acts on surface area of vessel or chamber in which it is confined. Mathematically Pressure is actually the measurement of force acting on area of surface. We could represent this as: Force = Pressure / Area
Pressure scale
Pressure varies depending on altitude above sea level, weather pressure fronts and other conditions. The measure of pressure is, therefore, relative and pressure measurements are stated as either gauge or f absolute. Gauge pressure is the unit we encounter in everyday work (e.g., tire ratings are in gauge pressure). A gauge pressure device will indicate zero pressure when bled down to atmospheric pressure when (i.e., gauge pressure is referenced to atmospheric pressure). Absolute pressure includes the effect of atmospheric pressure with the gauge pressure. An absolute pressure indicator would indicate atmospheric pressure when completely vented down to atmosphere - it would not indicate scale zero. n Absolute Pressure = Gauge Pressure + Atmospheric Pressure
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PRESSURE MEASURING DEVICES
BAROMETER: For measuring atmospheric pressure. MANOMETER: An instrument that measures pressure in terms of height of a column of liquid. It has three types: a) U-shaped Manometer b) Inclined Manometer c) Ring Shaped Manometer
BOURDON TUBES: Bourdon tubes are circular circular-shaped tubes

with oval cross sections. The pressure of the medium acts on the inside of the tube. The outward pressure on the oval cross section forces it to become rounded. Because of the curvature of the tube ring, the bourdon tube then bends as indicated in the direction of the arrow.
BELOWS: Bellows type elements are constructed of tubular

membranes that are convoluted around the circumference. The membrane is attached at one end to the source and at the other end to an indicating device or instrument. The bellows element can provide a long range of motion (stroke) in the direction of the arrow when input pressure is applied.
DIAPHARAM: A diaphragm is a circular shaped convoluted membrane that is attached to the circular-shaped
pressure fixture around the circumference. The pressure medium is on one side and the indication medium is on the other. The deflection that is created by pressure in the vessel would be in the direction of the arrow indicated.
PRESSURE TRANSMITTERS
Most pressure transmitters are built around the pressure capsule concept. They are usually capable of measuring differential pressure (that is, the Note difference between a high pressure input and a low pressure input) and therefore, are usually called DP transmitters or DP cells.
Capacitance Type Pressure Transmitter

A capacitance cell measures changes in capacitance. The capacitance of the capacitance of a capacitor is directly proportional to the area of the metal plates and inversely proportional to the distance between them. It also depends on a characteristic of t insulating material between them. the
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This characteristic, called permittivity is a measure of how well the insulating material increases the ability of the capacitor to store charge. C=E A / D Two capacitors are joined together in such a way that they have one plate in common which is actually a diaphragm. High and low pressures are applied at the two sides of the diaphragm which causes it to deflect from high to low pressure side. This deflection causes a change in the capacitance of the capacitors. Thus difference of pressure is converted into difference of capacitance. ifference
Potentiometric Pressure Transmitter

It also works on the similar principle but uses a variable resistor to measure pressure instead of capacitance. Two chambers are jo joined with a common diaphragm and applied with high and low pressure. Difference of pressure causes diaphragm to move a little towards lower pressure side. As a result needle attached with it, moves over a potentiometer changing its resistance between elect electrical contacts. Thus difference of pressure causes a corresponding change in the resistance. Figure shows a similar assembly where a spring is used to produce a constant pressure on one side of diaphragm.
Linear Variable differential Transformer

LVDT also works on the similar principle for measuring differential pressure. Diaphragm is connected to an extension rod. The extension control rod is made of a metal suitable for acting as the movable core of a transformer. Moving the extension between the primary and secondary windings of a transformer causes the inductance between the two windings to vary, there by varying the output voltage proportional to the position of the control rod extension.
FLOW
The quantity of fluid passing a given point in a specific period of time is called its flow rate. BASIC FLOW MESURING METHOD
There are various methods used to measure the flow rate of steam, water, lubricants, air, etc., in a nuclear generating station.
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Rate of flow is measured by the differential pressure method. Some form of restriction is placed in the pipeline to create a pressure drop. The pressure before the restriction is higher than after restriction or downstream. Such a reduction in pressure will cause an increase in the fluid velocity because the same tion amount of flow must take place before the restriction as after it. Velocity will vary directly with the flow and as the flow increases a greater pressure differential will occur across the restriction. So by measuring the differential pressure across a restriction, one can measure the rate of flow.
ORIFACE PLATE
An Oriface plate is used to make a abrupt change in the pipe area and simply consist of circular plate usually inserted between pipe flanges. This produces a pressure differential which is usually measured at upstream trapping and downstream trapping. The downstream pressure is lower than the upstream pressure; the orifice causes permanent loss in pressure called the head loss. This can be as high as 50% of he upstream pressure. In application where this cannot be tolerated, a venture tube is used.
pressure The high and low-pressure taps of the primary device (orifice type shown) are fed by sensing lines to a differential pressure (D/P) cell. The output of the D/P cell acts on a pressure to milliamps transducer, which transmits a variable 4-20 ma signal. 20 In actuality the differential pressure increases in proportion to the square of the flow rate. We can write this as: P Q2
In other words the flow rate (Q) is proportional; to the square root of the differential pressure. Volumetric Flow Rate = Q P To convert the signal from the flow transmitter to one that is directly proportional to the flow-rate, transmitter, flow one has to obtain or extract the square root of the signal from the flow transmitter. The square root extractor is an electronic (or pneumatic) device that takes the square root of the signal from the fl flow transmitter and outputs a corresponding linear flow signal.
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Flange Taps : Flange taps are the most widely used pressure tapping location
for orifices A three-valve manifold has to be used to protect the DP capsule from being over valve overranged.
Orifice Plate with Flange Taps and Three Valve Manifold
VENTURI TUBE
The orifice plate produces a large head loss. If this is unacceptable a venturi tube can be used. Because of its gradually curved inlet and outlet cones, almost no permanent pressure drop occurs. This design also minimizes wear and plugging by allowing the flow to sweep suspended solids through without obstruction.
The Venturi tube normally uses a specific reduction in tube size, and is not used in larger diameter pipes where it becomes heavy and excessively long. The advantages of the Venturi tube are its ability to handle large amounts of suspended solids, it creates l less turbulence and hence less insertion loss than the orifice plate. The differential pressure taps in the Venturi tube are located at the minimum and maximum pipe diameters. The Venturi tube has good accuracy but has a high cost.
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PITOT TUBE
Pitot tubes also utilize the principles captured In Bernoullis equation, to measure flow. Most pitot tubes actually consist of two tubes. One, the low pressure tube measures the static pressure in the pipe. The second, the high pressure tube is inserted in the pipe in such a way that the flowing fluid is stopped in e the tube. The pressure in the high high-pressure tube will be the static pressure in the system plus a pressure dependant on the force required stopping the flow. Pitot tubes are more common measuring gas flows that liquid flows. They suffer from a couple of problems. The pressure differential is usually small and hard to measure. The differing flow velocities across the pipe make the accuracy dependent on the flow profile of the fluid and the position of the pitot in the pipe.
ANNUBAR
An annubar is similar to a pitot tube used to measure the flow of gas or liquid in a pipe. The pitot tube measures the difference between the static pressure and the flowing pressure of the media in the pipe. The volumetric flow is calculated from that difference using Bernoulli's principle and taking into account the pipe inside diameter, The biggest difference between an annubar and a pitot tube is that an annubar takes multiple samples across a section of a pipe or duct. In this way, the annubar averages the differential pressures encountered accounting for variations in flow across the section. A pitot tube will give a similar reading if the tip is located at a point in the pipe cross section where the flowing velocity is close to the average velocity.
LEVEL
BASIC FLOW MESURING METHOD
Very simple systems employ external sight glasses or tubes to view the height and hence the volume of glasses the fluid. Others utilize floats connected to variable potentiometers or rheostats that will change the resistance according to the amount of motion of the float. This signal is then inputted to transmi transmitters that send a signal to an instrument calibrated to read out the height or volume. The level of liquid inside a tank can be determined from the pressure reading if the weight density of the liquid is constant. Differential Pressure (DP) capsules are the most commonly used devices to measure the the pressure at the base of a tank.
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Glass Level Gauge

The glass level gauge or sight glass is to liquid level measurement as manometers are to pressure measurement: a very simple and effective technology for direct visual indication of process level. In its simplest form, a level gauge is nothing more than a clear tube through which process liquid may be seen. The following photograph shows a simple example of a sight glass level gauge:
Bubbler Level Measurement System

If the process liquid contains suspended solids or is chemically corrosive or radioactive, it is desirable to e, prevent it from coming into direct contact with the level transmitter. In these cases, a bubbler level measurement system, which utilizes a purge gas, can be used. As shown in Figure, a bubbler tube is immersed to the bottom of the v , vessel in which the liquid level is to be measured. A gas (called purge gas) is allowed to pass through the bubbler tube. Consider that the tank is empty. In this case, the gas will escape freely at the end of the tube and therefore the gas pressure inside the bubbler tube (called back pressure) will be at atmospheric pressure. However, as the liquid level inside the tank increases, pressure exerted by the liquid at the base of the tank (and at the opening of the bubbler tube) increases. The hydrostatic pressure of the liquid in effect acts as a seal, which restricts the escape of, purge sure gas from the bubbler tube. As a result, the gas pressure in the bubbler tube will continue to increase until it just balances the hydrostatic pressure (P = SXH) of the liquid. At this point the backpressure in the bubbler tube is exactly the same as the . hydrostatic pressure of the liquid and it will remain constant until any change in the liquid level occurs. Any excess supply pressure will escape as bubbles through the liquid liquid.
Ultrasonic Level Transmitter

Ultrasonic level instruments measure the distance from the transmitter (located at some high point) to the surface of a process material located further below. The time-of-light for a sound pulse indicates this distance, light and is interpreted by the transmitter electronics as process level. These nd transmitters may output a signal corresponding either to the fullness of the vessel (fillage) or the amount of empty space remaining at the top of a vessel (ullage). The instrument itself consists of an electronics module containing all the power, computation, and signal processing circuits; plus an ultrasonic transducer to send and receive the sound waves. This transducer is typically piezoelectric in nature, being th equivalent of a very high-frequency audio speaker. Besides the frequency sound waves, radio frequency and laser are also used to measure level in a tank.
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Capacitive Level Measurement

Capacitive level instruments measure electrical capacitance of a conductive rod inserted vertically into a inserted process vessel. As process level increases, capacitance increases between the rod and the vessel walls, causing the instrument to output a greater signal. The basic principle behind capacitive level instruments is the capacitance
The amount of capacitance exhibited between a metal rod inserted into the vessel and the metal walls of that vessel will vary only with changes in permittivity (), area (A), or distance (d). Since A is constant (the ermittivity interior surface area of the vessel is fixed, as is the area of the rod once installed), only changes in or d can affect the probe's capacitance.
Open Tank Level Measurement

The simplest application is the fluid level in an open tank. Figure shows a typical open tank level measurement installation using a pressure capsule level transmitter. If the tank is open to atmosphere, ent the high-pressure side of the level transmitter will be connected to the base of the tank while the low pressure lowpressure side will be vented to atmosphere. In this manner, the level transmitter acts as a ner, simple pressure transmitter. We have:
Differential pressure The level transmitter can be calibrated to output 4 mA when the tank is at 0% level and 20 mA when the tank is at 100% level. Closed Tank Level Measurement Should the tank be closed and a gas or vapors exists on top of the liquid, the gas pressure must be compensated for. A change in the gas pressure will cause a change in transmitter output. Moreover, the pressure exerted by the gas phase may be so high that the hydrostatic pressure of the liquid column becomes insignificant. Compensation can be achieved by applying the gas pressure to both the d high and low-pressure sides of the level transmitter. This pressure cover gas pressure is thus used as a back pressure or reference pressure on the low pressure side of the DP cell. We have:
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Differential Pressure The effect of the gas pressure is cancelled and only the pressure due to the hydrostatic head of the liqui liquid is sensed. When the low-pressure impulse line is connected directly to the gas phase above the liquid pressure level, it is called a dry leg.
Dry Leg System

A full dry leg installation with three-valve manifold is shown in Figure. If the gas phase is condensable, valve condensate will form in the low pressure impulse line resulting in a column of liquid, which exerts extra pressure on the low-pressure side of the transmitter. A technique to solve this problem is to add a pressure knockout pot/condensing bottle below the transmitter in the low pressure side. Periodic draining of the transmitter condensate in the knockout pot will ensure that the impulse line is free of liquid.
Wet Leg System

In a wet leg system, the low-pressure impulse line is completely filled with liquid (usually the sa pressure same liquid as the process) and hence the name wet leg. A level transmitter, with the associated three three-valve manifold, is used in an identical manner to the dry leg system. At the top of the low pressure impulse line is a small catch tank. The gas phase or vapors will condense in the wet leg and the catch tank. The catch vapors tank, with the inclined interconnecting line, maintains a constant hydrostatic pressure on the low low-pressure side of the level transmitter. This pressure, being a constant, can easily be compensated for by compensated calibration.
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TEMPERATURE
Measurement & control of temperature are possibly the most common operation in process control. PRINCIPLES OF TEMPERAURE MEASUREMENT There in general four types of temperature sensor based on following physical properties, which are temperature dependent: Expansion of substance with temperature, which produces change to length, volume & pressure. In this simplest for this is the common in glass thermometer. Changes in electrical resistance with temperature, used in thermostats and RTDs. RTDs Change in contact potential between dissimilar metals with temperature, thermocouples. Change in radiated energy with temperature optical & radiation pyrometers.
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REISTANCE TEMPERATURE DETECTERS (RTD): For most metals the change in electrical ost resistance is directly proportional to its change in temperature and is linear over a range of temperatures. This constant factor called the temperature coefficient of electrical resistance. The RTD can actually be regarded as a high precision wire wound resistor whose resistance regarded varies with temperature. The Platinum RTDs are constructed with a resistance of 100 ohm . at 0 Celsius and are often reoffered to as PT PT-100 sensors. a)RTD using Wheatstone Bridge To detect the small variations of resistance of the RTD, a temperature transmitter in the form of a Wheatstone bridge is generally used. The circuit compares the RTD value with three known and highly accurate resistors. In this circuit, when the current flow in the low meter is zero (the voltage at point A equals the voltage at point B) the bridge is said to be in null balance. This would be the zero or set point on the RTD temperature output. As the RTD temperature increases, the voltage read by the voltmeter increases. If a voltage transducer replaces the voltmeter, a 4 20 mAmps signal, which is 4-20 proportional to the temperature range being monitored, can be generated. b) Three Wire RTD A problem arises when the RTD is installed some distance away from the transmitter. Since the connecting wires are long, resistance of the wires changes as ambient temperature fluctuates. The variations in wire resistance would introduce an error in the transmitter. To eliminate this problem, a three-wire RTD is used. wire The connecting wires (w1, w2, w3) are made the same length and therefore the same resistance. The power supply is connected to one end of the RTD and the top of the Wheatstone bridge. It can be seen that the resistance of the right leg of the Wheatstone bridge is R1 + R2 + RW2. The resistance of the left is leg of the bridge is R3 + RW3 + RTD. Since RW1 = RW2, the result is that the resistances of the wires cancel and therefore the effect of the connecting wires is eliminated. Failure Modes: An open circuit in the RTD or in the wiring between the RTD and the bridge will cause a high temperature reading. Loss of power or a short within the RTD will cause a low temperature reading.
THERMOCOUPLE WORKING PRINCIPLE:
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When two dissimilar metals are twisted together at one end and if this end is heated to temperature T1 & other end are ket at lower temperature T2, the current will flow around circuit. The current depends on the metals and the temperatures T1 & T2.This ph phenomenon is known as SEE BACK EFFECT. Device using this effect are called THERMOCOUPLES. The end that is in contact with the process is called the hot or measurement junction. The one that is kept at constant temperature is called cold or reference junctio junction. The relationship between total circuit voltage (emf) and the emf at the junctions is: Circuit emf = Measurement emf - Reference emf If circuit emf and reference emf are known, measurement emf can be calculated and the relative temperature determined. To convert the emf generated by a thermocouple to the standard 4 4-20 mA signal, a transmitter is needed. Failure Modes: An open circuit in the thermocouple detector means that there is no path for current flow, thus it will cause a low (off-scale) temperature reading. scale) A short circuit in the thermocouple detector will also cause a low temperature reading because it creates a leakage current path to the ground and a smaller measured voltage.
When thermocouple is exposed to atmosphere it will show zero voltage because there is no difference of temperature. Thermal Wells The process environment where temperature mo monitoring is required is often not only hot, but also pressurized and po possibly chemically corrosive or radioactive. To facilitate removal of the tem temperature sensors (RTD and TC), for examination or replacement and to prov provide mechanical protection, the sensors are usually mounted inside thermal wells. Thermocouple types
Bimetallic Thermometer A bimetallic strip is constructed by bonding two metals with different coefficients of thermal expansion. If heat is applied to one end of the strip, the metal with the higher coefficient of expansion will expand more readily than the lower one. As a result, the whole metallic strip will bend in the direction of the metal with the lower coefficient. One main advantage of the bimetallic
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strip is that it can be used to operate over a range of temperatures when the strip is fashioned into a over coil (for larger swing) and placed on an adjustable pivot. Another common configuration of the bimetallic strip is coiled in a helix to increase the swing or displacement similar to the coil abo above. In this shape, the strip is more rugged and less subject to vibration. Thermostat Like the RTD, the thermistor is also a temperature sensitive resistor. Of the major categories of sensors, the thermistor exhibits by far the largest parameter change with temperature. Thermistors are generally composed of semiconductor materials. Although positive temperature coefficient units are available, most h thermistors have a negative temperature coefficient (TC):i.e. their resistance decreases with increasing temperature. The negative TC can be as large as several percent per degree Celsius, allowing the thermistor circuit to detect minute changes in ng temperature which could not be observed with an RTD or thermocouple circuit. The price we pay for this increased sensitivity is loss of linearity. The thermistor is an extremely non-linear device.
PYROMETERS Pyrometer, an instrument for measuring temperature. Two common types of pyrometers are the optical pyrometer and the radiation pyrometer. A heated object gives off electromagnetic radiation. If the object is sufficiently hot, it will give off visible light, ranging from dull red to blue white. Even if the object is not hot blue-white. enough to glow, however, it gives off infrared radiation. An optical pyrometer determines the temperature of a very hot object by the color of the visible light it gives off. The color of the light can be determined by comparing it with the color of an electrically heated metal wire. In one type of pyrometer, the temperature of the wire is varied by varying the strength of the current until the operator of the instrument determines that the color of the wire matches the color of the determines object. A dial, operated by the current that heats the wire, indicates the temperature. A radiation pyrometer determines the temperature of an object from the radiation (infrared and, if present, visible light) given off by the object. The radiation is directed at a heat sensitive element such as a sible heat-sensitive thermocouple, a device that produces an electric current when part of it is heated. The hotter the object, the more current is generated by the thermocouple. The current operates a dial that indicates thermocouple. temperature.
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VIBRATION & SPEED MONITORING

TOPICS
Measuring Methods. Study of Different Monitoring Equipment. (Bentley Nevada-3500 & 7200) 3500 Study of Loop Drawings & Installations at FFC MM plant. FFC-MM
CO-ORDINATOR ENGR.UMAIR AKBAR
INTRODUCTION TO VIBRATION MONITORING SYSTEM

Most of us are familiar with vibration; a vibrating object moves to and fro, back and forth. A vibrating object oscillates. Vibration amplitude may be measured as a displacement, a velocity, or acceleration. Vibration amplitude measurements may either be relative, or absolute. MEASUREMENT OF VIBERTION Unlike most process measurements, the measurement of a rotating machines vibration is primarily for the benefit of the process equipment rather than the process itself. Vibration monitoring on a compressor, for
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instance may very well be useful in extending the operating life of the compressor, but little to the benefit extending to the control of the process. PARAMETERS TO MEASURE Radial Vibration Shaft dynamic motion or casing vibration which is measured in a direction perpendicular to the shaft axis, often called lateral vibration. Thrust Position The average position, or change in position, of a rotor in the axial direction with respect to some fixed reference. Typically, the reference is the thrust bearing support structure or other casing member to which the probe is mounted. The probe may observe the thrust collar directly or some other integral, axial shaft he surface, as long as it is within about 305 mm (12 inches) of the thrust bearing. Vibration measurement technique Non-contact Method a) Eddy current probe/ proximity probe (displacement transducer)
Contact method b) Velocity probe (LVDT: Velocity transducer) c) Acceleration probe (accelerometer: piezoelectric device PROXIMITY PROBE Proximity transducer converts the mechanical vibrations to an electrical signal that is proportional to displacement of vibration. The proximity transducer is used to directly measure rotor movement in both axial and radial planes. nits Vibration measurement units at the output of the proximitor are expressed in mils or micrometer peak to peak. The standard Bently Nevada Corporation proximity transducer scale factor is 200mV/mil (7.87V/mm) for the 8mm 3300 system. This system consists of three individual parts parts: Probe Extension Cable Proximity Driver Driver)
(Oscillator Oscillator
Demodulator
The proximity driver is an electronic device that performs two basic functions:
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Generates the radio frequency (RF) signals using an oscillator circuit Conditions the RF signal to extract usable data using demodulator circuit
Once proximitor power up, it will generate a RF signal at specific frequency. This frequency is dependent on the of the probe coil and capacitance value of extension and probe cable. The RF signal emitted from the probe coil, which creates a RF field around the probe tip. The RF field is proportional to the coil diameter in the probe tip and input voltage to the proximitor. When conductive material is present in RF field, eddy current flows in the surface of tha material. RF that amplitude is at maximum when distance between probe and material is minimum and vice versa. The rapid movement of the target causes the RF signal to modulate. The demodulator circuit deals with slow or fast changing amplitude in the same way way.
FAMILIZATION TO BENTLY NEVADA Bentley Nevada thrust & vibration monitoring system was originally manufacture by bently Nevada & is in ently use in large number large industrial turbine installation around the world. The 7200 Series monitoring system was BENTLY NEVADAS full-featured "flagship" monitoring system featured from 1975 until the introduction of the 3300 Series System in 1989. The system has now reached phase 5 obsolescence which means it is no longer supported by the manufacturer. However, Paramount Electronics will be able to continue to repair these units for many years to come. lectronics The same is true for the 1800, 2201, 5000, 7000, 9000, 11000 Series Monitor Systems
P a g e | 24
HONEYWELL ESD SYSTEM
TOPICS
Familiarization with Honeywell FSC PLC. Troubleshooting PLC

CO-ORDINATOR ENGR . SYED UMAIR HUSSAIN
PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER Programmable logic controllers (PLCs) are the control hubs for a wide variety of automated systems and processes. Programmable logic controllers are used extensively in diverse industrial applications ranging from machining to automated assembly. They were designed to replace the necessary sequential relay ssembly. circuits for machine control. PLCs have been gaining popularity on the factory floor and wi probably will remain predominant for some time to come. Other areas of application of PLCs are industrial automation and control of industrial equipment. Most of this is because of the advantages they offer: Cost effective & Flexible Computational abilities Troubleshooting aids
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Reliable components One may very correctly ask that why not to use a personal computer for these tasks in place a specialized PLC. The answer is very simple; PLC Is intended for use on factory floors & in harsh environments Is more durable & Less expensive le Can be placed in remote or rugged industrial locations Can perform at a high level for many years. Can withstand shock, vibration, humidity, EMI, RFI, dust, mist, and splash Can also be used for compiling data coming from many sources and uploading on a computer sources network STANDARD PLC VS INDUSTRIAL SAFETY PLC There are three fundamental differences between a safety PLC and a standard PLC in terms of architecture, inputs, and outputs. ARCHITECTURE A PLC has one microprocessor which executes the program, a Flash area which stores the program, executes RAM for making calculations, ports for communications and I/O to detect and control the machine. In rts contrast, a safety PLC has redundant microprocessors, Flash and RAM that are continuously monitored AM by a watchdog circuit and a synchronous detection circuit. INPUTS Standard PLC inputs provide no internal means for testing the functionality of the input circ circuitry. By contrast, Safety P LCs has an internal output circuit associated with each input for the purpose of exercising the input circuitry. Inputs are driven both high and low for very short cycles during runtime to verify their functionality. OUTPUTS The PLC has one output switching d device, whereas a safety PLC digital output logic circuit contains a test point after each of two safety switches located behind the output driver and a third test point downstream of the output driver. E ach of the two safety switches is controlled by a unique microprocessor. If a failure ique is detected at either of the two safety switches due to switch or microprocessor failure, or at the test point downstream from the output driver, the operating system of a safety PLC will automatically acknowledge system failure. At that time, a safety PLC will default to a known state on its own, facilitating an orderly ailure. equipment shutdown. EMERGENCY SHUTDOWN SYSTEM Emergency shut-down system (ESD) or Safety Instrumented Systems (SIS) is defined as a system down designed to respond to conditions in the plant which may be hazardous in them or, if no action was taken, ond could eventually give rise to a hazard. The ESD must generate the correct outputs to mitigate the hazardous consequences or prevent the hazard.
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Safety instrumented systems are separate and independent from regular distributed control systems but stems are composed of similar elements, including sensors, logic solvers, actuators and support systems. Failure and/or spurious trips could result in expensive procedural and downtime consequences. Thus, the reliability on safety and availability, need to be tested periodically before the next maintenance, but not interrupt the operation. Due to the critical nature of such systems ESD system are typically composed of pt sensors, logic solvers and final control elements. The actuated shutdown valve is expected to remain static in one position for a long period of time and reliably operate only when an emergency situation reliably arises, i.e. to spring into safe mode position. Emergency Shutdown System at FFC The ESD system installed at FFC plant is manufactured by Honeywell which they called as Fail Safe Control (FSC) system. This system satisfies SIL3 standard. The Honeywell Fail Safe Control system is a em highly reliable, high-integrity safety system for safety critical control applications. As part of Honeywell's integrity safety-critical Total Plant Solution (TPS) system, integrated into Plant Scale, or in sta alone applications, the FSC stand-alone system forms the basis for functional safety, thus providing protection of persons, plant equipment and safety, the environment combined with optimum availability for plant operation. HONEYWELL FAIL FAIL-SAFE CONTROL BASIC ARCHITECTURE The basic architecture of the FSC system. Two major system parts can be distinguished: the Central Part, and The Input/output interfaces. (FSC)
Basic Architecture of FSC Central Part The Central Part (CP) is the heart of the FSC system. It is a modular microprocessor system specifically designed for safety-critical applications which can be tailored to the needs of any application. The most critical important Central Part modules are: a) Control Processor: reads the process inputs and executes the control program as created by the user in graphical Functional Logic Diagrams (FLDs). The results of the control program are then transmitted to the output interfaces.
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b) Watchdog: monitors the operation and the operating conditions of the Control Processor. The of
operation of the processor is monitored by verifying if the processor executes all its tasks within a pre-calculated time frame, which depends on the configuration. The operating conditions calculated monitored include the data integrity of the processor memory and the voltage range of the supply power (both under voltage and overvoltage). If the Watchdog detects a fault in the operation of the Control Processor or its operating conditions, it will deactivate the safety safety-critical output interfaces of the FSC system, independent of the Control Processor status. erfaces c) Communication Processor: allows the FSC system to exchange information with other computer equipment via serial communication links (uses RS232, RS485 protocols). Dedicated modules are also available which provide communication capabilities with other systems. Input/output Interfaces The FSC system provides a wide range of digital and analog input and output interfaces, each with input different characteristics to meet the demands of a wide r range of field equipment.
There are two plant control systems: 1) DISTRIBUTED CONTROL SYSTEM 2) EMERGENCY SHUT DOWN SYTEM Distributed control system works under normal process conditions & ESD system brings the plant in safe shutdown conditions in case the process parameters go beyond their control limits.
TYPICAL LOOP OF ESD:
PLC PROGRAMMING Functional Logic Diagram (FLD)
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The FSC system's safety-critical control functions are determined by the safety functions assigned to the critical system for the specific application. The FSC user software supports the design of the control program by the user. The control functions are defined via graphical Functional Logic Diagrams (FLD). Functional Logic Diagram, which demonstrates the flexibility of the programming technique used in FSC Navigator. programming FLD programming includes the facility of encapsulation or modularization using function blocks, which are comparable to subroutines in high-level programming languages. This allows function blocks to be used level to create complex functions. Function blocks only need to be tested once and can then be reused without ate the need for testing them again.
Functional Logic Diagram An FLD is split into four main areas: the information area (bottom) the input area (left), the control function area (center) the output area (right) The FLD control function area, which is the central area of the FLD, contains the actual implementation of the control function. The function is realized by interconnecting predefined symbols which pro provide a variety of functions including logical, numerical and time related functions. Apart from these standard time-related functions, user-definable blocks are supported: definable Function Blocks standard FLDs for repetitive use within the control program Equation Blocks for tabular definition of complex functions, e.g. non linear equations or non-linear
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YOKOGAWA DCS
TOPICS
Familiarization with DCS hardware, software & architecture. n Developing control algorithms Training & simulation using test function(troubleshooting)
CO-ORDINATOR ENGR.SYED UMAIR HUSSAIN
Distributed control system

A distributed control system (DCS) refers to a control system usually of a manufacturing system, process or any kind of dynamic system, in which the controller elements are not central in location (like the brain) but are distributed throughout the system with each component sub system controlled by one or more sub-system controllers. The entire system of controllers is connected by networks for communication and monitoring. DCS is a very broad term used in a variety of industries, to monitor and control distributed equipment. A Distributed Control System is a part of manufacturing industry. DCS is used in industrial and civil engineering applications to monitor and control distributed equipment with remote human intervention. A DCS typically uses custom designed processors as controllers and uses both proprietary interconnections and communications protocol for communication. Input and output modules form component parts of the DCS. The processor receives information from input modules and sends information to output modules. The input modules receive information from input instruments in the process (or field) and transmit instructions to the output instruments in the field. Computer buses or electrical buses connect the processor and modules through multiplexer or de multiplexers. Buses also de-multiplexers.
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connect the distributed controllers with the central controller and DCS typically contains one or more computers for control and mostly use both propriety interconnections and protocols Distributed Control both System (DCCS) in general provides: for communication. YOKOGAWA DCS ARCHITECTURE Presently, FFC is using DCS system manufactured by Yokogawa a Japanese company. General architecture of Yokogawa CS3000 is described as follows. It consists of the following main parts: 1. FCS cabinets 2. Human interface machines (HIM) 3. Engineering work station (EWS) All transmitters installed all over the plant sent their information in the form of current signal to the DCS system. All the field gnal wires terminate at the nest which contains the I/O cards. Four of the nest then connects to the one node interface unit (NIU). These nodes then connect to the central processing unit called Field Control Unit (FCU) through RI/O buses. Vnet cables ough provide interface between FCS cabinets and to the Human Interface Unit. HMI are also connected to each other over Ethernet and also to Engineering work station (EWS). The following completely illustrate the whole systems and connections between different parts of it. nnections FIELD CONTROL STATION (FCS) The FCS controls the plant. By the difference of used I/O modules, there are two models of the FCS; namely the FCS for FIO and the FCS for RIO. In addition to the above models, there is t Compact type the FCS. FCS for RIO This FCS uses the Remote I/O (RIO) modules, which have many installation bases and M4 screw terminals to connect signal cables. According to the application capacity, there are the standard model and the enhanced model.
Human Interface Station (HIS) The HIS is mainly used for operation and monitoring it displays process variables, control parameters, and alarms necessary for users to quickly grasp the operating status of the plant. It also
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incorporates open interfaces so that supervisory computers can access trend data messages, and o process data. Console Type HIS This is a new console type human interface station, at which a general purpose PC is installed. There are two types of console type HISs: one is enclosed display style, the appearance of which is usual style, and another is open display style, the configuration of which is selectable. Desktop Type HIS This HIS uses a general purpose PC
CONTROL VALVES & PSV's

TOPICS P a g e | 32 Dawood University of Engineering & Technology
Types and Terminologys Terminologys. Testing and calibration procedures. Control Valves positioned, actuators & accessories.
CO-ORDINATOR ENGR. SYED UMAIR HUSSAIN
Control Valves
Control valves are valves used to control conditions such as flow, pressure, temperature, and liquid level temperature by fully or partially opening or closing in response to signals received from controllers that compare a "set " point" to a "process variable" whose value is provided by sensors that monitor changes in such " conditions. The opening or closing of control valves is done by m means of electrical, hydraulic or pneumatic systems. Positioners are used to control the opening or closing of the actuator based on Electric, or Pneumatic Signals. These control signals, traditionally based on 3-15psi (0.2-1.0bar), more common now 1.0bar), are 4-20mA signals for industry. Types of Control Valve Bodies 1. Gate Valve A Gate Valve is mainly use for on/off control. It opens by lifting a round or rectangular gate/wedge out of the path of the fluid. The distinct feature of a gate valve is the sealing surfaces between the gate and seats are planar. The gate faces can form a wedge shape or they can be parallel. Gate valves are sometimes used for regulating es flow, but many are not suited for that purpose, having been designed to be fully opened or closed. When fully open, the
typical gate valve has no obstruction in the flow path, resulting in very low friction loss. Gate valves are characterized as having either a rising or a nonrising stem. Rising stems provide a visual alves indication of valve position. Nonrising stems are used where vertical space is limited or underground.
2. Globe Valve Globe valves are named for their spherical body shape. The two halves of the valve body are separated spherical by an internal baffle which has an opening forming a seat onto which a movable disc can be screwed in to close (or shut) the valve. In globe valves, the disc is connected to a stem which is operated by screw action. When a globe valve is manually operated, the stem is turned by a hand wheel. Although globe
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valves in the past had the spherical bodies which gave them their name, many modern globe valves do not have much of a spherical shape, but the term globe valve is still often used for valves that have such but an internal mechanism. Globe valves are used for applications requiring throttling and frequent operation. 3. Butterfly Valve A butterfly valve is a particular type of valve that uses either a circular vane or a disc as the shut shut-off mechanism. Butterfly valves have a quick opening/closing quarter quarter-turn mechanism that is used to control the flow of liquid through a piping system. They typically pivot on axes perpendicular to the direction of flow inside the flow chamber. Compared with ball valves, butterfly valves do not have pockets to trap fluids when the valve is in the closed position. Butterfly valves are frequently used as throttling devices, controlling the levels of flow in various positions: entirely closed, entirely open or partially open. They can control various substances of air, liquid or solid currents and are situated on a spindle that allows for flow in a single direction. 4. Ball Valve A ball valve (like the butterfly valve, one of a family of valves called quarter turn valves) is a valve that opens by turning a handle attached to a ball inside the valve. The ball has a hole, or port, through the middle so that when the port is in line with both ends of the valve, flow will occur. When the valve is the closed, the hole is perpendicular to the ends of the valve, and flow is blocked. The handle posi position lets you "see" the valvesposition valvesposition. Ball valves are durable and usually work to achieve perfect shutoff even after years of disuse. fter They are therefore an excellent choice for shutoff applications (and are often preferred to globe valves and gate valves for this purpose). They do not offer the fine control that may be necessary in throttling applications but are sometimes used for metimes this purpose.
Ball Valve
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Solenoid Operated Valve (SOV) Solenoid valves are electrically operated devices that control the flow of liquids. Solenoid valves are electro electromechanical devices that use a wire coil and a movable plunger, called a solenoid, to control a particular valve. The solenoid controls the valve during either the open or closed positions. Thus, these kinds of valves do not regulate flow. They are used for the remote control of valves for directional control of liquids. Solenoid valves have two main parts: the solenoid and the valve. After the coil receives a current, the actuating magnetic field is created. The magnetic field acts upon the plunger, resulting in the actuation of the valve, either opening or closing it. There are two general types of solenoid valves: direct neral direct-acting and pilot-operated. Direct-acting solenoid valves have acting a plunger that is in direct contact with the primary opening in the body. This plunger is used to open and close the orifice. The pilot-operated solenoid valve works with a diaphragm rather than a plunger. This valve uses differential pressure to control the flow of fluids. The air venting valve is opened to allow the pressure to equalize and permit air-venting the fluids to flow through.
Check Valves/Non-return Valves (NRV) Check valves, also referred to as "non "non-return" or "one-way directional" valves, are very simple valves that allow way fluid, air or gas to flow in only one direction. When the fluid moves in the pre determined direction, the valve opens. pre-determined Any backflow is prevented by the moveable portion of the valve. A swinging disc, ball, plunger or poppet moves out low of the way of the original flow. Since these devices are slightly larger than the through hole, the pressure of backflow will cause them to tightly seal, preventing reversal of flow. Gravity or a spring assists in the closing of the al, valve.
P a g e | 35
Positioner Positioner is a device used to position a valve with regard to a signal. The positioner compares the input signal (3-15 psi) with a mechanical feedback link from the actuator. 15 then produces the force necessary to move the actuator output until the mechanical output position feedback corresponds with the pneumatic signal value. There are three modes of a positioned that it can be set: Fail to close Fail to open Last position Regulator A regulator is a device that regulates the supply of air from the supply line to some device, e.g from 7 kg to 1.4kg.Regulator has two main parts Regulation Part: This includes a spring, compressed valve, diaphragm and feedback system needed for regulation. Filter: This is the filtering part on the input used to filter any dust particles or moisture in the air.
It
the
Pressure Safety Valve (PSV) A pressure safety valve is a valve mechanism for the automatic release of a substance from a boiler, pressure vessel, or other system when the pressure or temperature exceeds preset limits. It is a mechanical safety and last line of protection against disaster in case both DCS a ESD system fails. These are used to protect vessels, tanks, and compressors, pumps, etc from over pressure and from rupturing by bleeding the extra pressure on the atmosphere. Its simplest example is the weight PSV on the pressure cooker used in homes for c cooking.
P a g e | 36
P Personal Feedback
This six week internship at production unit FFC MM developed an understanding of urea fertilizer production especially to the field instrumentation and control technology. Experience and exposure was not only limited to process flow but was widened to operating logics, process control & production imited ol techniques and problem handling and troubleshooting. The plant division and design, management and oper operation enhanced the concept and perspective about safe and smooth process. Literature review from TTC library, study of technical data and manuals of different equipments, equipment discussion with engineers and technical staff and visit to plant sit added a sound knowledge. The site cooperative coordination of management and staf raised the morale in the journey of Lifelong learning staff ifelong period. Although, the internship program was good but I think there are some areas which can still be improved. Schedule for entire internship should be planned on daily basis. Office and work environ environment exposure would help interns to build a professional attitude and eliminate the feeling of being left alone. Frequent plant visits can make the Internship Program more Intriguing and help the interns to explore industry. Library at Technical Training Center should be equipped with a computer section where Interns should be enter provided with internet facility.
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Internship Report FFC

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AN INTERNSHIP At FAUJI FERTILIZER COMPANY

Submitted to: Technical Training Center to: (TTC) Mirpur Mathailo

DAWOOD UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY KARACHI

Dawood University of Engineering & Technology

AN INTERNSHIP At FAUJI FERTILIZER COMPANY

Dawood University of Engineering & Technology

AN INTERNSHIP At FAUJI FERTILIZER COMPANY

Dawood University of Engineering & Technology

AN INTERNSHIP At FAUJI FERTILIZER COMPANY

Dawood University of Engineering & Technology

AN INTERNSHIP At FAUJI FERTILIZER COMPANY

PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT

Your life is precious

Dawood University of Engineering & Technology

AN INTERNSHIP At FAUJI FERTILIZER COMPANY

INSTUMENTATION & CONTROL ORIENTATION

CO-ORDINATOR SAEED ENGR. MUHAMMAD FAHAD SAEED

Dawood University of Engineering & Technology

AN INTERNSHIP At FAUJI FERTILIZER COMPANY

A simple control loop

A simple block diagram of an automobile steering control system is shown,

Dawood University of Engineering & Technology

AN INTERNSHIP At FAUJI FERTILIZER COMPANY

Introduction to Documentation, Drawings, P & I's:

Dawood University of Engineering & Technology

AN INTERNSHIP At FAUJI FERTILIZER COMPANY

FIELD INSTRUMENT INSTRUMENTATION

CO-ORDINATOR ENGR.UMAIR AKBAR

Dawood University of Engineering & Technology

AN INTERNSHIP At FAUJI FERTILIZER COMPANY

Dawood University of Engineering & Technology

AN INTERNSHIP At FAUJI FERTILIZER COMPANY

BOURDON TUBES: Bourdon tubes are circular circular-shaped tubes

BELOWS: Bellows type elements are constructed of tubular

Capacitance Type Pressure Transmitter

Dawood University of Engineering & Technology

AN INTERNSHIP At FAUJI FERTILIZER COMPANY

Potentiometric Pressure Transmitter

Linear Variable differential Transformer

Dawood University of Engineering & Technology

AN INTERNSHIP At FAUJI FERTILIZER COMPANY

Dawood University of Engineering & Technology

AN INTERNSHIP At FAUJI FERTILIZER COMPANY

Orifice Plate with Flange Taps and Three Valve Manifold

Dawood University of Engineering & Technology

AN INTERNSHIP At FAUJI FERTILIZER COMPANY

Dawood University of Engineering & Technology

AN INTERNSHIP At FAUJI FERTILIZER COMPANY

Glass Level Gauge

Bubbler Level Measurement System

Ultrasonic Level Transmitter

Dawood University of Engineering & Technology

AN INTERNSHIP At FAUJI FERTILIZER COMPANY

Capacitive Level Measurement

Open Tank Level Measurement

Dawood University of Engineering & Technology

AN INTERNSHIP At FAUJI FERTILIZER COMPANY

Dry Leg System

Wet Leg System

Dawood University of Engineering & Technology

AN INTERNSHIP At FAUJI FERTILIZER COMPANY

Dawood University of Engineering & Technology

AN INTERNSHIP At FAUJI FERTILIZER COMPANY

THERMOCOUPLE WORKING PRINCIPLE: