B.

FUELS AND COMBUSTION - LECTURE

1

1. Definitions
Fuel is composed of chemical elements which, in rapid chemical union with oxygen, produce combustion.

Combustion is that rapid chemical union with oxygen of an element whose exothermic heat of reaction is
sufficiently great and whose rate of reaction is sufficiently fast that useful quantities of heat are liberated at elevated
temperatures.

2. Classification of Fuels
2.1 Solid including coal, coke, peat, briquettes, wood, charcoal, and waste products
2.2 Liquid including petroleum and its derivatives, synthetic liquid fuels manufactured from natural gas and coal,
shale oil, coal by-products (including tars and light oil), and alcohols.
2.3 Gaseous including natural gas, manufactured and industrial by-product gases, and the propane and butane or,
liquefied petroleum (LP) gases that are stored and delivered as liquids under pressure but used in gaseous form.

3. Coal Classification
3.1 Classification by rank degree of metamorphism, or progressive alteration, in the natural series from lignite to
anthracite (lignite, subbituminous, semibituminous, bituminous, semianthracite, anthracite, superanthracite).
Probably the most universally applicable method of classification in which coals are arranged according to fixed
carbon content and calorific value, in Btu, calculated on the mineral-matter-free basis.
3.2 Classification by grade quality determined by size designation, calorific value, ash, ash-softening temperature,
and sulfur. The size designation is given first in accordance with the standard screen analysis method followed
by calorific value, and symbols representing ash, ash-softening temperature, and sulfur.
3.3 Classification by type or variety determined by nature of the original plant material and subsequent thereof.

4. Burners for Pulverized Coal
4.1 Vertical firing with all the secondary air admitted around the burner nozzle so that it mixes quickly with coal
primary air mixture from the burner nozzle.
4.2 Impact firing a form of vertical firing, consists of burners located in an arch low in the furnace or in the side
walls and directed toward the furnace door, with high velocities of both primary and secondary air. This type of
firing is used exclusively in wet-bottom or slagging type.
4.3 Horizontal firing employs a turbulent burner, which consists of a circular nozzle within a housing provided with
adjustable valves, the unit being located in the front or rear wall.
4.4 Corner or tangential firing is characterized by burners located in each corner of the furnace and directed
tangent to a horizontal, imaginary circle in the middle of the furnace, thereby making the furnace the burner in
effect, since turbulence and intensive mixing occur where the streams met.

5. Coke
Coke is the solid, infusible, cellular residue left after fusible bituminous coals are heated, in the absence of air,
above temperatures at which active thermal decomposition of the coal occurs.

Pitch coke or petroleum coke are obtained by similar heating of coal-tar pitch and petroleum residues.

High temperature coke is made from coal at temperature ranging from 815 C to 1093 C.

Low temperature coke is formed at temperatures below 704 C. The residue, if made from a non-cooking coal, is
known as char.


B. FUELS AND COMBUSTION - LECTURE

2

6. Charcoal
Charcoal is produced by partial combustion of wood at about 400 C and with limited air.

7. Liquid Fuels
Fuel Oil is defined as any liquid or liquefiable petroleum products burned for the generation of heat in a furnace of
firebox, of the generation of power in an engine, exclusive of oils with a flash point below 37.7 C.

Four Classes of Fuel Oils in common uses
a. Residual oils which are topped crude petroleums or viscous residuum obtained in refinery operations.
b. Distillate fuel oils which are distillates derived directly or indirectly from crude petroleum.
c. Crude petroleums and weathered crude petroleums of relatively low commercial value.
d. Blended fuels which are mixture of two or more of the preceding classes.

Commercial Fuel Oil Specifications
a. Grade no. 1 a distillate oil intended for vaporizing pot-type burners and other burners requiring this grade of
fuel.
b. Grade no. 2 a distillate oil for general purpose domestic heating in burners not requiring no. 1 fuel oil.
c. Grade no. 4 an oil for burner installation not equipped with pre-heating facilities.
d. Grade no. 5 a residual type oil for burner installation equipped with pre-heating facilities.
e. Grade no. 6 an oil for burners equipped with pre-heaters permitting a high-viscosity fuel.

8. Gasoline
Gasoline is defined as a refined petroleum naphtha which by its composition is suitable for use as a carburetant in
internal combustion engines.

Motor Gasoline is a mixture of hydrocarbons distilling in the range of 37.7 C to 204.4 C by the standard method of
test.

9. Kerosene
Kerosene is defined as a petroleum distillate having a flash point not below 22.8 C as determined by the Abel
tester and suitable as an illuminant when burned in a wick lamp.

10. Coal Tar
Coal Tar is a product of the destructive distillation of bituminous coal carried out at high temperature.

11. Liquefied Petroleum Gases (LPG)
Liquefied Petroleum Gases (LPG) are mixtures of hydrocarbons liquefied under pressure for efficient
transportation, storage, and use. They are generally composed of ethylene, propane, propylene, butane, isobutene,
and butylenes. Commercially, they are classed as propane, propane-butane mixtures, and butane. They are odorless,
colorless, and non-toxic.

12. Diesel Fuel Oils
Refiners grade fuels classified according to methods of production.
a. Distillate fuels are produced by distillation of crudes.
b. Residual fuels are those left after the distillation process.
c. Blended fuels are mixtures of straight distillate fuels with cracked fuel stocks.

B. FUELS AND COMBUSTION - LECTURE

3

Cracked stocks are residual of fuels which have been treated thermally or catalytically to obtain yields of lighter-
grade fuels or gasoline.

Lightest grade distillates classed as kerosene or No. 1 fuel oil, may have an initial boiling point of 176.6 C and end
point of 260 C.

Heaviest grades of distillates classed as No. 3 or 4 fuel oil, may have an initial boiling point of 232 C to 260 C and
end point of 343 C to 371 C.

Residual fuels, No. 4 or No. 5 are suitable only for the slower-speed diesel.

13. Gaseous Fuels
Gaseous fuels are commonly used in industry, whether distributed by public utilities or produced in isolated plants,
are composed of one or more simple gases in varying proportions.

14. Diesel Lubricating Oils
Crude oils are frequently described as paraffinic, napththenic, or mixed based according to the physical
characteristics of the crude.

Two broad types of oil
a. Straight oils are produced entirely from the crudes chosen through elimination of undesired constituents by
suitable refining processes.
b. Additive oils are produced by adding to straight mineral oils certain oil-soluble compounds that enhance the
lubricating oil properties for use in a diesel engine.

Additives are used principally to inhibit or slow down oxidation, to increase film strength, to keep solids in finely
divided state and to hold them in suspension, to improve the viscosity index, to lower the pour point, to decrease
friction and wear under extreme pressure conditions, to reduce foaming, and as rust or corrosion inhibitors.

SAE Three Types of Lubricating Oils
a. Regular type suitable for moderate operating conditions.
b. Premium type having oxidation stability and bearing corrosion preventive properties making it generally
suitable for more severe service than regular duty type.
c. Heavy duty type has oxidation stability, being corrosion-preventive properties, and detergent-dispersant
characteristics for use under heavy-duty service conditions.

SAE Numbers are a means of coordinating and standardizing the products of oil companies and the
recommendations by the oil companies. The system of SAE motor classification is a system based entirely on
viscosity and is totally unrelated the other qualities of a lubricating oil.

15. Specific Gravity
Specific Gravity a dimensionless parameter, it is the ratio of the mass of a unit volume of fuel to the mass of the
same volume of a standard substance at a specified temperature.

water of density
fuel liquid of density
SG =

air of density
fuel gaseous of density
SG =
B. FUELS AND COMBUSTION - LECTURE

4

In reporting SG data the 15.6 C or 60 F standard is common, that is, the oil is at 15.6 C or 60 F and is referred to the
density of water taken at 15.6 C or 60 F. Specific gravity at other temperature with correction factor,
( ) [ ] 6 15 0007 0 1
6 15
. .
.
= t SG SG
C
t
o
in SI units
( ) [ ] 60 0004 0 1
60
= t SG SG
F
t
.
o
in English units

American Petroleum Institute Gravity Unit,
o
API
- Is the accepted standard by the petroleum and oil industry, it was drawn up to correct vales measured by
incorrectly calibrated hydrometers.
5 131
6 15
5 141
.
.
.
=
C at SG
API
o
o


Baume Gravity Unit,
o
Baume or
o
Be
- Another standard commonly associated with brine.
130
6 15
140
=
C at SG
Baume
o
o
.


16. Viscosity
Viscosity is measure of resistance to flow.

Absolute Viscosity is defined as that unit force required to move one layer of a fluid at unit relative velocity to
another layer of the fluid which is at unit distance from the first.

Kinematic Viscosity is defined as the ratio of absolute viscosity divided by density.

Units of viscosity:
Absolute viscosity,
1 reyn = 1 kb-sec / in
2

1 poise 1 dyne-se/cm
2
= 0.1 Pa-sec
Kinematic Viscosity,
1 stoke = 1 cm
2
/sec = 0.0001 m
2
/sec

Centipoises and centistokes are more commonly used.

Saybolt viscosimeter measures the time required for a given quantity of oil at standard temperature to flow
through a specified tube.

SSU (Saybolt Second Universal) is obtained by timing the interval required for 60 cc of oil to flow through tube or
pass through a standard orifice.
For 30 to 45 SSU at 37.8 C, Centistokes = 0.308(SSU 26)
Or s centistoke
SSU
SSU
180
22 . 0 =
SSF (Saybolt Second Furol) unit used for very viscous liquids using a relatively large orifice.
62 SSF = 600 SSU




B. FUELS AND COMBUSTION - LECTURE

5

17. Other Properties
Flash point is the temperature at which oil gives off vapor that burns temporarily when ignited.
Flash point is the temperature to which oil must be heated to give off sufficient vapor to form an inflammable
mixture with air.
Flash point is the temperature at which ignition of the fuel vapors rising above the heated oil will occur when
exposed to an open flame.

Fire point is the temperature at which oil gives off vapor that burns continuously when ignited.

Pour point is the temperature at which oil will no longer pour freely or the temperature at which oil will solidify.

Dropping point is the temperature at which grease melts.

Cloud point is the temperature at which the paraffin elements separate from oil.

Conradson number (carbon residue) is the carbonaceous residue remaining after destructive distillation, expressed
in percentage by weight of the original sample.

Viscosity index indicates the relative change in viscosity of an oil for a given temperature change.

Octane number the ignition quality rating of gasoline, which is the percentage by volume of iso-octane in a mixture
of iso-octane and heptanes that matches the gasoline in anti-knock quality.

Cetane number the ignition quality rating of diesel, which is the percent of cetane in the standard fuel.

Aniline point is that temperature where equal parts if oil and aniline will dissolve in each other.

Volatility is the ability of a liquid fuel to change into vapor which is manifested in the temperature range at which
various portions of the fuel are vaporized.

18. Composition of Fuels
a. Paraffins, CnH2n+2 saturated hydrocarbons, very stable in characters
b. Olefins, CnH2n unsaturated hydrocarbons, characterized by the presence of a double bond between carbon
atoms.
c. Diiolefins, CnH2n-2 less saturated than olefins, characterized by the presence of two double bonds.

19. Analysis of Composition
19.1 Proximate analysis is made by heating the coal until it decomposes successively into three of the four
complex items of proximate analysis. The fourth is found by the difference. A typical proximate analysis of
coal determines the percentage of moisture, volatile matter, fixed carbon, and ash.
a. Moisture is determined by subjecting a 1-g sample of the coal to a temperature of 220 F to 230 F
for a period of exactly 1 hr.
b. Volatile matter consists of hydrogen and certain hydrogen-carbon compounds that can be
removed from the coal merely by heating it.
c. Ash is performed by heating the sample of coal used in the moisture determination to a
temperature of 1290 F to 1380 F in an uncovered crucible, with good air circulation, until the coal is
completely burned.
B. FUELS AND COMBUSTION - LECTURE

6

d. Fixed Carbon is the difference between 100 % and the sum of the percentages of moisture, ash,
and volatile matter.
19.2 Ultimate analysis analysis of composition of fuel which gives, on mass basis, the relative amounts of
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, ash, and moisture.


20. Basis of Reporting Analysis
a. As received or as fired
b. Dry or moisture free
c. Moisture and ash free or combustible
d. Moisture, ash, and sulfur free

21. Heating Values of Fuels or Calorific Value
a. Higher heating value (gross calorific value), HHV is the heating value obtained when the water in the products
of combustion is in the liquid state.
b. Lower heating value (net calorific value), LHV is the heating value obtained when the water in the products of
combustion is in the vapor state.

22. Methods of Determining Heating Values
22.1 Laboratory experiment
22.1.1 Bomb calorimeter for solid and liquid fuels
22.1.2 Gas calorimeter for gaseous fuels
22.2 Empirical formulas
22.2.1 Dulongs formula for solid fuels of known ultimate analysis.
kg kJ S
O
H HHV 304 , 9
8
212 , 144 820 , 33 + |

\
|
+ =

lb Btu S
O
H HHV 4050
8
000 , 62 600 , 14 + |

\
|
+ =
22.2.2 ASME Formula for petroleum products
( ) kg kJ API HHV
o
6 . 139 130 , 41 + =

( ) lb Btu API HHV
o
60 680 , 17 + =
22.2.3 Bureau of Standard formula
( ) kg kJ SG HHV
2
8 . 793 , 8 716 , 51 =

( ) lb Btu SG HHV
2
3780 230 , 22 =

Difference between higher and lower heating values
HHV LHV = 9H
2
(2442) in SI units
HHV - LHV = 9H
2
(1050) in English units
Where:
9H
2
= lbs or kg of water formed per lb or kg of fuel burned.
2442 kJ/kg or 1050 Btu/lb latent heat of vaporization of water.
Also H
2
= 26-15(SG), percent by weight.

23. Fuel Production Process
a. Fractional distillation the primary method of crude oil refining.
B. FUELS AND COMBUSTION - LECTURE

7

b. Thermal cracking changing heavy oil into gasoline by means of high pressure, high temperature and longer
exposure time.
c. Catalytic cracking subjects oil to high pressure and high temperature in the presence of a catalyst; permit
accurate control of the compounds formed and produces a gasoline of higher octane number than the one
produced in thermal cracking.
d. Hydrogenation process of catalytic cracking in a hydrogen atmosphere; obtained are more saturated products
than those from cracking process alone.
e. Isomerization process by which the atoms of carbon and hydrogen in normal hydrocarbons are rearranged to
produce a more complex structure of higher anti-knock value.
f. Polymerization makes use of high pressure, high temperature and a catalyst to combine light and volatile gases
into gasoline.
g. Alkylation process of combining an isoparaffin usually iso-butane, with an olefin, usually butane or propane, to
form a large isoparaffin molecule, usually iso-octane or iso-heptane, having a very high octane number.
h. Reforming used to obtain fuels with substantially higher than 100 octane number; currently used to process
about forty percent of motor gasoline.
i. Hydrodesulfurization process of adding hydrogen to unsaturated hydrocarbons and reducing the sulfur
content of the resulting fuel oil.

24. Combustion
Combustion a chemical reaction between fuel and oxygen (air) which is accompanied by heat and light.

25. Composition of Air and Molecular Weights
a. Composition by weight
76.8 % nitrogen, 23.2 % oxygen
Or 76.8 / 23.2 = 3.3 lb of nitrogen per lb of oxygen.
b. Composition by volume
79.0 % nitrogen, 21.0 % oxygen
Or 79.0/21.0 = 3.76 moles of nitrogen per moles of oxygen
c. Molecular weights
Air = 28.97 kg/kgmole
C = 12 kg/kgmole
H
2
= 2 kg/kgmole
O
2
= 32 kg/kgmole
N
2
= 28 kg/kgmole
S = 32 kg/kgmole

26. Air Fuel Ratio
Theoretical air-fuel ratio, W
ta
is the exact theoretical amount, as determined from the combustion reaction, of air
needed to burn a unit amount of fuel, kg air per kg fuel or lb air per lb fuel.
S
O
H C W
ta
32 4
8
36 34 53 11
2
2
. . . + |

\
|
+ =

where:
W
ta
= theoretical air, lb per lb fuel
C = carbon, lb per lb fuel
H
2
= hydrogen, lb per lb fuel
O
2
= oxygen, lb per lb fuel
S = sulfur, lb per lb fuel

B. FUELS AND COMBUSTION - LECTURE

8

Actual air-fuel ratio, W
aa
is determined by the presence of excess air which is defined as the amount of air supplied
over and above the theoretical air.
( )
ta aa
W e W + = 1


ta
ta aa
W
W W
e

=
where e is the excess air in decimal.

27. Typical Combustion Reaction
Fuel + Air = Product of Combustion
( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2 2 2
25 0 76 3 5 0 25 0 76 3 25 0 N m n O mH nCO N m n O m n H C
m n
. . . . . . + + + + + + +

( )( ) ( )
m n
m n
m n
m n
W
ta
+
+
=
+
+ +
=
12
25 0 28 137
12
28 76 3 32 25 0 . . . .


28. Classification of combustion reaction
a. Combustion reaction with chemically-correct or stoichiometric condition general chemical formula of the fuel is
C
n
H
m
.
b. Combustion reaction with greater amount of theoretical air, or having a fuel-lean mixture.
c. Combustion reaction with lesser amount of theoretical air, or having a fuel-rich mixture.

29. Equivalence ratio for a given mass of air, .
aa
ta
W
W
=
Note:
= 1, for stoichiometric mixture.
< 1, for fuel-lean mixture.
> 1, for fuel-rich mixture.

30. Orsat Analyzer
Orsat analyzer is a convenient portable apparatus for determining the volumetric percentage of CO
2
, O
2
, and CO in
the dry flue gas.

31. Dry Flue Gases from Actual Combustion
( )
ab dg
C
CO CO
O CO
W
+
+ +
=
2
2 2
3
700 4

Boiler test code formula corrected to account for the SO
2
.
( )
( )
S S C
CO CO
N CO O CO
W
ab dg
8
5
8
3
3
7 8 11
2
2 2 2
+
(

+
+
+ + +
=

where:
CO
2
, O
2
, CO, and N
2
are volumetric Orsat analysis
C
ab
and S are decimal fractions by weight.

32. Weight of dry refuse from the coal analysis
r
r
C
A
W

=
1

B. FUELS AND COMBUSTION - LECTURE

9

where:
W
r
= dry refuse per lb coal as fired, lb
A = ash in coal, lb
C
r
= combustible In 1 lb of refuse.

33. Carbon Actually Burned
A W C C
r ab
+ =
Or
600 14,
r
r ab
HV
W C C =
where:
C
ab
= carbon actually burned per lb of fuel, lb
C = carbon in 1 lb of fuel, lb
HV
r
= heating value of the dry refuse, Btu per lb.

34. Carbon burned to CO due to incomplete combustion.
ab i
C
CO CO
CO
C
+
=
2

where C
i
is the pounds of carbon the CO per pound of fuel burned.

35. Air Actually Used During Combustion
2
2
2
8
8 N S C
O
H W W
ab dg aa
|

\
|
+ =
Values of H
2
, O
2
, S, and N
2
are obtained from the ultimate analysis of the fuel and all values are expressed as
decimals.

36. Boiler Heat Balance
Consist of percentage energy absorbed by boiler fluid, energy loss due to dry flue gases, energy loss due to moisture
in fuel, energy loss due to evaporating and superheating moisture formed by combustion of hydrogen, energy loss
due to incomplete combustion of carbon to CO, energy loss due to combustible in the refuse, and energy loss due to
radiation and unaccounted for totaling to higher heating value as 100%.

a. Energy absorbed by boiler fluid.
The useful output of the steam generator is the heat transferred to the fluid.
( )
f
w
W
h h W
Q
1 2
1

=

in which
W
w
= weight of fluid flowing through the boiler during the test, lb
h
1
and h
2
= fluid enthalpies entering and leaving the boiler, respectively, Btu per lb
W
f
= weight of fuel burned during test, lb

Q
1
expressed as a percentage of the higher heating value of the fuel is the boiler efficiency.


B. FUELS AND COMBUSTION - LECTURE

10

b. Energy loss due to dry flue gas.
This loss is the greatest of any of the boiler losses for a properly operated unit.
( )
a g dg
t t W Q = 24 0
2
.

in which
0.24 = specific heat of the flue gas at constant pressure, Btu per lb per deg F.
t
g
= temperature of the gas leaving the boiler, F
t
a
= temperature of the air entering the boiler, F
c. Energy loss due to evaporating and superheating moisture in fuel.
Moisture entering the boiler with the fuel leaves as a superheated vapor in the same way as does moisture
from the combustion of hydrogen.
( ) F t when t t M Q
g f g f
575 46 0 1089
3
< + = , .

( ) F t when t t M Q
g f g f
575 5 0 1066
3
> + = , .

where
M
f
= moisture in fuel, lb per lb of fuel
t
f
= temperature of fuel, F
d. Energy loss due to evaporating and superheating moisture formed by combustion of hydrogen.
This loss is higher for gaseous fuels containing relatively large percentages of hydrogen than for the average low-
hydrogen coal.
( )
ff
h h H Q =
2 4
9

where:
h
2
= weight of hydrogen in the fuel, lb per lb fuel
h = enthalpy of superheated vapor, Btu per lb
h
ff
= enthalpy of liquid at the incoming fuel temperature
or
( ) F t when t t H Q
g f g
575 46 0 1089 9
2 4
< + = , .

( ) F t when t t H Q
g f g
575 5 0 1066 9
2 4
> + = , .

The proper value of H2 to be used in the equation is the amount of hydrogen in the fuel that is available for
combustion. To obtain the value of H
2
, deduct from the value of H
2
in ultimate analysis one ninth of the weight
of moisture from the proximate analysis.
e. Energy loss due to incomplete combustion.
Products formed by incomplete combustion may be mixed with oxygen and burned again with a further release
of energy.
lb Btu
CO CO
CO
C C Q
ab i
+
= =
2
5
160 10 160 10 , ,

f. Energy loss due to unconsumed carbon.
All combustible in the refuse may be assumed to be carbon, since the other combustible parts of coal would
probably be distilled out of the fuel before live embers would drop into ash pit.
B. FUELS AND COMBUSTION - LECTURE

11

( ) lb Btu C C Q
ab
= 600 14
6
,

or
r r
HV W Q =
6

g. Unaccounted-for and radiation loss.
This loss is due to radiation, incomplete combustion resulting in hydrogen and hydrocarbons in the flue gas, and
unaccounted-for losses.
6 5 4 3 2 1 7
Q Q Q Q Q Q HHV Q =

h. Boiler Heat Balance Tabulation
Item Energy, Btu per lb fuel Percentage
Q
1

Q
2

Q
3

Q
4

Q
5

Q
6

Q
7

HHV 100%

- End -























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