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CALLER NO.

D, LITTLETON, COLORADO 80127

AN EWIRIC.4L

RELATIONSHIP FOR TRONA MINE DESIGN

W i l l i a m G. F i s c h e r

E'MC W y o m i n g C o r p o r a t i o n G r e e n R i v e r , Wyoming

Permission is hereby given to publish with appropriate acknowiedgrnenls, excerpts or summaries not to exceed one-fourth of the entire text of the paper. Permission to print in more extended form subsequent to publication by the Institute must be obtained from the Executive Director of the Society of Mining Engineers of AlME. If and when this paper is published by the Society of Mining Engineers of AIME, it may embody certain changes mads by agreement between the Technical Publications Committee and the author, so that the form in which it appears here is not necassariiy that in which it may be published later. These preprints are available for sale. Mail orders to PREPRINTS, Society of Mining Engineers, Caller No. D, Littleton, Colorado 80127.

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MINING ENG1NEERING

M B i P I R I C A L XLATIOI?SHIP FOR T3OTIA

DESIGI7

Abstract. This pper attempts t o c l o s e t h e gap between extensive rock t e s t i n g w i t h f i e l d measurements and t h e mine o p e r a t o r ' s need f o r s a f e mine layo-&s and a l t e r n a t i v e s . I t ves fcund t h a t mmy o f t h e v a r i a b l e s t h a t i n f l u e n c e mine geometry and worker s a f e t y a r e r e l a t i v e l y unimp o r t a n t while o t h e r s a r e c r i t i c a l . T h e Zevelopment o f m p i r i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p vhich t i e t h e c r i t i c a l v a r i a b l e s t o t h e " s a f e u s e f u l l i f e " of a t r o n a mine layout and observations made i n 140 product i o n a r e a s where t h e v a r i a b l e s were researched over a f i f t e e n y e a r period a r e discussed.The concepts presented may bave a p p l i c a b i l i t y i n mine design f o r o t h e r bedded d e w s i t s . Introduction Long b e f o r e t h e term "Rock ~ e c h a n i c s " w a s coined mine o p e r a t o r s were observing working conditions i n t h e i r mines and attempting t o m r o v e t h e i r designs arrd layouts .Successful designs depended h e a v i l y on e x ~ e r i e n c e and keenness o f observation.The a r t o f mine design t h e n gave way t o . a new breed o f s c i e n t i f i c a l l y o r i e n t e d people who assenbled equations,developed instrumentation,and conducted f i e l d t e s t s .lNy experience has g e n e r a l l y been r h a t t h e v e s t e d i n t e r e s t o f t h e s e "rock mechanics" is best' served by continuing t o conduct more and more expensive f i e l d and l a b o r a t o r y t e s t i n g .while delaying mine design d e c i s i o n s needed ky t h e mine operator.The science o f mine design thus f a l l s equally s h o r t o f i t s intended goal---quant i ~ f y t h e design -mameters used i n che art i n such a m n n e r a s t o provide s a f e and e f f i c i e n t nine b y o u t s . A framework o f s c i e n t i f i c 'knowledge i s cert a i n l y o f g r e a t i m y r t a n c e t o t h e mine designer; but i n t h e f i n a l a s s e s s s e n t each o p e r a t o r must know h i s mine and understand i t s i n d i v i d u a l p e c u l i a r i t i e s . T h i s p p e r i s t h e r e f o r e an attt o d e s c r i b e some o f ngr observations end r e l a t e d fe s t s t h a t have taken p l a c e over t h e p s t twenty years a t t h e I X C t r o n a mine near Green River,Wy. Generalized n i n e design e-tions were' developed based u p n t h e s e observations a s e a l y a s 1969 and fifteen y e a r s o f continued observation shows t h a t t h e s e equations a r e h e l p f u l when planning new working s e c t i o n s and d e v e l o p e n t networks .A minimum aocount of underground t e s t i n g i s needed t o develop new generalized equations f o r s i m i l a r mines.

r e s u l t i n g from h i g h e x t r a c t i o n . T n i s - ~ o r k w a s done i n conjunction w i t h t h e Sureau o f Mines over a s e r i o d o f years:h!oren,Fischer,ecd Sturgis (1965) ,W.G.Fischer(1965) ,W.Fischer and S.Felde (1966).The conclusion o f this e f f o r t w a s that t h e r e g i o n a l b a s i n c o n t e i n i n g n?any buried l a y e r s o f t r o n a was e s s e n t i a l l y g r a v i t y loaded v i t h a tendency toward s l i g h t l y higher h o r i z o n t a l f o r c e s t h a n would be e ~ p e c t e d based on a n average Poisson's Ratio of 0.25 i n t h e e a r t h ' s crust.This means t l i a t s t r e s s chenges due t o mining can be r e l a t e d t o t h e d e n s i t y o f t h e overburden,the depth of t h e seam,and t h e e-xtraction r a t i o v i a t h e f a m i l i a r equation:

PART 1
Discussion o f Mine Design Variables The m j o r v a r i a b l e s i n f l u e n c i n g mine design a t t h e 9 l C t r o n a mine a r e given i n Table 1.The following l i m i t e d d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e items i n Table 1 is intended t o he13 d e s c r i b e t h e Green River mine and t h e a p p l i c a b i l i t y o f generslized equations presented l a t e r . he-mining ground load is not under t h e o p e r a t o r ' s c o n t r o l but it is one o f t h e most i p r t a n t o f t h e ve-iables he must understand.:.la;or e f f o r t was m d e i n t h e l a t e 1950's and load e a r l y 1960's t o d e f i n e t h e pre-mining conditions a t t h e B l C mine and develop e f f e c t i v e means of countering t e r r i b l e n i n i n g conditions

where S is t h e average p i l l a r s t r e s s , P i s t h e u n i t d e n s i t y o f t h e overburden ( p s i per f o o t o f depth o r kPa/m), d is t h e depth o f t h e Sean ( f e e t o r n e t e r s ) , and R is t h e e x t r a c t i o n expressed e s a decimel l e s s then one. A t Green River t h e overburden d e ~ s i t y is one psi per f o o t o f d e s h (22.62 kPa/m) v i t h a r e g i o n a l - a r i a t i o n of about t h r e e percent. The depth o f t h e seam being nined i s ekout 1550 f e e t (473 meters) v i t h a range from lh50 f e e t (451 meters) t o 1700 f e e t (516 ineters). S l i g h t changes i n s u r f a c e t o p g r a p h y and s e e n d e ~ t h occur over t h e 23 square miies (59.6 hZ) covered by t h e e-xtensive ~ i i n e corirings. The e s s e n t i a l l y f l a t l y i n g t r o n e Sean being nined (designated a s bed #17 by t h e IISCS) is l o c a l l y d i s t u r b e d by a discontincous h i g h - m g l e r e v e r s e f a u l t l o c a t e d s e v e r a l hundred Zeet ( n e t e r s ) below t a e t r o n a d e w s i t i n geoloqicallS. o l d e r sediments o f t h e T e r t i a r y ;iesatch Formtion.The e f f e c t s o f z h i s d e e o l y i n g f a u l t system remined unexpectedly n i n i m l while mining i n t h e region and t h e presumption o f g r a v i t y load conditions continued t o r e s u l t i n s o m d mining layouts.This may not rerrain > r u e throughout t h e t m n a basin. S t r e n g t h and o t h e r p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e roof,sesn,and f l o o r z t e r i a l s iias investigat e d by T.Morgen (1965) and ( l $ 7 3 ) . ~ h e e l a s t i c Young's modulus v a r i e s *om 2.0 e v 6 pi (13.79 ~ ? a ) t o 4.5 ex? i ; (31.03 ~ ? a )k3th regions o f r e l a t i v e l y s t i f f t r o r a grading i n t o regions o f l e s s - s t i f f tror?a.T;?ese t r e n d s ;-ere r e g i o n a l i y determined us i n g dynamic phys i c e 1 c r o p e r t y technicues i n s u r f a c e boreholes.?hin s e c t i o n s a l s o showed anisotrophy i n t h e m l c r o c ~ j s t a i l i n e m s s i - r e apzearing t r o n a s i n i i e r t o t h e p r e f e r r e d directions of mtrcro-orientations desermined v i e t h e r e g i o n e l s u r f a c e borehole tec'r.niques.:'srs o f :oints and 2 e c t u r e s v e r e :,eg.n i n 1950 and t h e o v e r a l l g e c t e c h n i c z l Frogram was r e p o r t e d i n l i m i t e d c i r c l e s by Fischer and &zzu<c (1976). The m s t prominent d i r e c t i o n a i :rend in the Green River basin is o r i e n t e d N 6 0 W w i t h about 10 degrees o f v a r i a t i o n l c c a l l y . P o i s s o n ' s r a t i o averages about 0.37 f o r t h e t r o n a being nined by FMC a t Green River and t h e surrounding s h a l e s have a Poisson's r a t i o g e n e r a i l y i n excess enough, t h e v i d e v e r i a t i o n s i n o f O.hO.0ddly p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s (over 100 percent i n t h e c e s e o f Young's rcodulus) s e w t o have c n l y n i n o r e f f e c t s u w n t h e working conditions ?rcm one prt of t h e mine t o another.Floor heave predominaces i n t h e l e s s s t i f f regions and roof breakege s e e m t o be p e s t e r in t h e core-

s t i f f r e g i o n s , p r t i c u l a r l y where t h e o r e is t h i n . Wona and t h e surrounding s h a l e s e x h i b i t a high degree o f creep and t h i s probably tends t o be a normalizing factor.0bviousl.y a n average Young's modulus cannot be used t o determine s t r e s s l e v e l s from s t r a i n d a t a obtained v i a overcoring techniques and t h e r e f o r e t h e varying physical p r o p e r t i e s and apparent load conditions tend t o generate a g r e a t d e a l o f study. Geometry o f t h e mine openings and panels i s of g r e a t importance i n mine design s i n c e changes i n t h e s e f a c t o r s a r e perhaps t h e most v i a b l e means o f improving working conditions once t h e equipment and mining method have been selected.Seam height i s v i r t u a l l y constant a t t h e Green River mine. It averages about e i g h t f e e t (2.44 meters) but ranges from seven f e e t (2.13 meters) t o twelve f e e t (3.66 meters). Mining conditions i n t h e t h i n n e r seam a r e a s a r e often poor due t o t h e e f f e c t s o f a i r and moisture on elcposed roof s h a l e s and t h e weaker nature o f t h e shales.Mining c o n d i t i o n s i n t h e t h i c k e r seam a r e a s a r e g e n e r a l l y good but roof f a l l s sometimes occur w i t h l i t t l e p r i o r warning s i n c e t h e s o f t e r roof s h a l e s t e n d t o load t h e s t r o n g e r t r o n a roof beam without causing much obvious damage t o warrant a t t e n t i o n . The geometry f a c t o r s a r e t h e primary s u b j e c t o f t h i s paper. Paother extremely i m p r t a n t f a c t o r i n t r o n a mine design i s t h e r a t e o f mining. A l l o f t h e m . t e r i a l s involved e x h i b i t ' a c r e e p phenomena tihich is h i g h l y s t r e s s dependent, o r should I s~y-extraction dependent. The mining r a t e depends upon t h o s e sub-factors given i n Table E. &%sically, a high e x t r a c t i o n p e l must he adned quickly before t h e f l o o r heave and roof d e f l e c t i o n begin t o e a t away a t productivit y , s e t t i n g up an ever s p i r a l i n g worsening o f conditions which u l t i m a t e l y r e s u l t s i n abandonment o f t h e working area. Operations r e s e a r c h thus e n t e r s t h e design p i c t u r e . The mine designer must t h e r e f o r e recognize t h e c a p a b i l i t y o f t h e o v e r a l l system o f ~ e o p l e and m c h i n e s i n addition t o t h e p h y s i c a l parameters o f t h e rock and i t s geologic s e t t i n g . Woof s-upport a t t h e Green River mine has e-rolv.ved from timber and s h e l l b o l t s i n t h e 1950's and 60's t o various combinations o f shell b o l t s and e w x y b o l t s i n t h e 1970's and 8 0 ' s . Roof-truss work i s l i m i t e d t o c r i t i c a l development a r e a s where t h e added c o s t can be j u s t i f i e d . It has been ny experience t h a t t h e use o f epoxy b o l t i n g has made a s i g n i f i c a n t improvement i n working conditions and t h e latituUc for f u r t h e r mine design improvement has been iridened accordingly. Rusting o f s h e l l ' ~ ? l t s , e s p e c i a l l y t h e t h i n n e r ones made o f high s t r e n g t h stee1,has been a problem which we h ~ v enot y e t experienced with t h e l a r g e r epoxy kobts,The generalized mine design equations hwre t h e r e f o r e been modified t o t a k e r o o f support into account,although t h e method o f doing t h i s is s u b j e c t i v e . Provided t h e equipment is p r o p e r l y a p p l i e d i n a productive system, t h e t y p e o f mining being used seems t o have l i t t l e e f f e c t upon t h e o v e r a l l design. Boring t y p e continuous miners a r e used f o r long term development where corner c u t t i n g is m i n i m l . These machines have also been effectively applied in pillar e x t r a c t i o n work i n a patented mining l a y o u t , Fischer (1969).

Although t h e shape o f t h e continuous miner opening lends i t s e l f t o reduced corner s t r e s s e s , t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n s t e n d t o become wide; o f f s e t t i n g t h e i r d e s i r a b i l i t y i n high e x t r a c t i o n production p e l s . The conventional d r i l l i n g and b l a s t i n g system which involves people and machines moving i n a r e l a t i v e l y quick succession from one p l a c e t o another i s i d e a l l y s u i t e d t o h i g h e x t r a c t i o n production panel work. S e v e r a l patented s y s t e m f o r u s e i n heavy ground were developed but it has been r e c e n t p r a c t i c e t o avoid s e t t i n g up t h e heavy load c o n d i t i o n s i n t h e first place; Love and Bernatis (1963) and F i s c h e r (1968). Conventional equipment is equally unsuited t o widely spaced development layouts. The r i p p e r t y p e continuous miners t e n d t o f a l l somewhere i n between. It i s presumed then, t h a t t h e u s e of an o v e r a l l design equation n e c e s s i t a t e s t h e proper s e l e c t i o n o f equipment and f o r c e account scheduling needed t o e f f i c i e n t l y c a r r y out t h e plan f o r any given a r e a . Over t h e y e a r s we have found t h a t t h e d i r e c t i o n of a t t a c k o f new workings upon o l d workings can be very important s i n c e s t r e s s l e v e l s around previously mined a r e a s a r e g e n e r a l l y much h i g h e r t h a n i n v i r g i n ground. High s t r e s s loads on o l d mining abutments o-%en extend f o r huzzdreda o f f e e t (meters) and it is u s u a l l y u n d e s i r a b l e t o mine p a r a l l e l t o o l d mine workings without l e a v i n g some s o r t o f b a r r i e r . P a r t i a l e x t r a c t i o n technia-ues ( i e . 50 p e r c e n t ) seem t o r e s u l t i n ground load being s h i f t e d f u r t h e r from t h e edge o f o l d workings t h a n t h e y were when f u l l caving techniques were used. The magnitude o f t h e t r a n s f e r r e d load appears t o be l e s s t h a n it was when f u l l caving was pracziced. A generalized mine design e q w t i o n must t h e r e f o r e prooide t h e mine o p e r a t o r w i t h a method o f subjectively considering viable design alternat i v e s w i t h f u l l r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t new workings must follow o l d workings and t h a t development headings w i l l soon be surrounded by h i g h e r e x t r a c t i o n panels. An exact equation f o r every s i t u a t i o n would be ludicrous. Subsidence e f f e c t s which manifest themselves on t h e s u r f a c e r e s u l t from p h y s i c a l changes which have t a k e n p l a c e underground. No-extraction r e s u l t s i n no subsidence and complete e x t r a c t i o n r e s u l t s i n a mxirnun o f subsidence. Green River mine subsidence was r e p o r t e d by Korgan and y g e n e r a l opinion t h a t S t i l l (1973). It i s m layouts which reduce t h e r a t e of subsidence on t h e s u r f a c e t e n d t o reduce t h e r a t e o f c l o s u r e o f nearby openings underground. Here again, some judgement must be a p p l i e d when u s i n g a generalized mine design equation s i n c e t h e r e appears t o be no easy way t o formalize t h e ground e f f e c t s t o be expected around an a r e a which has r e s u l t e d i n s i g n i f i c a n t s u r f a c e movement. W e have noted t h a t e x t r a c t i o n beyond 55 percent tends t o r e s u l t i n caving-type load transfer The point o f t h e foregoing d i s c u s s i o n o f some o f t h e v a r i a b l e s which appeared i n Table 1 i s simply t h a t g r e a t expense is involved i n chasing down exact r e l a t i o n s h i p s f o r each and every one o f them. The r e l a t i o n s h i p , when found, is only a small p r t o f t h e d e c i s i o n making process t h e mine o p e r a t o r must go through when he makes a s e r i o u s e f f o r t t o im$rove h i s l a y o u t s and designs. It i s t h i s gap between e x t e n s i v e t e s t i n g and " f l y i n g by t h e s e a t o f

your pants" t h a t t h e author wishes t o c l o s e by pinpointing the relationships between key v a r i a b l e s and e n t e r i n g them i n t o generalized equations a p p l i c a b l e t o t r o n a mine s i t u a t i o n s . The methods used a r e not e n t i r e l y s u b j e c t i v e and t h e b a s i c approach may have a p p l i c a b i l i t y i n t h o s e mines which experience s i m i l a r time-dependent load t r a n s f e r and creep phenomena.

PART 2
Design Generalization Charles Holland (1962) published a summary o f a s e r i e s o f i n t e r e s t i n g t e s t s i n which cubic specimens o f c o a l were loaded t o f a i l u r e . For any given c o a l he could show t h a t t h e compressive s t r e n g t h o f a cube w a s an i n v e r s e f u n c t i o n o f t h e square roo% o f specimen width. This implied t h a t a s specimens became l a r g e r t h e y a l s o became weaker, which was a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e e f f e c t s o f suspected flaws. I r e a l i z e d that seam h e i g h t is u s u a l l y only a s m a l l f r a c t i o n o f p i l l a r width and t h e r e f o r e cubic p i l l a r s e x i s t only under very r a r e circumstances .Holl a n d ' s b a s i c r e l a t i o n s h i p f o r p i l l a r s with height d i f f e r e n t from width is given by e g a t i o n (2).

around a s i n g l e p i l l a r o r from r e g i o n a l paramete r s which t a k e i n t o account t h e e f f e c t o f nearby workings, o r l a c k o f workings. It i s t h e authors opinion t h a t use o f a s e m i - i n f i n i t e a r e a with e x t r a c t i o n s generated by one t y p i c a l p i l l a r and i t s surrounding openings r e p r e s e n t s a proper g e n e r a l i z a t i o n of t'ne load condition r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e number o f e n t r i e s used, and r e g a r d l e s s of t h e shape of t h e openings being driven.This is not q u i t e t r u e s i n c e d i f f e r e n t shapes generate differeniz. r i b s t r e s s e s and r e q u i r e d i f f e r e n t roof s u p p r t p a t t e r n s , due c a r e and d i l i g e n c e being equal. The extraction,R, can then be q u a n t i f i e d i n a generalized fashion a s follows by r e f e r r i n g t o f i g u r e s l ( a ) and 1 ( b ) ; Let X= c r o s s c u t spacing, ( f t o r meters ) Y= e n t r y spacing, ( f t o r meters ) Z= a n g l e r i g h t , e n t r y t o c r o s s c u t , ( d e g ) W= m i n i m p i l l a r width,!ft o r meters) where W i s t h e l e s s e r of (Y-N) o r (XsinZ-W) PI= e n t r j width, ( f t o r meters ) M= crosscut width, ( 1 3 o r meters ) R= d e c i i m l e x t r a c t i o n , ( u n i t l e s s ) .

CD is t h e compressive s t r e n g t h o f t h e p i l l a r material, v is t h e leas?; width o f t h e p i l l a r h i s t h e seam h e i g h t , and k i s a constant f o r t h e m a t e r i a l comprising t h e p i l l a r . (Units must be c o n s i s t e n t f o r t h e system o f measurement being used)

where;

If we assume t h a t a s a f e t y f a c t o r , S . F . , r e s u l t s vhen t h e compressive s t r e n g t h i s l a r g e r t h a n t h e applied s t r e s s due t o mining we can s u b s t i t u t e t h e g r a v i t y load equation ( 1 ) i n t o equation ( 2 ) with t h e following r e s u l t :

S.F. =- CP S

= k ; i ( 1-R)

Let G e q u a l a new term, t h e geometry f a c t o r , which equals &(l-R) . I n our c a s e , p is equal ) t o one p s i per f o o t o f depth,d;(22.62 ~ a / m .It can be observed from equation ( 3 ) t h a t t h e s a f e t y f a c t o r i s a l i n e a r f u n c t i o n o f G, t h e m a t e r i a l property k, and f o r a l l p r a c t i c a l purposes ( a t Green ~ i v e r ) a c o n s t a n t i n v e r s e function o f pdh.This i s shown i n equation ( h ) v i a rearrangement o f t h e terms i n equation

(3).

I f it can be presumed t h a t t r o n a m a t e r i a l s a r e reasonably similar from one p l a c e t o another w i t h i n t h e same mine,and perhaps s i m i l a r f o r nearby mines w i t h i n t h e t r o n a b a s i n ; t h e n t h e s a f e t y f a c t o r i s a l i n e a r f u n c t i o n o f G; t h e remaining terms being e s s e n t i a l l y constant f o r each mine ( d e s p i t e t h e a p p r e n t v a r i a t i o n s previously d i s c u s s e d ) . The mining load f u n c t i o n defined a s (1-R) needs %her explanation s i n c e it can be determined from l o c a l conditions

The g e n e r a l i z a t i o n of t h e m a t e r i a l c o n s t a n t , k, i s not s o simple a s it might appear. Roof C mine were found t o have uniaxishales i n t h e m a l unconfined conpressive s t r e n g t h s ranging from 2840 t o 4100 p s i (19.58 t o 28.27 MPaj f o r specimens with an i/D o f 1.3. The t r o n a i t s e l f ranges f r o n 4120 t o 7560 p s i (28.41 t o 52.12 m a ) and t h e f l o o r sh2les range from 2630 t o 3900 p s i (18.13 t o 26.89 ?@a). ikis coupled with a s i m i l a r wide v a r i a t i o n i n Y o ~ ~ g ' s modulus with pronounced time and s t r e s s dependent behavior generates a very complex problem f o r t h e rock mechanic with thoughts of attem$ting a scientifically justifiable generalization. Fortunately weak t r o n a a s s o c i a t e s with weak s h a l e s and s t r o n g t r o n a with s t r o n g s h a l e s . The author made an a r b i t r a r y assunpiion t h a t t h e s a f e t y ;'actor given i n equation ( h ) is en ample 2.0 when t h e design lajrout can be expected s o remain s a f e f o r 30 years (t=360 months) and i s a marginal 1.0 when t h e d e s i g can be expected t o remain s a f e f o r only ' , , year ( t = 6 months ) From obser-rations a s e a r l y a s 1960 it became apcarent t h a t openings driven v i t h a boringType continuous miner c u t t i n g en ocening L3.3 fee?; wide (4.2 m e t e r s ) , with c r o s s c u t s and emries s ~ c e d on 100 f o o t (30.5 Meter) i n t e r v a l s and using 90 degree c r o s s c u t a n g l e s , would r e s u l t i n a s a f e u s e f u l l i f e of 30 years (t=?60 months 1. ,The geometry function,G, for this layout is e c u a l t o 6 . 9 . The openings wouid average e i g h t f e e t (2.44 meters) high and be supported using f i v e f o o t long ( 1 . 5 2 meter) s h e l l b o l t s . Some roof support reglacement could be expected but t h e c o s t or' r e b o l t i n g was considered minimal a t t h i s spacing 2r.d load condition. Also from observation o f numerous c l o s e l y spaced workings it became a p p r e n t t h a t openings formed by conventional d r i l l i n g and b l a s t i n g

t h a t v e r e 15.5 f e e t (b.72 meters ) wide,vith an 8 foot (2.lr4 meter) mining h e i g h t , d r i v e n on 60 foot (18.28 meter) c e n t e r s a t r i g h t angles t o each o t h e r , would stand s a f e l y f o r onljr year ( t = 6 months). Wooden c r i b s and p s t s would o c c a s s i o n a l l y be used i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e s h e l l b o l t s . The geometry factor,G, i n t h i s c a s e would be 3.7. Using t h e s e r e s ~ e c t i v e values f o r s a f e t y f a c t o r and geometry f a c t o r with ea_uation ( 4 ) and c a l c u l a t i n g f o r t h e m a t e r i a l constant ,k, we f i n d ( n e g l e c t i n g u n i t conversion f a c t o r s ) :

where ( t ) r e p r e s e n t s t h e s a f e u s e f u l l i f e o f a destgned system i n months and G has u n i t s of ft*, I n t h e S I system where G would have u n i t s o f Idi t h e equation vould be:

Long L i f e

k =

(2.0)(1)(1550)(8) (6.9) (1.0)(1)(1550)(8) (3.7)

= 3594

Short L i f e k =

= 3351

O n t h e presumption t h a t observations a r e s u b j e c t t o s u b s t a n t i a l judgement and a r e necess a r i l y inexact, it can be shown t h a t t h e s a f e t y f a c t o r i s approximitely e q u a l t o 0.28G when dimensions a r e i n f e e t and 0.507G when dimensions a r e i n meters. S.F. = 0.280(&)(1-R) f o r U.S. u n i t s S.F. = 0 . 5 0 7 ( & ) ( 1 - ~ ) f o r S I u n i t s (8)

It was r e a l i z e d e a r l y that a c e r t a i n h u n t of c l o s u r e of mine openings could be t o l e r a t e d and resupported; o r removed i n t h e c a s e o f f l o o r heave and minor roof f a l l s . I n t h e mid 1960's it was p o t unusual t o ? e m i r openings which had c l o s e d v e r t i c a l l y as much a s 25 percent although economic condit i o n s and tougher standards would make it d i f f i c u l t t o work under t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s today. Creep t e s t s showed t h a t t h e n t e a t which c l o s u r e could be exoected t o t a k e p l a c e was higihly dependent u p n t h e s t r e s s l e v e l i n t h e area.This was r e p r t e d by Leonard Obert ( 1964 1. Since c l o s u r e is u l t i n a t e l y t h e main f a c t o r which d e t e r n i n e s hov long a mining system c m be used and c l o s u r e is a s t r a i n = m e t e r , it was f e l t t h a t c r e e p functions could be used t o g e n e r e l i z e t h e time a mining system could be s a f e l y used. When p l o t t i n g on l o g a r i t h d c coordinates Earron and Toa-s (1963) found t h a t c l o s u r e o f mine o p e n i n g i n salt p l o t t e d l i n e a r l y with time. W e had discovered t h a t t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p held t r u e f o r t r o n a mine openings a s well. n o t i n g t h a t t h e geometry function, G, e s s e n t i a l l y doubled when going from s h o r t l i f e openings t o long l i f e ocenings while t h e l i f e o f t h e mining systems increased 60 f o l d , it wes decided t o e s t a b l i s h l i n e a r equations involving G and h ( t ) which could pe solved simultaneous1.y f o r t h e r e s p e c t i v e s l o p and i n t e r c e p t s . This ves done as follows ;
Short Life: b n g Life: 3.7 6.9

This equation, i n i t i a l l y developed i n 1969, was used extensiveigr a s a guide f o r mine layout and design through t h e e a r l y 1970's when t h e mine more t h a n doubled i n c a p a c i t y t o i t s c u r r e n t maximum r a t e o f 5.2 MTPY. This equation h e l d reasonably sound u n t i l t h e advent o f epoxy b o l t i n g l a t e r i n t h e 1970's and e a r l y 1980's. Figure 2 s l p m a p l o t on logarithmic coordinates of t h i s safe useful l i f e " against decinal e x t r a c t i o n . Actual experience w i t h numerous p a n e l designs is shown on t h i s f i g u r e and a l s o t a b u l a t e d i n Table 2. The d a t a f o r designs which were supported, a l l o r i n part, by epoxy Using b o l t i n g techniques i s a l s o indicated. t h i s generalized equation it was p s s i b l e t o compare t h e e f f e c t s o f varying c r o s s c u t a n g l e s , d i f f e r e n t opening widths, and d i f f e r e n t e n t r y and c r o s s c u t spacings. A s a f e t y f a c t o r l e s s t h a n 1.0 does n o t n e c e s s a r i l y r e p r e s e n t an unsafe design s i n c e p i l l a x y i e l d i n g i s q u i t e The a r e a must, r a p i d f o r smll p i l l a r s i z e s . however, be l a i d o u t i n such a manner as t o permit r a p i d completion o f a c t i v e mining. S i n c e t h e advent o f epoxy b o l t i n g , f i e l d observations showed t h e equation w e s t o o consema t i v e and it w a s l a t e r modified f o r t h e new techniques. A m u l t i p l i e r was added t o t h e genera l i z e d equation t o compensate f o r t h e i m r o v e d roof s u r r t methods. The m u l t i p l i e r f o r s h e l l b o l t system was considered t o be 1.0 and t h e epxy b ~ l t system was assigned a v a l u e o f 2.0. S i n c e nany new workings r e r e d r i v e n i n t h e r e g i o n o f o l d workings which carried s u b s t a n t i a l abutment loads generated i n t h e p a s t it became a p p r o p r i a t e t o a s s i g n a m u l t i p l i e r o f 0.5 t o designs intended f o r t h e s e workirg a r e a s . The a d j u s t e d equation took t h e f o l l o v i n g form. Dimensions a r e i n f e e t when u s i n g equation (13) and i n meters when u s i n g equation ( 1 4 ) .

= A + ~sln(6) = A + ~sln(360)

Approximately 140 ~ o d u c t i o n a r e a s have been mined d u r i o g t h e p s t 1 5 y e a r s which t e n d t o demonstrate t h a t a generalized mine d e s i g n equation is not e n t i r e l y r i d i c u l o u s a s has been suggested by some. It can be u s e f u l vhen s e l e c t i n g t h e la;routs f o r uwoming workings. A t t h e very l e a s t , mine management has a reasonab l e t o o l f o r c o q a r i s o n o f a l t e r n a t i v e s . The equations a r e simple enough t o use w i t h w c k e t c a l c u l a t o r s i n t h e f i e l d ; but keep i n mind t h e underlying f a c t t h a t t h e y a r e o n l y g u i d e l i n e s and e q e r i e n c e coupled w i t h sound Judgemenz remain a n e c e s s i t y .

from which A = 2.3 and B = 0.782 The I n i t l e i generalized was t h e r e f o r e : mine

.
desi,a equation

References

TABLE 1

MIHE DESIGS VARIABLFS

Barron,K. ,and Toevs,B.A., (1263) " ~ e f o r m a t i o n 1. PRE-MINING GRO-JflD LOAD a ) S t r e s s Changes Resulting from 14ining Around a ?,line S h a f t i n S a l t . F r o c . l s t Canadian b ) Regional and Local E f f e c t s Qmpsium on Rock Mechanics. Gttawa,Queent s B i n t e r , p p 115-136. F THE M A T 3 R W I N 5 % 2. STRMGTH O ROOF,SWl,NUI FLOOR Fischer,W.G., (1965)"How Rock Mechanics i s Applied a ) load c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y t o S p e c i f i c Mining Problems a t t h e Westvaco b) f a i l u r e mode .AIM!3,Vol. 229 ,pp 435-443. Mine. "~-l.ans c ) moisture/air effects "4-Nort~ d ) time dependent ~ o p e r t i e s Felde,S R. ,( 1966) Fischer , W. G. ,and e ) Joints/Fractures/Cleats Panel, A Eold ExTJeriment i n iloof Deflection. f ) S t a t i s t i c a l Variations b g i n e e r i n g , V o l . 18,?To. h,April 1966, p ~ Mining 63-67. 3. G E O M E T R Y a ) Panel Width Fischer,W. G., (1968) " ~ e t h o d For Mining Trona. " b) Panel Length U.S.Patent Jo.3402968,Issued S e ~ t . 2 4 ~ 1 9 6 8 . c ) Bo. o f E n t r i e s Fischer ,W. G. ,Norgord,J.D. ,and Wilson, J., (1969 ) d ) Crosscut Angles e ) Spacing o f Openings " ~ o n t i n u o u sMethod f o r $fining Trona." U.S.Patent f ) Width o f Openings XO. 3455606 .Issued July 15,1969. g ) Shape o f Openings f?) Sesm Height Fischer,William G.,and Sozzuto,Xobert T.,(1976) g ) P i t c h o f t h e Sesn "Use o f 3D-Velocity Lolgs and Seismic Methods i n Wyoming Trona Mining. Minutes o f t h e S o l u t i o n L. RATZ OF lIIXING Mining ReSearch Institute,Dec. 2,1976. a ) a Function of P r o d u c t i v i t y b ) a Function of Xachinery Used Griggs ,D.T., (1939) "creep of ROC&" J.of c ) a -Function of Panel Design Geology7~ol.47,?To.3,p 225. d ) a Function o f Crew Size/Schedule e ) a Function o f Crew E q e r i e n c e Holland,C.T., (1962) " ~ e s i g n of Pillars" for Overburden Support;Part 1." Mining Congress 5. W E O F ROOF SWPORT J. ,bfarch 1962. a ) S h e l l Eolts b) E p x y 31:s Eiolland,C.T.,(1962) " ~ e s i g n of Pillars for c ) m s Bolts Overburden Support ; ? a r t 2. " hlining Congress d ) Timber/Oth.er z. , ~ p i 1962. l

bve,R.F. ,and Bernatis ,T.S., (1963) Mining Methods and Systems including Caving to Relieve Pressure. " U.S.Patent Ro.3097830 Issued July 16,1963. Sturgis , J., ( 1965 ) . Morgan,T.A. ,Fischer ,W. G. ,and " D i s t r i b u t i o n o f Str;:s i n t h e Westvaco Trona Mine,Westvaco,Fyoming. U.S.Bureau of Mines RI 6675. Morgan,Thoinas A. ,and S t i l l , J a n C. ,(1973) "The E f f e c t s o f Mining and Subsidenge Rates on Transfer of Overburden Weight. U.S Bureau o f Mines I C 8630,pp 35-43.

6.

TYPE O F EIINIBG a ) Conventional D r i l l i n g & S l a s t i n g b ) Continuous Miners c ) Longwall/Short-rlall d ) Caving Techniques


KETHOD O F A T T A C K (new Workings upon Cld Workings)

7.

Obert ,Leonard, (1964) "Deformational Eehavior o f Model P i l l a r s Vade from S a l t , Trona, and Potash Ore." Proc. 6 t h S y m p s i m on Rock E.lissouri,Rolla, Mechanics, University of Oct.l96L, ed. by E.M.Spkes and C.R.Christiansen, pp 539-560.

Direction of Pfining

W=XsinZ-M

FIGURE 1 . P i l l a r end Openinq R o ~ e n c l a t m s .

TABTOE2. Con~parlsonof Results.

Crosscut Centers Extraction Ratio Meters 90 90


90

Entry Centers Degrees

CrosscuC Angle

EnLry Width

Crosscut Width Feet Meters

bet -

Meters

Feet Meters

Fee L

Calculated Life ~onths

Actual Life ~onths Boo+


BOO+

200 119 125 125 125 125 125 100 100 140
+

1 1 0

150 135 90 125 90


1l1.11

1.61111 975 1154 375 364 350 339 3211 285 265 453.4' 292.* 169 125 241.* 114
1 1 1

I no

811 011 00 00 00 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70

13.8 13.8 24.0 14.8 14.6 15.0 14.9 14.2 111.7 13.8 16.2 1.5.0 14.0 15.3 15.0 15.7 1.5.8 13.8

70

'

70 70

60.98 36.28 38.11 38.31 38.11 38.11. 38.11 30.119 30.119 42.68 33.54 115.73 111.16 27 . I t 4 38.1.1 27 .)I 11 30.119 25.61 25.61 24.39 24.39 211.39 21.34 21.311 21.311 21.311 21.314 21.311 21.34 21.311 21.311 21.34 21.311 21.34 21.34 90 70 90 70 90 90 90 86.2 It 5 90 90 I1 5 90 90 90 90 90 86.2 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 15.0 15.7 14.0 111.7 111.8 15.3 15.6 15.6 16.0 16.2 15.4 16.3 15.5 15.5 15.9 16.0

112 112 100 100 100 loo loo 100 100 90 100 90 85 100 100 100 90 90 90 90 90 00 80 80 00 80 80 80 no 70 00 70 70 70 70

34.15 311.15 30.49 30.49 30.119 30.49 30.49 30.49 30.119 27.1111 30.119 27.114 25.91 30.49 30.119 30.49 27.411 27.1414 27.1111 27 .)I 11 27 .It 4 24.39 211.39 24.39 211.39 211.39 211.39 211.39 211.39 21.311 211.39 21.311 21.34 21.311 21.311

13.8 13.8 14.0 14.8 14.6 15.0 111.9 14.2 111.7 33.8 16.2 15.0 14.0 15.3 15.0 15'7 15.8 13.8 14.4 15.0 15.7 111.0 14.7 14.8 15.3 1.5.6 15.6 16.0 16.2 15.4 16.3 15.5 1.5.5 15.9 16.0

4.21 11.21 11 -27 11.51 11.45 4.57 4.54 11.33 11.48 4.21 11.g4 4.57 11.27 11.66 4.57 '1.79 11.82 4.21 11.39 11.57 11.79 14.27 4.118 4.51 11.66 11.76 4.76 11.80 11.94 11.70 11 97 4.73 11.73 11.85 11.88

4.21 4.21 4.27 4.51 4.45 4.57 4.54 4.33 4.118 11.21 11-911 4-57 11.27 4.66 )I -57 1 1 .-/9 11.82 11.21 4.39 4.57 11.79 4.27 4.48 11.51 4.66 4.76 4.76 l1.88 11.94 11.70 11.97 4.73 4.73 11.85 4.80

18.37 22. 119 23.63 211.89 25.21 25.20 25.69 26.38 27.24 23.68 28.57 28.45 25.13 29.70 29.42 30.41 30.58 29.211 30.110 32.29 33.68 31.94 35.52 35.73 36.80 37.4 11 37.44 38.29 38.71 39.16 38.92 39.38 39.38 110.27 $0.49

1011 89 57 117 62 49. 4' 47 .* 21 39.* 39.' 35. * 33.* 17 32.* 16 32.* 29. * 28.*

1180 360 360 360 240 211 0 200 2110 360 240 180 100 2110 96 96 100 ?' 84 60 30 60 60 36 18 36 45 30 36 18 28 38 48 36 30

Indicates use of epoxy hol1,ing systencs.

* m

c.
0

c.
m

. -

TAB12 2. Comparj son of Results. (continued) Crosscut Angle Crosscut Width Extraction Ratio Calculated Life Feet
7

Crosscut Centers Entry Width Feet Meters Meters Meters Degrees

Entry Centers

Feet -

Meters

Feet

~onths

Actual Id fe

~onths
27 24 26 18 18 12 10

16.1 16.2 15.8 14.0 13.0 14.0 15.0 111.0 16.0 16.1 16.7 17.2 15.6 16.1 16.2
111.0

14.0 14.0
111 .O

14.0

16.1 16.2 15.8 16.0 111.0 15.0 16.0 16.0 16.0 16.1 16.7 17.2 15.6 16.1 16.2 16.0 16.0 16.0 14.0 16.0 16.0 14.0 16.0 18.0 14.0 17.0 17.0 111. 0 14.0

70 70 65 70 65 65 65 65 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 70 60 70 60 50 45 45 37 37 37 37 30 25 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 70 70 70 90 70 70 90 90 70 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90
111.0

21.34 21.311 19.82 21.34 19.82 19.82 19.82 19.82 18.29 18.29 18.29 18.29 18.29 18.29 18.29 18.29 18.29 21.34 18.29 21.34 18.29 15.24 13.72 13.72 11.28 11.28 11.28 11.28 9.15 7.62 4.91 4.94 4.82 4.88 4.27 4.57 4.88 4.88 4.88 h.91 5.09 5.211 11-76 4.91 4.94 4.88 4.88 4.88 4.27 11.88 4.88 4.27 4.88 5.49 11.27 5.18 5.18 4.27 11.27 4.27 14.0 14.0 14.0 15.0 18.0 18.0 18.0 18.0 17.0 17. 0 4.91 11.94 4.82 4.27 3.96 4.27 4.57 4.27 4.88 11.91 5.09 5.24 4.76 4.91 4.94 4.27 4.27 4.27 4.27 4.27 4.27 4.27 4.27 4.57 5.49 5.49 5.49 5.49 5.18 5.18 40.71 40.93 39.26 40.49 37.23 39.64 42.01 38.29 43.43 43.66 115.05 46.19 43.79 44.99 45.23 43.78 44.88 42.27 41.22 41.33 45.57 48.16 55.60 60.00 72.61 76.81 77.75 76.30 83.04 87.48

~ n d i c a t e su s e of epoxy

bolting

systens.

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