In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements in Education 101

Clippings on Inclusive Education

Submitted By: Apple Joy Cabay

Submitted To: Maam Joar Caares

Date Submitted: March 21, 2013

CLIPPINGS THAT AFFECT LEARNERS AND THE LEARNING PROCESS I have attended many schools but never one quite like Eagle Rock. I started my Eagle Rock career by spending 25 days in the Superstition Mountains of Arizona as part of the new student orientation program. I have been a part of many Eagle Rock courses including Colorado Rocks where I spent three out of four days outside in an experiential setting. Colorado Rocks, an integrated learning experience that includes environmental science, health, history, literature and outdoor education is a sure reminder that I was in a different learning environment than ever before. I address all my instructors by their first names and work with them one on one in a relaxed and comfortable environment. One of my favorite times of the day at Eagle Rock is during meals in our dining Lodge, when all staff and students are together enjoying an amazing meal together and chatting about the latest political hot topic. Eagle Rock offered me a home where I could grow and reflect on my learning both academically and personally. Unlike many schools, Eagle Rock dedicates time and energy toward personal growth using 8 + 5 = 10 as a powerful set of values. Students and staff spend lots of time holding each other accountable. Presentations of Learning are everyday occurrences at Eagle Rock in addition to serving as a celebration of learning for each of us at the end of every trimester. Student voice and leadership at Eagle Rock is very strong. In fact, a lot of what happens at Eagle Rock is student-led. There are endless possibilities for any club, group, learning experience or activity to become a reality such as a student taught salsa dance class. We host a lot of educators at Eagle Rock through our Professional Development Center so they can learn what we do. I even had the chance to help give a presentation with staff and a fellow student at the Coalition of Essential Schools Summer Institute in Tacoma, Washington. My time at Eagle Rock has spun me 180 degrees and I will forever be giving back to Eagle Rock School. Coral Ann Student

What exactly should students "know and be able to do" and how do we help them to know and do it?
The Other Side of Curriculum answers these questions with a powerful model of curriculum developmentone that fosters experiential and personal growth. Lois Brown Easton provides ideas and practical tools for creating an effective learning community, based on her experience at Eagle Rock School, where learners are central and the curriculum responsive to their needs. Her curricular concepts are common to all; Easton carefully considers how they can be customized and applied to almost any school or district. Each of her chapters begins with a story of learning that illustrates a concept of curriculum. She then describes that concept and offers questions that will help you translate the concept to your own setting. Learn about curriculum in relation to culture, instruction-assessment, learner-centered education, competency-based systems, self-directed learning, personal growth, and much more. Then explore your own storyconsider how these concepts relate to your own context with the end-of-chapter questions you can ask yourself or use with colleagues. If you're a practicing teacher, administrator, staff developer, or teacher educator, The Other Side of Curriculum will inspire you to make the changes needed in your own environment, enable you to embark on those changes, and convince you with the theoretical background and concrete examples that will help you be successful in shaping a curriculum for all learners.

Create an integrated system of support for struggling students!

Based on Lois Brown Easton's experience working with disengaged learners, this insightful resource helps educators make positive connections with youngsters of all ages who are at risk of failing or dropping out. Featuring the voices of educators and students, this invaluable text covers methods for improving the school wide climate in ways that support all students and for creating a learning environment that promotes academic, personal, and social growth. The author illustrates how to make meaningful changes in curriculum and instruction and examines the importance of: Teacher-student relationships Innovative teaching strategies for struggling learners Developing self-directed learners Using appropriate assessments for students with learning difficulties Easton's book inspires teachers to make a significant change in their school's culture to engage developing minds and champion all learners, regardless of socioeconomic factors. Miriam Bar-Yam, Kathleen Rhoades, Linda Booth Sweeney, Jim Kaput, and Yaneer Bar-Yam The rapid changes and increased complexity of todays world present new challenges and put new demands on our education system. There has been generally a growing awareness of the necessity to change and improve the preparation of students for productive functioning in the continually changing and highly demanding environment. In confronting this challenge it is necessary to consider the complexity of the education system itself and the multitude of problems that must be addressed. Clearly, no simple, single uniform approach can be applied with the expectation that significant improvements of the system will occur. Indeed, any strategy for change must contend with the diverse factors affecting the education system, the interactions of its parts, and the intricate interdependencies within it and with its environment.

As we consider these problems, we become increasingly cognizant of the various possibilities of using concepts and methods of the study of complex systems for providing direction and strategies to facilitate the introduction of viable and successful changes. A key insight from complex systems is that simple solutions are not likely to be effective in cases such as the education system, and that providing a balance or coexistence of what seem to be opposites may provide the greatest opportunities for successful courses of action. In the following we consider:

Integrating the commonly polarized goals of education; i.e. the goal that focuses on transmitting knowledge with the goal that emphasizes the development of the individual student. Adapting teaching to different student characteristics by using diverse methods of teaching. Adaptation to the ability levels, patterns of different abilities, learning styles, personality characteristics, and cultural backgrounds. Integrating the curriculum by developing inter-disciplinary curriculum units that enable students to acquire knowledge from different disciplines through a unifying theme while having the opportunity to contribute in different and special ways to the objectives of the integrated units.

Educational Goals
The approaches to teaching can be categorized according to major educational goals that affect teaching strategies. On one hand the goal of education is viewed as the transmission of knowledge by the teachers to the students. On the other hand the goal of education is viewed as facilitating students autonomous learning and self expression. The former approach which converges toward the teaching of specified subject matter, may be termed convergent teaching and the latter approach which stresses open ended self-directed learning may be termed divergent teaching. The convergent approach is highly structured and teacher-centered; the students are passive recipients of knowledge transmitted to them and learning achievements are measured by standardized tests. The divergent approach is flexible, student-centered, where the students are active participants in the learning process and learning achievements are assessed by a variety of evaluation tools such as self-evaluation in parallel to teacher evaluation; documentation portfolios; and special projects (see also Niche Selection (link to be added soon)). In the highly complex education system there may be various combinations of the different approaches to teaching and probably no pure convergent or divergent teaching. Still, the tendency in the education system of today is toward the convergent approach. In fact, among the current suggestions for implementing educational reforms to deal with the considerable problems of the education system, there has been a strong emphasis on setting convergent goals, an aspect of which is the use of across-the-board standardized testing. Testing has been commonly viewed as a prudent way to determine the success or failure of the teaching and learning process. There has been a relatively limited use of other means of evaluation which are more complicated and more demanding in terms of application and interpretation. As educators seek ways to meet the demands put upon the education system in todays world of rapid changes and ever increasing complexity, it may be helpful to recognize that there is a need for both convergent and divergent approaches to teaching and learning. Educators who stress the importance of the acquisition of specific knowledge as a useful way to prepare the students for productive future functioning, must come to realize that even for the purpose of this goal alone, a divergent approach is needed today. With the great proliferation of knowledge and rapid changes in most fields as well as the appearance of many new fields, it is critical to develop students capacity for self-directed learning and self growth. On the other hand, those who emphasize the importance of autonomous growth and creative self-expression, must realize that the students need academic skills (such as reading, writing, calculating, etc.) as prerequisites for productive self expression. Since the creative process involves new ways of using existing knowledge, it is important to provide opportunities for students to acquire such knowledge (which can be acquired by convergent teaching). Hence, convergent and divergent teaching strategies are both needed and the challenging question is how to find the balance between them within the complexity of the process of teaching and learning. It is likely that the two approaches may increasingly become not mutually exclusive but interrelated and interdependent.

An important development is the growing awareness that academic achievement could improve by adapting teaching to students individual differences. This awareness is finding its most distinct expression in the education systems attempts to deal with the issues of students with special needs. However, other aspects of adaptation to students individual differences get far less attention. In general, adaptation to individual differences under convergent teaching tends to be limited. The students are all expected to strive toward one goal of learning specified required knowledge; some may attain it and others may fall by the wayside or be given some remediation with limited results. Nevertheless, there are various possibilities of effective adaptation to individual differences under convergent teaching. In addition to adaptation in the rate of learning, where each student can be allowed to work at his/her own pace, there are many possibilities of adaptation through the use of diverse methods of teaching. Even when all the students are taught the same material, teachers can use different methods, different techniques or different media, to cater to individual differences in abilities and personality characteristics. Such a multiconvergent approach can be more effective in giving the students opportunities to use their aptitudes and inclinations for learning and attaining higher achievements. As the students experience success and consequently a sense of competence, their motivation is enhanced to pursue further learning. Such an approach has a better potential for success than the common reality of students with learning difficulties, who often struggle through remediation with a sense of inadequacy and discouraging experiences of failure. Adaptation to individual differences under divergent teaching may be expected to be productive because of its emphasis on student autonomous, active, self-reliant learning. Yet, there are students who may not function well under divergent conditions because of their strong need for guidance, direction, and structure. Divergent teaching can cater to such needs by individual guidance, along with ongoing assessment and subsequent modifications. This is a guideddivergent approach which is more structured and less flexible than the open divergent teaching but less narrow and limiting than convergent teaching.

Teaching Strategies and Students Characteristics

Among the most difficult problems faced by the education system are those associated with teaching effectiveness. The current preparation of teachers for specific age levels, specific subject matter, specific academic skills, etc., does not take into consideration sufficiently the complexity of factors such as students various characteristics. There is a strong need to train teachers to adapt instruction to the diverse student abilities, learning styles, personality traits and needs by using more differentiated teaching strategies (See also Complexity in the Classroom (link to be added soon)). In addition to the preparation of teachers to more differentiated teaching, there could be more divergent use of teaching resources. Worthwhile teaching can be done with advantageous results by persons other than the traditional classroom teachers. For example, valuable teaching can be done by peers of different ages and abilities. Also, parents, grandparents, and relatives could participate in and contribute productively to the teaching process. Furthermore, teaching can be enhanced by volunteers, retirees, people with various areas of expertise from the worlds of science, business, engineering, medicine, public service, entertainment, and others. Also, hightech resources such as multimedia technology, computer programs, telecommunication, the Internet, audio-visual techniques, and others can provide beneficial options. Student learning can be greatly enriched further by traveling - near and far; interaction with people of different cultures; different geographical areas; different occupations, different ways of life; different outlooks. Undoubtedly, many possibilities exist that are not often implemented even though they could make the teaching and learning process more effective and more beneficial by providing a variety of experiences and alternative strategies for adaptation to students characteristics. 1. Ability levels and patterns of different abilities. Presently, the practice in some schools is to adapt teaching to different ability levels by forming classes or groups of students of similar levels (usually based on achievement tests or psychological tests) taught by teachers who tend to treat the students as if they were in homogeneous groups. Obviously, once a group of two students is formed, it cannot be considered homogeneous. Even if the two have an identical IQ, for instance, the profile of different abilities can be quite dissimilar and many other personality characteristics add to the dissimilarity of the students attributes that affect their learning. The over-simplification of todays ways of adaptation to students differences in abilities and other characteristics has resulted in many difficulties in the academic performance of many students. In some cases this has led to phenomena such as, learning disabilities, conduct problems, attitude problems, anxiety and school phobias. The complexity of this issue is apparent as one considers results of research studies or surveys measuring students performance under conditions aimed at slow versus fast learners.

The differences evident in rate of learning are only one aspect of the diverse effects of students with different abilities studying under different conditions. For instance, the type and manner of teaching has differential effects: students with higher ability tend to perform better under non-directive teaching methods while those with lower ability tend to do better under directive methods. Furthermore, the multiplicity and differentiality of mental abilities must be taken into consideration when teaching at any level of the education system. There has been a growing acknowledgement of the importance of adapting teaching to a variety of intelligences (e.g. Gardners work on the seven intelligences and Sternbergs work on the triarchic dimensions of intelligence; also see Golemans work on emotional intelligence), as well as providing for special learning needs. The diversity of patterns of mental abilities is well recognized today, yet little has been done to develop adequate conditions aimed at adapting teaching to this diversity. It is possible to design instructional strategies and learning materials that provide options and flexibility for matching students particular patterns of abilities. Thus, teaching strategies can be differentially facilitating various ability patterns. The interaction between specific aptitudes and specific teaching styles can be important in considering the various options of implementing changes in the teaching and learning process. Also, matching teachers styles with students ability patterns can have significant effects on students attitudes, motivation, and achievements. 2. Learning styles and preferences affect the way students approach any task and the way they function under different conditions and different learning environments. Learning styles such as reflectivity/impulsivity, field-dependence/field-independence, and mental self-government, as well as preferences for interactive visual or auditory presentations, or other ways of representing information have effects on students academic performance (See Kagans work on impulsive and reflective cognitive styles, Witkins work on field dependent style, Sternbergs work on mental self-government styles, and the work on computer simulations preferences). Some educators have begun to acknowledge the importance of adapting teaching strategies to students different learning styles, but no earnest efforts have been devoted to this promising endeavor. The adaptation of teaching to learning styles may include not only more appropriately differentiated teaching strategies but also may add to the dependability of the evaluation measures of what students have learned. Thus, the effectiveness of teaching and the pertinence of the assessment of learning achievements can be enhanced by teachers adaptation of instructional strategies to students learning styles.

3. Personality Characteristics. To some extent there is recognition among educators that personality characteristics such as self-reliance, attitudes, anxiety, independence, emotional stability have differential effects on students learning achievements. There is some acknowledgement that attention should be paid to students personality needs and to particular aspects of students different cultural backgrounds. Nevertheless, while the effect of personality characteristics on learning is significant, very little has been done or even suggested regarding the adaptation of teaching to students different personality traits and needs. Among the reasons for that is the very large number of traits with a wide variety of tests to measure them and the problem of their lower validation than the ability tests. Also, the complexity of the interactions of personality characteristics with various other factors affecting learning seems too difficult to tackle. Many educators and educational administrators are convinced that it is very difficult to implement multidimensional teaching strategies in the classroom. However, it is possible to analyze the interactions between students and teachers characteristics and closely examine the resulting different learning outcomes. For example, students of higher ability levels who are also self-reliant, independent, with lower anxiety tend to do better under divergent teaching and self-directed learning conditions, while students of lower ability levels who are also dependent, and anxious, tend to do better under convergent teaching with clear structure and much direction. Such interactions need to be explored further to find more about the various factors affecting the teaching learning process. The outcomes of such exploration can be very helpful in the search for enhancing teaching effectiveness and students achievements. In sum, the attempts to match teaching strategies with students characteristics may become critical steps toward dealing with some of the particularly difficult problems of the teaching and learning process. Admittedly, many difficulties are faced not only by teachers but also by administrators and policy makers in the endeavor to adapt instructional strategies to students characteristics, but the methods and concepts of the field of complex systems can provide ways of implementing such changes in the attempts to introduce reforms to the education system.

Inter-Disciplinary Curriculum
One of the most exciting developments in the world of science today is the growing involvement of researchers in interdisciplinary collaborations, and the increase in cross-fertilization of ideas and research endeavors of people in different fields of science.. The benefits for crossdisciplinary scientific work are invaluable and the various application possibilities are promising not only for science but for many aspects of daily living. These developments have direct implications for the education system. The tendency in our schools is to teach bits and pieces of information related to particular disciplines. In view of the cross-disciplinary trends, the curriculum can be integrated around topics that reflect the patterns, interactions, and interdependencies of the different fields. This can provide students with ways to study and attempt to comprehend the world around them through concepts and ideas that are less disparate or disconnected. The growing inter-disciplinary collaborations and cooperative sharing of information from different fields and the efforts to find pragmatic solutions to global problems have further implications for education. There are important implications for the preparation of students to function and be productive in a world with diverse populations, different economic conditions, multitudes of cultural, religious and ethnic groups, and many other different factors. Furthermore, it is highly beneficial to begin early in the educational process to organize learning around problem solving, critical thinking, and dealing with issues arising from different fields of study and different aspects of real life conditions. An integrated, inter-disciplinary curriculum links a variety of learning subjects as they are related to the topics of integrated curriculum units. The emphasis on connecting and synthesizing information around topics of interest to the students provides favorable conditions for the acquisition of knowledge from different disciplines through congruous concepts and ideas. Integrated curriculum units are chosen by the students with the teacher and involve teams of students working cooperatively toward common goals. Small groups, pairs, or individuals can work on relevant tasks and materials that can be shared with the other students and yield peer-topeer learning. Experiencing the benefits of contributing to the goals of the unit by members of the team is empowering and gratifying and is also a beneficial way of preparing them for future functioning in the world. Moreover, the opportunity given to each student to capitalize on his/her strengths can become a strong motivating factor in pursuing further learning and further giving to others.

In terms of teaching strategies, an integrated curriculum encourages a multi-dimensional approach to the educational process and tends to combine regularly multi-convergent and divergent strategies of teaching. There are also various options in the way teachers are assigned to classroom teaching. Individual teachers may find it difficult to implement multi-dimensional strategies in teaching any class, even when small in size, but teachers can work in teams using different teaching strategies compatible with individual teachers particular capabilities, cognitive styles and personality characteristics.. They can also organize various teaching experiences with the assistance of volunteers, specialists, peers and others who could contribute to the teaching process. In terms of the structure and settings adapted to different teaching and learning conditions, there can be alternative places for learning, e.g. learning centers, laboratories, libraries, outdoors, community institutions and businesses, museums, and various organizations. The structure and organization of the student body can be in the form of small and large groups; study pairs; and individualized study arrangements. Social alternatives are possible in heterogeneous groups with a great deal of interchange within them and between them and other groups. Clearly, student groups may vary in age, cultural and socioeconomic background, special interests and special needs. There are various alternatives in the types of learning that an integrated curriculum can include: 1. Required subjects and basic academic skills some of which are taught in a convergent way, using, in addition to teachers didactic presentations, programmed instruction, multi-media technologies, computer programs, videos, and other techniques involving technological innovations. 2. A number of required subjects and academic skills can be taught in a multiconvergent way where methods of teaching are adapted to students different abilities, needs and interests. For example, different intelligences may be emphasized such as, linguistic intelligence, logical-mathematical intelligence, spatial intelligence, musical intelligence, bodily-kinesthetic intelligence, and others. 3. A major part of the program can be devoted to integrated inter-disciplinary curriculum units chosen by teachers and students together. These units enable students to acquire knowledge and skills associated with different disciplines through congruous meaningful learning revolving around a topic of interest to the students. The work on the units is undertaken by groups of students who are encouraged to take active part in the decisionmaking process and focus on aspects of the units in which they can best develop their capabilities, satisfy their interests, and fulfill their needs. Each student is given the opportunity to use their strengths (academic or non-academic) to contribute to the common goals of the group. In working on these integrated units, guided divergent teaching is used as needed. At the end of a period of work on the unit, the group can celebrate with other students, parents, administrators and others involved in the school, the conclusion and accomplishments of the work on the unit.

Each student in the group is encouraged to contribute whatever they can to such celebrations by presenting their work through various performances, presentations, exhibits, videos and other contributions to the festive activities. Such celebrations can become useful ways of evaluating the students learning achievements 4. Individually chosen projects where the students can work on topics they have chosen and where they could apply their strong skills and competencies, wherever they lie. Students can be encouraged to present their work on their project to the group in any way compatible with their tendencies. The students can present their work to their peers and teachers as an exhibit, as an oral presentation, as written material, as a play, a video, or any other means of communicating and disseminating information. Divergent teaching is the approach used for those individually selected, and often independently pursued, projects. The above discussion of ways to implement various changes in the approach to teaching and learning grew out of the recognition that the current attempts at reforming the education system tend to be ineffectual. The attempts to use simple large forces (such as standardized testing, for example) in dealing with the ills of the complex education system are essentially doomed to fail. Undoubtedly, there are no simple general solutions to those multifarious complex problems.

THE TEACHER FACTOR IN THE LEARNING PROCESS

Teaching-learning process is the heart of education. On it, depends the fulfillment of the aims & objectives of education. It is the most powerful instrument of education to bring about desired changes in the students. Teaching learning are related terms. In teaching - learning process, the teacher, the learner, the curriculum& other variables are organized in a systematic way to attain some pre-determined goal Let us first understand in short about learning, teaching and then teaching-learning relation.
Learning can be defined as the relatively permanent change in an individual's behavior or behavior potential (or capability) as a result of experience or practice (i.e., an internal change inferred from overt behavior). This can be compared with the other primary process producing relatively permanent change --

Maturation --that results from biological growth and development. Therefore, when we see a relatively permanent change in others, or ourselves we know that the primary cause was either maturation (biology) or learning (experience). As educators, there is not hing we can do to alter an individuals biology; the only influence open to use is to provide an opportunity for students to engage in experiences that will lead to relatively permanent change. Teaching Can be thought of as the purposeful direction and management of the learning process . Note that teaching is not giving knowledge or skills to students; teaching is the process of providing opportunities for students to produce relatively permanent change through the engagement in experiences provided by the teacher. Essential aspects of the teaching-learning process are informative to examine the ideal teachinglearning process, as proposed by Diana Laurillard (Laurillard, 1993; Laurillard, 1994). She argues that there are four aspects of the teaching-learning process: ( a) Discussion -between the teacher and learner.(b)Interaction -between the learner and some aspect of the world defined by the teacher.(c)Adaptation -of the world by the teacher and action by the learner.(d)Reflection -on the learner's performance by both teacher and learner. She then considers how different educational media and styles can be described in these terms. For example, a text book represents a one-way flow of knowledge from the teacher's conceptual knowledge to the student's conceptual knowledge. A lecture or tutorial may be seen the same way, but there is a possibility of meaningful discussion between teacher and learner.DiscussionReflection on Adaptation of Adaptation of Reflection onStudent World Action InteractionInteraction

Discussion, Reflection on Adaptation of Adaptation of Reflection on Student World Action Interaction

1) Teaching can become effective only by relating it to process of learning. 2) Teaching objective cannot be realized without being related to learning situation. 3) We may create and use teaching aids to create some appropriate learning situation. 4) The strategies and devices of teaching may be selected in such a manner that the optimal objectives of learning are achieved. 5) To understand principles, goals, objectives of education in right perspective. 6) Appropriate learning situation condition may be created for congenial and effective teaching. Contextual factors can affect the teaching and learning process in a classroom. In this essay I will describe four environmental factors that could affect the teaching and learning process for a school in a rural community or district. I will also describe three classroom factors and six student characteristics. It's important for teachers to consider the environmental factors of their community, school, and district, as well as the classroom and student characteristics. There are four environmental factors that can affect a rural school. These environmental factors include geographic location, socio-economic, political climate, and community support for education. I live in a rural community so these above mentioned factors are just a few that I feel effect my community. My community is located in a rural area, which is mainly associated with farming. The socio-economic status of the community consists mainly of low to middle class. The political climate of the community consists mainly of the Democratic Party. Also the support for education from the community is one of great support and community members tend to become involved in activities or show support. Due to the low socio-economic status of the community the school is provided with programs to help students with learning. The school has Title I, free/reduce lunches, and reading and math programs to increase learning as well as special services such as Speech, Resource, Physical and Occupational Therapy. There are also four environmental factors that can affect the teaching and learning process of the school district. The geographic location of the district is a mix of rural communities due to a consolidation of three small schools. The socio-economics of the school district includes mainly the low and middle class status. The political climate of the district is a mix of Democrat and Republican with a majority being Democratic. The three school communities show a large amount of support for the educational needs of all students. The district also provides several opportunities for students at all socio-economic levels to learn and grow. The district provides daycare and a preschool program. There are also home daycares in the area so the school works with these as well to make sure their children are growing and developing skills as well.

There are also classroom factors that can affect the teaching and learning process. One factor is the physical features of the classroom. The classrooms are too small for the number of students who are in each room. The rooms are cramped for space due to the number of students, desks, and all the equipment and materials needed to function in a classroom. A second classroom factor is the availability of technology equipment and resources. With today's society it is important for each student to develop their computer and technology skills and this is just not possible for a rural area school due to the lack of funds to provide students with computers. In most classrooms there is only 1 computer for the teacher and students to share. Some of the classrooms have a teacher computer and then a student computer. There is a computer lab available but students are only given 1 time through the week to use the lab. Another classroom factor is the extent of parental involvement. Because of the socio-economic status levels, many parents must work, therefore, are only somewhat active in the school. To help get parents more active the school provides after school activities to allow parents to come and have fun. Also daily and weekly notes are sent home for parents to read or sign. These notes provide information about upcoming activities in the classroom, school, district, and community. When a teacher designs instruction and assess learning they must consider student characteristics. There may be special education students in the classroom that need modifications. There could also be students who have to be given medications to help them focus. This can also lead to modifications or shorter work times. Some classrooms may have ELL students, which will need work, read in their native language. Students skill and prior knowledge can also influence how a teacher plans and implements instruction. Contextual factors can affect the teaching and learning process in the classroom. A community, school, and districts environmental factors can affect teaching and learning. Classroom factors and student characteristics can also affect teaching and learning. A teacher must remember all, or possible, contextual factors that are present in the school, district, and community in which the work. By understanding and knowing the contextual factors a teacher can better prepare their classroom instruction so that all students are learning.

Planning refers to all of those activities a teacher might do to get ready to interact with students in the classroom. Management refers to controlling student behavior, while instruction refers to actually guiding student learning. There are a variety of specific teacher classroom variables that have been related to student learning. For example, Walberg (1986), in a meta-analysis of teacher effectiveness research found support for the following individual variables:

Use of positive reinforcement Cues and corrective feedback Cooperative learning activities Higher order questioning Use of advance organizers

However, Rosenshine (1995) showed that the approach to instruction labeled direct or explicit instruction was most likely to positively impact on learning as measured by scores on standardized tests of basic skills. Alternatively, changing the desired outcome measure puts the focus on different instructional methods. For example, if the desired outcome is creativity and independence, then open education may be a better alternative (Giaconia & Hedges, 1982). Alternately, if better relationships among diverse students is the goal, the cooperative learning would appear to be the better instructional method (Slavin, 1995). Therefore, it is important to specify desired outcomes and their measures before decisions are made as to the implementation of specific instructional methods. Given the moderate correlations between teacher behavior and student learning as measured outside the classroom, however, it seems prudent to focus on student behavior within the classroom and the impact that teacher behavior has on that set of variables. Student Behavior includes all of the actions a student would make in the classroom and includes one very important variable (at least in relationship to predicting student achievement on standardized tests) and that is Academic Learning Time (ALT). ALT is defined as "the amount of time students are successfully covering content that will be tested" (Squires, Huitt, Segars, 1983). ALT is a combination of three separate variables: Content Overlap, Involvement, and Success. Content Overlap is defined as "the percentage of the content covered on the test actually covered by students in the classroom" and is sometimes referred to as "Time on Target." Involvement is the "amount of time students are actively involved in the learning process" and is often referred to as "Time on Task." Success is defined as the "extent to which students accurately complete the assignments they have been given." A high level of Academic Learning Time means that 1) students are covering important (tested/evaluated) content; 2) students are "on-task" most of the class period; and 3) students are successful on most the assignments they complete. These three variables can be relatively easily measured and can be considered the vital signs of a classroom. If all of these are appropriate, there is a high probability that the classroom is functioning well. However, if any one of these variables is lower than expected, further inspection of classroom processes should be undertaken. There are a variety of other classroom factors which have been related to student achievement such as the classroom climate and the opportunity for students to engage in leadership roles.

One of the most important concepts that have been developed in educational psychology during the past 30 years is that classroom process variables are the most direct link to student achievement (Rosenshine & Stevens, 1986). More specifically, the teacher's classroom behavior (incorporated in the categories of planning, management and instruction) has a direct influence on student behavior (most importantly, Academic Learning Time) which, in turn, is most directly linked to measures of student achievement The most important teacher characteristic (in terms of predicting how well teachers will perform in the classroom as well as student achievement) seems to be the teacher's values and belief or more particularly Teacher Efficacy (Ashton, 1984). This variable is a measure of the teacher's belief that students can learn and that he/she can teach. Another important set of teacher characteristics includes the teacher's knowledge with respect to the content domain (knowledge of subject matter to be taught), human growth and development (theories, topics, and stages), learning theory (behavioristic, cognitive,constructivistic, humanistic, social cognition), and the teaching/learning process (concepts and principles as well as their application in formal and informal environments). This course is designed to address three of these important areas: human growth and development, learning theory, and the teaching/learning process. In the state of Georgia, a teacher's knowledge is evaluated through the completion of collegelevel courses and passing the Teacher Certification Test (TCT). At VSU, one requirement related to a teacher's thinking and communication skills is successful completion of a speech course at the undergraduate level. Performance skills are measured through a requirement of student teaching and an annual evaluation using the Georgia Teacher Observation Instrument (GTOI). Finally, while there is no single personality that seems to make the "best" teacher, it is certainly a variable that has attracted a lot of interest. One measure of personality that has become popular in education circles is the Keirsey Temperament Scale (a version of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator). There are a wide variety of Student Characteristics that have been related to classroom behavior and student achievement. Bloom and other researchers (e.g., Anderson & Block, 1977; Bloom, 1971) engaged in the development of mastery learning have shown that when time to learn is allowed to vary, a student's prior knowledge is most important. Other researchers have shown that when time to learn is held constant, as it is in most learning environments in the United States, then a student's intelligence or academic ability is most important. This issue of "time to learn" is very important. If we truly believe that everyone can learn and that it is important to learn, then it would seem we would make a greater effort to provide the appropriate time to learn. However, if we believe that ability is more important and that only the most capable individuals can learn all we want them to learn, then the present system will continue to produce a result that verifies that expectation. Other student characteristics that have been found to be important include study habits, Age, Sex/Gender, Motivation, Learning Style, Cognitive development, Socio emotional development, Moral and character development, and Race/Ethnicity. In fact, the list of important student characteristics is so long entire books have been written on them.

So what is good or effective teaching? Smith (1995) suggests that learning is a consequence of experience (p.588). He argues that education and therefore teaching should be focused on the creation of appropriately nourishing experiences so that learning comes about naturally and inevitably (p.589). He states that schools should focus less on talking about learning and teaching and more about doing (p.589). Is this then the answer to the quest? To reflect on what we do in the classroom rather than on all the talk about theory and practice. To develop an effective teacher model by identifying clearly what it is that effective teachers do in their classrooms? 1. A focus on student achievement. 2. Pedagogical practices that create caring, inclusive and cohesive learning communities. 3. Effective links between school and the cultural context of the school. 4. Quality teaching is responsive to student learning processes. 5. Learning opportunities are effective and sufficient. 6. Multiple tasks and contexts support learning cycles. 7. Curriculum goals are effectively aligned. 8. Pedagogy scaffolds feedback on students' task engagement. 9. Pedagogy promotes learning orientations, student self regulation, meta- cognitive strategies and thoughtful student discourse. 10. Teachers and students engage constructively in goal oriented assessment. (Alton-Lee, 2003: vi-x)

With this in mind I will focus on the areas that I believe are the most significant in my teaching and in my efforts to be an effective teacher. In the creation of an effective learning environment, I suggest that it is the interaction of the following five key factors that provide a foundation for a good teaching:! Teacher knowledge, enthusiasm and responsibility for learning. ! Classroom activities that encourage learning. ! Assessment activities that encourage learning through experience. ! Effective feedback that establishes the learning processes in the classroom. ! Effective interaction between the teacher and the students, creating an environment that respects, encourages and stimulates learning through experience. At the same time the teacher is the guardian for learning in the classroom environment. If the teacher goes in unprepared, unwilling to share, unfocussed on the process of developing a context that will encourage and stimulate an interest and a thirst for further knowledge then that teaching is shirking the responsibility of being a teacher. Teaching is far more than simply transferring information; it is the engaging of minds to seek out answers. Strong, silver and Robinson (1995) put forward the acronyms SCORE to suggest a model of student engagement. I would suggest that this model should be applied to teachers first: S: The Success of mastery of the subject that you teach. C: The Curiosity that every teacher should have entrenched in their teaching. A teacher who is not curious has lost a critical portion of the passion for learning. O: Originality a teacher who is passionate about the teaching process will be creative; will be constantly seeking new ways of engaging and challenging students. R: Relationships are central to the effective classroom and teachers are crucial in the nurturing of opportunities for students to engage with subjects that at senior levels can lead to a life-long interaction with the subject. E: To maintain this process the teacher needs Energy. This a something that schools do not always provide, and teachers in general need the time to reflect; to re-energize and to regenerate their focus on the learning process. It is an essential ingredient in the effective classroom that is too often ignored. (SCORE acronym adapted from Strong et al., 1995: 9-11)

The Personal Qualities of a Teacher

Here I want to try to give you an answer to the question: What personal qualities are desirable in a teacher? Probably no two people would draw up exactly similar lists, but I think the following would be generally accepted. First, the teacher's personality should be pleasantly live and attractive. This does not rule out people who are physically plain, or even ugly, because many such have great personal charm. But it does rule out such types as the over-excitable, melancholy, frigid, sarcastic, cynical, frustrated, and over-bearing: I would say too, that it excludes all of dull or purely negative personality. I still stick to what I said in my earlier book: that school children probably 'suffer more from bores than from brutes'. Secondly, it is not merely desirable but essential for a teacher to have a genuine capacity for sympathy - in the literal meaning of that word; a capacity to tune in to the minds and feelings of other people, especially, since most teachers are school teachers, to the minds and feelings of children. Closely related with this is the capacity to be tolerant - not, indeed, of what is wrong, but of the frailty and immaturity of human nature which induce people, and again especially children, to make mistakes. Thirdly, I hold it essential for a teacher to be both intellectually and morally honest. This does not mean being a plaster saint. It means that he will be aware of his intellectual strengths, and limitations, and will have thought about and decided upon the moral principles by which his life shall be guided. There is no contradiction in my going on to say that a teacher should be a bit of an actor. That is part of the technique of teaching, which demands that every now and then a teacher should be able to put on an act - to enliven a lesson, correct a fault, or award praise. Children, especially young children, live in a world that is rather larger than life. A teacher must remain mentally alert. He will not get into the profession if of low intelligence, but it is all too easy, even for people of above-average intelligence, to stagnate intellectually and that means to deteriorate intellectually. A teacher must be quick to adapt himself to any situation, however improbable (they happen!) and able to improvise, if necessary at less than a moment's notice. (Here I should stress that I use 'he' and 'his' throughout the book simply as a matter of convention and convenience.) On the other hand, a teacher must be capable of infinite patience. This, I may say, is largely a matter of self-discipline and self-training; we are none of us born like that. He must be pretty resilient; teaching makes great demands on nervous energy. And he should be able to take in his stride the innumerable petty irritations any adult dealing with children has to endure. Finally, I think a teacher should have the kind of mind which always wants to go on learning. Teaching is a job at which one will never be perfect; there is always something more to learn about it. There are three principal objects of study: the subject, or subjects, which the teacher is teaching; the methods by which they can best be taught to the particular pupils in the classes he is teaching; and - by far the most important - the children, young people, or adults to whom they are to be taught.

Qualities of a good teacher

Teaching is a career that provides challenges, excitement, personal reward and a chance to encourage and support others to achieve their goals. There are many personal qualities and skills that make someone a good teacher. These include:

being good at explaining things; being a people person and enjoy working with a wide range of people; enthusiasm; having a strong knowledge in particular subject areas; being a good time manager; ability to work in a team as well as using your own initiative; keeping your cool under pressure; having patience and a good sense of humor; being fair-minded; coping well with change; and enjoying a challenge.

Good teachers know that by listening to and working with colleagues, parents, other professionals and community members that they can inspire students and improve their learning. The personal qualities which a person brings to the teaching profession are as important as their education and experience. Teaching, like the ministry, is a calling. A person who didnt heed the call to be a teacher often can be found volunteering as a scout leader, coach, team mother, Sunday school teacher or staying home raising their own children. A wonderful teacher is one who could be heard saying, I teach because being around children makes my heart sing! 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. kind, joyful manner is seen smiling a lot listens with heart and mind emotionally mature and stable energetic, enthusiastic passionate about kids learning patient and not easily frustrated pleasant personal manner interesting, motivating