Journal of the Chinese Institute of Engineers, Vol. 27, No. 5, pp.

707-717 (2004)

707

DEVELOPMENT OF 3-D FINITE ELEMENT MODEL FOR FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS

Chen-Ming Kuo* and Fang-Ju Chou

ABSTRACT
This paper presents the development of a three-dimensional finite element model for flexible pavements. The procedures of building a model and performing static analysis with the ABAQUS package are introduced. The element shapes and the size of the finite element model were studied to improve analysis efficiency. The model should at least consist of finite elements up to three times the loading diameter if centered at the loading position. Infinite elements should be used beyond the boundary of finite elements. The accuracy was justified with Boussnisq solutions for semiinfinite elastic solids. The surface layer was modeled with creep test data of asphalt concrete. Viscoelastic behavior was observed for the pavement model under wheel loading. The model was also validated by comparing computed results and field test data. Further calibrations of the model are underway by comparison with laboratory test results. The application of the model is introduced with an example of placing a geogrid-reinforced asphalt concrete overlay on rigid pavement. Significant reduction of tensile strains at the bottom of the asphalt concrete was found with geogrid reinforcement. Key Words: flexible pavement, three-dimensional finite element, viscoelastic, creep, infinite elements geogrid, AASHO road test, ABAQUS.

I. INTRODUCTION Detailed modeling of complicated pavement structures is always desired to enhance insight into pavement behavior. With the improvement of analysis techniques, many interactions among pavement components and failure mechanisms can be revealed with three-dimensional (3-D) finite element analysis, such as, pavement sections with culverts in subgrade, multiple wheel loading, nonlinear behavior of base materials, and distresses in pavements. The objective of this research is to develop procedures for building a model of flexible pavement and performing static analysis with a finite element analysis package. For finite element analysis, fine mesh gives higher accuracy, but increases number of elements and computation time. Furthermore, a large model will assure no boundary errors, but again demands much computer memory and time. In order
*Corresponding author. (Tel: 886-6-2757575 ext. 63170; Email: ckuo@mail.ncku.edu.tw) The authors are with the Department of Civil Engineering, Natinoal Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan 701, R.O.C.

to obtain guidelines of model size and mesh fineness, a semi-infinite elastic solid was modeled and checked by comparing the computed displacements and stresses with Boussinesqs solutions. The viscoelastic layer was put on top of the semi-infinite elastic solid to form a one-layer pavement structure. This system was validated by examining the viscoelastic behavior, and by comparing with the deflections of the AASHO Road Test. The development of the 3-D model was advantageous in many aspects. For example, the effects of geogrid reinforced AC overlay can be explored with finite element analysis developed in this study. Based on the procedures of meshing and validation, it is simple to build various multi-layer pavement systems. It should be noted that several advanced features, e.g., nonlinear materials and dynamic analysis are not in the scope of this research. These features are currently at the development stage. II .MAIN FEATURES OF THE 3-D FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS MODEL After the development of computer programs in

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multi-layer elastic theory, finite element analysis has been adopted for pavement research since the 1980s. At first, two-dimensional (2-D) finite element models were developed (Ioannides et al., 1985). Although they were widely prevalent at that time, many inherent limitations of 2-D finite elements led to restrictions on refining the models towards further implementation in realistic pavement structures (Kuo et al., 1996). For example, the programs that based on axisymmetric revolution of solids could only take care of a single load print. Besides, the existing finite element programs used for flexible pavement are incapable of handling these situations: widened base, different materials in one layer, and various interfacial bondings between layers (Hadi and Bodhinayake, 2003). Three-dimensional finite element analysis being a robust alternative can incorporate the complicated features mentioned above to be used for advanced flexible pavement analysis, although revising the existing a 2-D model to overcome its limitations is possible. 1. Material Properties Many special features including asphalt material, granular material, and subgrade soil have been incorporated in other flexible pavement programs. ILLI-PAVE has incorporated stress dependent resilient modulus and failure criteria for granular material and fine-grained soils (University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1990). KENLAYER has considered linear elastic, nonlinear elastic, linear viscoelastic, and combinations of nonlinear elastic and linear viscoelastic behaviors of materials in different layers (Huang, 1993). Furthermore, ABAQUS, the finite element package with broad applications, has provided a variety of options in analyzing material properties such as viscoelasticity, porous material, clay plasticity, and Drucker-Prager models (ABAQUS, 1996a), gaining significant attention recently in pavement analysis. These options of ABAQUS have not been properly applied for flexible pavements although viscoelastic behavior was simulated, earlier, using a quasi-elastic approach. The main feature of flexible pavement model is to characterize the behavior of asphalt concrete. Asphalt acts as an elastic solid and obeys Hooks law at low temperature. It deforms and recovers instantly upon loading and unloading. Yet, it softens as temperature rises and behaves as a viscous fluid, which obeys Newtons law of viscosity holding constant creep rate at high temperature (Huang, 1993; Rowe et al ., 1995). At ambient temperature, the behavior of asphalt material is between pure elastic and viscous model and it is called viscoelastic. However, simple one-dimensional models are not practical in

Fig. 1 Ideal mesh of interior loading (Chen et al ., 1995)

predicting field responses of flexible pavements because of complexity of appropriate combinations of damping and springs and difficulties in calibrating damping and spring parameters for three-dimensional behavior (Haddad, 1995). 2. Meshing Criteria Meshing criteria are critical in a flexible pavement model in which the subgrade is considered as semi-infinite elastic solid. Inappropriate mesh size may result in either poor accuracy or enormous demand for computer resources. In the study proposed by Zaghloul and White (1992), fine meshes were used under the wheel path. The mesh size in the vertical direction was fitted by thickness of structural layer except that the subgrade was modeled with five layers of finite elements. The research conducted by Hjelmstad et al . (1997) concluded that the element shape can significantly control the model analysis in terms of its runtime and accuracy. In addition, the stress gradient is usually quite large in the vicinity of a loading area due to the fact that a pavement system comprises relatively thin layers, leading to a highly localized loading. This justifies the need for fine mesh around loading areas as illustrated in Fig. 1. Infinite elements were also helpful in reducing the number of elements in the subgrade model to improve the efficiency of analysis (Chen et al ., 1995). 3. Boundary Conditions Attention should be paid to determine the appropriate boundary conditions to assure a realistic

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x 1C z 0.5C

2C

1C Brick element Infinite element

Infinite element

Fig. 2 Side view of elastic solid model for subgrade

modeling. In the model developed by Zaghloul and White (1992), transverse displacements were restricted along the longitudinal edge. The study further suggested that a pavement section of 10 m of length is appropriate to eliminate edge effect error. Hjelmstad et al . (1997) reported that a domain size equivalent to 150 times of the loading radius is appropriate to avoid the effects caused by boundary conditions, either roller or hinge. III. DEVELOPMENT OF 3-D ASPHALT PAVEMENT MODEL A 3-D finite element model of asphalt pavement was developed in this research by taking the initiatives in correcting major deficiencies of the existing models. This 3-D model employed cubic finite elements for surface layer and parts of subgrade and infinite elements for the boundaries of each layer to reduce the number of elements for the far field. The meshing criteria were developed as described below. 1. Subgrade Subgrade was modeled with both brick finite elements and infinite elements as shown in Fig. 2. It is desirable to minimize the number of brick element layers to save run-time and computer resources. In Fig. 2, C represents the side length of a square which has the same area as that of the circular loading with radius of a . Eq. (1) shows the relationship between C and a . P and q represent total load and uniform pressure of the load.

Fig. 3

Results of 3-D models with various horizontal extent of finite elements

P = C 2 = a 2 q

(1)

A typical problem of semi-infinite elastic solid under circular uniform load was used as an example and modeled in different approaches. These results were compared with the theoretical solution by Boussinesq (ABAQUS, 1995). Using the model of Fig. 2, the analyzed stress was conformable to the theoretical solution with the horizontal extent of a brick finite element being equal to C . Yet, significant discrepancy existed in displacements. Later, a model using depth of 2 C for brick elements did not improve the discrepancy of displacement. The model was then expanded horizontally, while using a fixed depth of 1C for brick elements. Fig. 3 shows the convergence of displacement as the horizontal extent of brick elements increases to 3C. Hence, it is suggested that the semi-infinite solid is meshed with brick

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elements being extended to 3 C horizontally and 1 C vertically away from the loading, and then connected with infinite elements beyond the brick elements. Meanwhile, it was observed that good accuracy could be obtained with fine mesh at loading areas. Namely, it is suggested that the length of elements under the loading area be assigned to become one half of the length of the loading area. A similar conclusion was presented by Ioannides (1984) based on 2D finite element analysis. 2. Surface Layer The surface layer is composed of finite elements. The meshing criteria for finite elements, which were rarely noticed before in pavement analysis, are included in this study to assure accuracy of analysis. (1) The aspect ratios of all elements were kept below 5. (2) The ratio of height to width of an element was less than 2. (3) The vicinity of loading was composed of cuboids elements with similar edge length. (4) The mesh was fitted to the loading area to avoid partially loaded elements. (5) The transition area was set between fine mesh and coarse mesh for gradual change of element size to ensure good accuracy. A special feature of the flexible pavement model is its viscoelastic property for asphalt material. ABAQUS provides a set of options to simulate viscoelastic behavior. The properties of viscoelastic material can be described with different approaches (ABAQUS, 1996a). In this research, the 3-D viscoelastic models expressed in the form of Eq. (2) and Eq. (3) are adopted by the finite element package (ABAQUS, 1996b). The equations are a superposition of the generalized Kelvin-Voigt model for three-dimensional relationships (Malvern, 1969).

Fig. 4

Stiffness-time curve of asphalt under uniaxial loading (Roberts et al ., 1991)

G(t) K( t) G 0( t ) K0( t) t

shear relaxation modulus bulk relaxation modulus instantaneous shear relaxation modulus instantaneous bulk relaxation modulus creep time reduced time

S(t) = S 0(t) + 1 G0 p(t) = p0(t) + 1 K0

where S(t) p( t ) S0(t) p 0( t )

0 0

dG( ) S (t )d d 0 d K( ) p (t )d d 0

(2)

(3)

deviatoric stress tensor material pressure deviatoric stress state which would exist for the current state of strain pressure state which would exist for the current state of strain if the material should behave purely elastically

To validate the model, a creep test is required to define the relationship between material modulus and elapsed time of loading. Bulk modulus at any moment during the creep test can be obtained with a creep test curve as shown in Fig. 4. Then, shear modulus corresponding to bulk modulus at an arbitrary moment, can be calculated indirectly and used as inputs for viscoelastic analysis by ABAQUS (Analysis, 1996). To assure correct simulation for the designated asphalt behavior, it is important to know that accurate description of the creep curve should be available; and it can be retrieved as shown in Table 1. According to the suggested model extent for a semi-infinite solid, the criteria of model extents for a layered system were investigated by using a model composed of infinite elements in traffic direction (xdir.) and foundation (z -dir.). Finite boundary was set to be equal to the width of a traffic lane in the direction transverse to the centerline ( y-dir.). The parameters of pavement section and loading are shown in Fig. 5. Based on the conclusions mentioned in the previous analysis, it turns out from this work that the vertical extent of finite element mesh dominates convergence of stress. On the other hand, extent of finite element mesh in x-direction and y-direction can control accuracy of displacements. Fig. 6 shows the

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Table 1 Measurements of uniaxial creep test (Matthews and Schmitt, 1995) Loading time (sec) AR8000 asphalt concrete 0.13 1.05 11.09 116.7 3500 0.13 1.05 11.09 116.7 3500 25 C 2523 928 420 215 120 1021 529 258 154 83 Creep stiffness (MPa) 38 C 559 243 168 138 105 423 175 126 103 75 49 C 301 181 146 122 72 242 146 116 98 60 60 C 307 234 204 181 125 165 137 109 92 57

AR 4000 asphalt concrete

C=0.4 m q=484 kPa (70 psi) Loading area =0.4m 0.4m AC surface layer (AR4000) 101.6 mm C=0.4 m 4 layers of finite elements Subgrade (E=68.9 Mpa) 1 layers of infinite elements

theoretical solution of semi-infinite elastic solid with circular loading by Boussinesq, creep of viscoelastic material, and comparison with the estimated static deflections of AASHO Road Test. 1. Semi-Infinite Elastic Solid The analysis results shown in Fig. 3 were further examined in horizontal direction. Fig. 7 and Fig. 8 compare the 3-D model results and the theoretical solutions of vertical stress and displacement along the surface of semi-infinite elastic solid. It is clear that the results of the proposed 3-D model match the theoretical solutions very well. Fig. 7 and Fig. 8 were plotted with the computed results at integration points of each finite element to avoid numerical singularity resulting from extrapolations to the loading point. 2. Viscoelastic Behavior To justify the visoelastic behavior of the finite element model, a simple uniaxial creep test was simulated with an axial load of 689 kPa (100 psi) for 3600 seconds. The creep stiffness data of AR4000 at 49C in Table 1 were used and the stiffness at 0.1 second was considered as initial elastic modulus. Fig. 9 shows the comparison between strains of elastic and their viscoelastic analysis. As expected, the strains calculated in elastic analysis match the theoretical solution and are independent of loading duration. In the viscoelastic analysis, the strains increased with loading time and a typical creep curve was obtained. The viscoelastic strain became steady after approximately t=2000 seconds. Although rigorous model validations are desirable, it is beyond the scope of this work to provide much more detailed strain data from laboratory creep tests at this time. A series of model validations with lab data and field data will be accomplished

Fig. 5

Model parameters for pavement section and loading with AC surface layer

convergence of stresses and displacements with respect to models of different horizontal extents. The model with horizontal extent of 3C delivered the same stress accuracy as the one meshed up to 6C. It can be seen from Fig. 6 that displacement does not converge very well as opposed to the vertical compressive stress. Because of the limitation of computer resource, meshing finite element to 3C horizontally and followed by infinite elements is still recommended as a compromise, since the stress is the major concern in pavement analysis. Vertically, finite element should be used down to 1C below the bottom of surface layer and followed by infinite element. It should be noted that the meshing recommendations mentioned above are justified in the flexible pavement model only with one asphalt surface layer on top of the semi-infinite elastic solid subgrade. For pavement systems with multiple layers, further study is needed to set the meshing criteria. IV. MODEL VALIDATION The 3-D finite element model for flexible pavement was qualitatively validated in three aspects:

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0 0.002

-140

Vertical stress (kPa)

Horizontal strain

0.001 z=1C x=3C x=4C x=5C x=6C Theory (BISAR)

-280 z=1C x=3C x=4C x=5C x=6C Theory (BISAR)

0.000

-420

-560

0.001 0 100 200 300 400 500 0 100 200 300 400 500 Z Depth (mm) at x=y=21.5mm (a) Z Depth (mm) at (x=y=21.5mm) (c) 0.002 z=1C

2.5

Vertical displacement (kPa)

2.0 0.000 1.5 z=1C 1.0 x=3C x=4C x=5C x=6C Theory (BISAR) 0 100 200 300 400 500

Vertical strain

x=3C x=4C x=5C x=6C Theory (BISAR)

-0.002

0.5

-0.004 Z Depth (mm) at x=y=0 (mm) (b)

100

200

300

400

500

Z Depth (mm) at (x=y=21.5mm) (d)

Fig. 6 Results of various horizontal extents of pavement system in reference to Fig. 5

138

0 S/C=3 S/C=4 Theoretical sol.

1
Vertical deflection (mm)

S/C=2

Vertical stress (kPa)

-138 Model extent in z=1C -276 Theoretical sol. Extent in x=3C Extent in x=4C

2 S/C=1 3

4
-413

S=extent of horizontal finite element 5

-551 0 2 4 x/C (x=dist. from loading center) 6

x/C (x=dist. from loading center)

Fig. 8 Profile of vertical displacement along surface of semi-infinite solid

Fig. 7 Profile of vertical stress along surface of semi-infinite solid

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Table 2 Estimated static deflections for comparison Loop no. 4 6 Axle type Single Single Axle load (kN) 80 134 Structural thickness (mm) 483 686 Date 1959,8,26 1959,8,26 A1 0.0058 0.0055 R2 0.79 0.86

30 (mm)
0.686 0.762

2 (mm)
0.996 1.086

R 2 : square correlation coefficient

Table 3 Measured deflections at vehicle speed of 30 mph (The AASHTO 1962) Loop no. 4 4 6 6 Axle type Single Single Single Single Axle load (kN) 80 80 134 134 Structural thickness (mm) 483 483 686 686 Measured time Summer, Summer, Summer, Summer, 1959 1960 1959 1960 Surface deflections (mm) 0.676 0.737 0.762

-0.002 Elastic -0.003

Horizontal strain in y-direction

(1962). The correlation coefficients of Eq. (4) for the selected cases in the AASHO Report range from 0.79 to 0.94 in various seasons.

2 = v 10 (2)A
-0.004

(4)

where

-0.005

2 v
A1

static deflection at creep speed of 2 mph dynamic deflection at vehicle speed of in mile/hr speed coefficient

-0.006

Viscoelastic

-0.008 0.00

1000

2000 Creep time (sec)

3000

4000

Fig. 9

Comparison between viscoelastic and elastic analysis of the 3-D model

at a time when the next generation model development is proposed. 3. Validation with Field Tests The third step of validation was to justify the computed results with field measured data. However, we were not successful in obtaining the static deflection measurements of the road test. The validation data for static loading were then indirectly obtained by manipulating the field deflections measured at 48 km/hr (30 mph). The static deflections shown in Table 2 were derived from Table 3 using Eq. (3) which was presented in the AASHO Road Test Report

The pavement sections of AASHO Road Test shown in Table 4 were analyzed with the 3-D model. The detailed information on the associated pavement sections in Loop 4 and Loop 6 is listed in Table 4. Note that there were 6 loops of test roads built for AASHO Road Tests in the 1950s. The validation was made by comparing the output of simulated road test with the static loading and the estimated field deflections. Figure 10 and Fig. 11 demonstrate the comparisons of Loop 4 and Loop 6 between estimations of field measurements and computed results from the 3D finite element model. As for the sections of Loop 4, the deflection differences between the model and estimated field data was less than 3 percent. As to the case of Loop 6, 13% and 18% of deflection differences were found. The proposed 3-D model has been examined from three viewpoints, i.e., theoretical solution, viscoelastic behavior, and field test data. Although further justifications are necessary to assure accuracy, the capabilities and reliability of the proposed 3-D finite element model for flexible pavements were qualitatively validated.

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Table 4 Pavement condition of the AASHO Road Test (1960, summer) (The AASHTO 1962) Loop no. Thick. design (in) (surface-base-subbase) 5 - 6 - 12 5-6-8 5 - 3 - 12 Mean 6 - 6 - 16 6 - 9 - 12 6 - 9 - 16 Mean Base layer unit wt. CBR (pcf) 145.0 133.6 142.0 140.2 142.2 142.0 141.9 142.0 200 109 124 144.3 82 104 116 100.7 Subbase unit wt. CBR (pcf) 129.0 130.4 132.9 130.8 138.6 130.3 142.5 137.2 49.8 54.4 45.6 49.9 10.3 85.4 60.3 52.0 Subgrade unit wt. (pcf) 114.7 112.8 113.8 113.8 115.3 114.7 114.6 114.9 CBR 6.8 5.9 2.4 5.0 8.2 9.7 5.2 7.7 k (psi/in) 169 138 154 154 196 159 240 198

1 pcf = 157 N/m3, 1 in = 25.4 mm, 1 psi/in = 27.1 kPa/m

*Estimated at creep speed from Table 3

*Estimated speed from Table 3 1.2 Structural thickness=483mm 1.0 0.9957 1.0135 1.0227

1.6 Structural thickness=686mm 1.4 1.2815 1.2 1.0864 1.2317

Computed for Section 5-6-16

Computed for sect. 5-6-8

AASHO measurements*

Deflection (mm)

1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2

0.4

0.2

0.0 computed = estimated computed = estimated 1.0135 0.9957 1.0227 0.9957 =1.0179 Sect. 5-6-8 Loop 4

0.0 computed = estimated computed = estimated 1.2815 1.0864 1.2317 1.0864 =1.18 Sect. 5-6-16 =1.13 Sect. 6-9-12 Loop 6 Loop 6

=1.0281 Sect. 4-3-12 Loop 4

Fig. 10 Comparison of estimated and computed deflection for sections of Loop 4

Fig. 11 Comparison of estimated and computed deflection for sections of Loop 6

V. APPLICATIONS OF THE MODEL A preliminary model of asphalt overlay on an existing PCC surface layer was constructed and analyzed to demonstrate the capacity of the 3-D finite element model. Generally, geosynthetic material, normally called geogrid, is used to provide the reinforcement to prevent reflection cracks. Modeling geogrid is not as straightforward as modeling surface layer and subgrade because geogrid is like a strong and coarse-spaced net. It is desirable to model with interconnected truss elements or beam elements (Kuo and Hsu, 2003). However, it is beyond the scope of this paper which focuses on the development and validation of 3-D viscoelastic finite element model

of flexible pavements. A simplified modeling of gregrid was employed to serve the preliminary study of the 3-D composite structure model. A layer of membrane elements was placed between asphalt overlay and existing concrete slabs to simulate the reinforcement in the interface. Fig. 12 shows the equivalency between grid and membrane. Many designs of overlay with geogrid have been tested by highway agencies. Fig. 13 shows the analytical model loaded with an 80 kN axle directly on the location of an old joint. The geogrid modeled in the example was made of self-adhesive glass fiber having a Youngs modulus of 76 GPa (11.02106 psi) and a thickness of 1.3 mm (0.05 in). Basically, the critical stresses or strains that

Measurements*

0.6

Computed for Section 6-9-12

Deflection (mm)

0.8

Computed for Section 4-3-12

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E A F F F F nF nA E= wh w q qwh E: Youngs modulus of geogrid material A: Cross sectional area of a single grid F: Force carried by a single grid E: Youngs modulus of the equivalent membrane w: width of the equivalency extent h: membrane thickness (use the diameter of grids)
Fig. 12 Transformed geogrid for FEM model Principal strain at the bottom of overlay

0.004 With geogrid Without geogrid 0.003

F F

0.002

0.001

Distance in Y direction (m)

Fig. 14 Computed principal strain at bottom of asphalt overlay along the joint Axle load (80 kN) geotextile

0.5 m Asphalt overlay (102 mm) Existing PCC slab (203 mm) Subgrade (k=27.1 MPa/m)

points of analysis output Existing PCC slab joint

Fig. 13 The 3-D finite element model for reinforced overlay pavement

occur along the dashed line in Fig. 13 represent the points at the bottom of the overlay and at the joint. The computed strains at the bottom of the asphalt overlay along the joint are shown in Fig. 14. The figure clearly shows that geogrid reinforcement substantially reduces tensile strain at the bottom of the asphalt overlay. To illustrate the significance of strain reduction, allowable load repetitions for two different pavements were estimated and compared using the fatigue model shown in Eq. (5) (ERES, 1987), log 10N =-15.74 5.964 log 10 t where N the allowable equivalent 80 kN (18 kips) single axle applications for Pt =2.5 the tensile strain at the bottom of the asphalt overlay (5)

not be overestimated from the example of this preliminary analysis because of other contributing effects such as: structural conditions of the existing slabs, quality of bonding among geogrid, slab, asphalt overlay, and temperature cycling. All of these are crucial in evaluating the performance of reinforced asphalt overlay. Comprehensive analysis is needed for precise conclusions. Generally, this example demonstrates that the proposed 3-D finite element model is capable of performing efficient analysis of reinforced overlay designs and exploring the interactions between pavement layers and geogrid. VI. CONCLUSIONS 1. It is efficient to build a 3-D finite element model of flexible pavement by using finite elements and infinite elements simultaneously. It is suggested that finite elements be used to the extent of 3C away from the loading center horizontally, and to 1C vertically below the bottom of the surface layer. The finite elements boundary is connected with infinite elements to handle an infinite boundary such as uniform subgrade without rock bed or continuous pavement in the traffic direction. 2. The accuracy of computed stresses of the flexible pavement model was dominated by the extent of the finite element mesh in the vertical direction. Horizontal mesh refinement was not effective to improve accuracy of stress computation. 3. The accuracy of computed critical deflections of flexible pavement model was dominated by the extent of finite element mesh in horizontal direction. Vertical mesh refinement was not effective to improve accuracy of deflection.

Remarkable reduction of tensile strain and the increase of estimated ESAL are found in Fig. 15, after placing geogrid between the existing layer and the overlay. However, the advantages of geogrid should

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Journal of the Chinese Institute of Engineers, Vol. 27, No. 5 (2004)

0.0009 0.0008 0.0007

Max. tensile strain at bottom of asphalt overlay with geogrid without geogrid

Estimated allowable ESAL 10000000 1000000 100000 with geogrid without geogrid

Tensile strain

No. of ESAL

0.0006 0.0005 0.0004 0.0003

10000 1000 100

0.0002 0.0001 0 10 1
Fig. 15 The effect of geogrid on overlayed pavement

4. In this model, time histories of strains or creep stiffness of creep tests are needed to simulate viscoelastic responses of asphalt material. 5. The model was qualitatively validated in the aspects of analytical adequacy, material characteristics of viscoelasticity, and field test data. The results show that the model properly simulates the behavior of flexible pavements and predicts reasonable responses. Advanced justifications obtained by directly using comparisons from measured strains via lab and field tests are still needed to verify the accuracy of model outputs. 6. Significant improvement of estimated service life of asphalt overlays on concrete slabs were found after placing geogrid: between overlay and slabs, and under loading above the old joints. Further study is under way to characterize the behavior of an asphalt overlay with geogrid. REFERENCES ABAQUS Users Manual, Version 5.6, 1996a, Hibbitt, Karlsson and Sorensen, Inc., RI, USA. ABAQUS/Standard Example Problems Manual , Version 5.5, Vol. 1, 1995, Hibbitt, Karlsson and Sorensen, Inc., RI, USA. ABAQUS - Analysis of Viscoelastic Problems, 1996b, Hibbitt, Karlsson and Sorensen, Inc., RI, USA. Chen, D. H., Zaman, M., Laguros, J., and Soltani, A., 1995, Assessment of Computer Programs for Analysis of Flexible Pavement Structure, Transportation Research Record 1482 , Transportation Research Board, Washington, D. C., USA, pp. 123-133. ERES Consultants, Inc., 1987, Pavement Analysis: Principles and Practice, Training Manual prepared for Federal Highway Administration , IL, USA, p. 97.

Haddad, Y. M., 1995, Viscoelasticity of Engineering Materials , Chapman and Hall, New York, USA. Hadi, M. N. S., and Bodhinayake, B. C., 2003, Nonlinear Finite Element Analysis of Flexible Pavements, Advances in Engineering Software, Vol. 34, Nos. 11-12, pp. 657-662. Hjelmstad, K. D., Kim, J., and Zuo, Q. H., 1997, Finite Element Procedures for Three-dimensional Pavement Analysis, Aircraft Pavement/Technology - In the Midst of Change, ASCE, Seattle, WA, USA, pp. 125-137. HRB, 1962, The AASHTO Road Test Report 5 Pavement Research , Highway Research Board (HRB), WA, USA, D. C., USA. Huang, Y. H., 1993, Pavement Analysis and Design , Prentice-Hall Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ, USA. Ioannides, A. M., 1984, Analysis of Slab-on-Grade for a Variety of Loading and Support Conditions, Ph.D. Thesis , University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Champaign, IL, USA. Ioannides, A.M., Thompson, M. R., and Barenberg, E. J., 1985, Finite Element Analysis of Slab-onGrade Using a Variety of Support Models, Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Concrete Pavement Design and Rehabilitation , W. Lafayette ed., Purdue University, IN, USA, pp. 309-324. Kuo, C.-M., Hall, K. T., and Darter, M. I., 1996, Three-Dimensional Finite Element Model for Analysis of Concrete Pavement Support, Transportation Research Record, No. 1505 , Transportation Research Board, Washington, D.C., USA, pp. 119-127. Kuo, C.-M., and Hsu, T.-R., 2003, Traffic Induced Reflective Cracking on Pavements with GeogridReinforced Asphalt Concrete Overlay, Proceedings of the 11th Conference of Pavement Engineering,

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Kaoshiung, Taiwan, pp. 323-331. Malvern, L. E., 1969, Introduction to the Mechanics of a Continuous Medium, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, USA. Matthews, M. J., and Schmitt, F. C., 1995, Creep Tests for the Rutting Design of Field Highways, Proceedings of the International Conference of the Instrument Society of America , New Orleans, LA, USA, pp. 837-847. NCHRP, 1990, Calibrated Mechanistic Structural Analysis Procedures for Pavements, Vol. 1 - Final Report , NCHRP 1-26, National Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP), Transportation Research Board, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Construction Technology Lab., and The Asphalt Institute. Roberts, F. L., Kandhal, P. S., Brown, E. R., Lee, D. Y., and Kennedy, T. W., 1991, Hot Mix Asphalt Materials, Mix Design, and Construction ,

1st ed., NAPA Educational Foundation, Lanham, MD, USA. Rowe, G. M., Brown, S. F., Sharrock, M. J., and Bouldin, M. G., 1995, Viscoelastic Analysis of Hot Mix Asphalt Pavement Structures, Transportation Research Record 1482 , Transportation Research Board, Washington, D. C., USA, pp. 4451. Zaghloul, S., and White, T., 1992, Use of ThreeDimensional Dynamic Finite Element Program for Analysis of Flexible Pavement, Transportation Research Record, No.1388 , Transportation Research Board, Washington, D. C., USA, pp. 6069. Manuscript Received: Dec. 31, 2002 Revision Received: Jan. 06, 2004 and Accepted: Feb. 09, 2004