Freesia Culture Guide

Freesia
Culturedescription
1. 1.1.
Soil Soil Freesias can be successfully grown in virtually all types of soil. From the point of view of workability, however, the somewhat lighter soils are to be preferred. The structure of the soil is very important. In the case of potentially muddy soils watering can cause an almost impermeable crust to form. With these soils there is a good chance that emergence of the planting material will be hampered and that the corms will break away easily from the root and/or be attacked by soil-borne fungi. In humus-deficient soils the use of organic material can make an important contribution to improving the structure. Tests have revealed that a good organic supplementation has a beneficial effect on the emergence and development of the freesia. In practice 1 to 1 m of black peat or milled sod peat is usually administered per 100 m to achieve this aim. Organic material is also used to cover the nursery beds. The function of the covering material is to prevent the soil from drying out and acquiring a hard crust as a result of watering. It also helps ensure better control of the soil temperature. In general the covering materials contain little nutriment. Soil disinfection At most year-round nurseries steam sterilisation takes place before each cultivation. As a result, the duration of the steam sterilisation per cultivation has become shorter. It is also worth mentioning that more and more nurseries are using steam sterilisation with underpressure. Lime and pH Freesias can grow well within quite a wide pH range. The preference, however, is for soils with a somewhat higher pH. In mineral soils with a calcium carbonate content below 0.2 or a pH below 6.5, liming is recommended. Good results are to be expected on peaty soils with a pH around 5.5. If the pH is too high, certain deficiency symptoms can arise more easily. Salinity and residue on ignition Freesias appears to be rather salt-sensitive. Too high a sodium chloride content or too high a residue on ignition delays emergence and causes some late blooming. The permissible limits for freesias are: Maximum permissible sodium chloride content: 3 mmol Cl per litre. Total salt: maximum permissible EC = 1.5 to 2. At the start of cultivation in particular a lower figure than those mentioned above must be used. Slightly higher figures have a positive effect on the development of the corm.
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1.2.
1.3.
1.4.
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2.
Fertilisation Generally speaking practical experience has shown that freesias display few deficiency symptoms. Various deficiency symptoms have, however, been stimulated in water culture. We have made a selection from the results obtained, and these are shown below. The possibility of these symptoms also arising in practice is not, however, purely notional.
2.1.
Target value
GrowthphaseFirst6weeksofcultivation
Nitrogenneed:high
C1 SO4 HCO3 2.3 P 0.15
Targetvalues
NH4 K Na Ca Mg NO3 EC pH 0.7 6.9 0.1 1.5 0.8 1.0 1.5 3
0.3 1.5
2.2.
Deficiency symptoms
Nitrogendeficiency
Plant growth is inhibited/strongly inhibited depending on the extent of the deficiency. All the leaves, but especially the young ones, are somewhat lighter in colour and smaller in form. The peduncles are short and thin with no or few hooks. The flower crest contains fewer buds than normal. Nitrogen tests have revealed that, especially in older greenhouses where the soil has been heavily manured in the past, nitrogen deficiency will not be so readily observed. The soil therefore has its part to play. It is on light sandy soils that this deficiency will be encountered earliest.
Calciumdeficiency
The growth of the plants is strongly inhibited. The young leaves grow upwards and display unusual breadth, with the tips constricted over a length of 2 to 10 cm. On this constricted part of the leaf a secondary constriction is often found. The constricted part slowly dies at the lowermost constriction, turns light brown and curls up: these are the so-called 'white tips'. The pattern of damage is very similar to that of borium deficiency, but in calcium deficiency the constricted leaf tips remain green for longer. 'White tips' are often observed in practice, especially when the plant's development is otherwise strong. The question here is whether calcium or borium deficiency is the culprit. It is also a moot point whether this symptom is entirely due to the fertilisation status.

Iron deficiency The leaves are smaller than normal and light in colour. The young leaves in particular are light green. This light green coloration will be especially conspicuous between the veins. In serious cases there is growth inhibition. Effective control is possible by using Chel Fe 138 (dissolve 4 to 10 gram per m in water and then post-rinse the plant). Under unfavourable growth conditions, such as too cold and wet a soil which causes the corm to break off from the root, symptoms can arise that are very similar to those of iron deficiency. Improving the conditions will cause the deficiency to rapidly disappear. Iron deficiency often arises after the soil has been steam sterilised for a long period and then kept thoroughly moist (i.e. especially in summer plantings). Fluorine damage ('fire') Freesias are sensitive to fluorine. The plant accumulates fluorine and displays areas of scorching. The colour can vary from off-white to reddish brown. The fluorine can come from the soil or the air. Fluorine from the soil can come from, among other sources, phosphate fertilisers and minerals in the soil. Fluorine from the air comes from fluorine-based glass-cleaning agents (many brands) and industrial vapours. The more the plant evaporates the more water is taken up from the soil and, if present, the more fluorine as well. Control this by using fertilisers with a low fluorine content and by avoiding glass-cleaning agents with a fluorine basis. 3. 3.1. Planting Planting material Always start with healthy and disease-free planting material with a low virus count, free of Fusarium oxysporum/flowerbulb mite. The planting material must be thoroughly mature, i.e. the roots must be clearly visible. Corm disinfection Corms can be disinfected against dry rot and corm rot (Fusarium oxysporum). It is important to prepare as small a quantity of solution as possible and not to add any more at the end of the disinfection. Do not allow the planting material to dry out after it has been dipped in various disinfectants as scorching of the root tips can occur.
3.2.
3.3.
Plant spacing The number of corms planted per m depends on: - the time of year: in the summer fewer corms or cormlets are planted per m than, for example, in the spring. This is because a summer planting will mean that flowering will take place during a light-deficient period; - the variety: in the case of cultivars with broad and very pendent (droopy) leaves fewer corms or cormlets are planted per m than when the cultivars have narrow or few leaves;

the plant size. at the same planting fewer of the large sizes are planted per m than the smaller sizes. In general the number of corms varies from 64 to 100 per m and that of cormlets from 115 to 160 per m bed.
Planting is usually done on beds 112.5 cm broad (9 meshes of 12.5 x 12.5 cm) with a spacing of 12.5 cm. The path width is 40 to 45 cm. If planting is done longitudinally then five lines are usual. In recent times 120 cm gauze has increasingly been used, with 8 meshes of 12.5 x 15 cm each. 3.4. Planting methods The most important planting methods are: - in gauze. In this method the gauze is rolled out on the nursery bed before planting: the plant spacing is indicated by the gauze The corms or cormlets are then pressed into the soil. If the planting material is so mature that the root tips are prominent, they must be handled very carefully to prevent damage. In this method holes are made before planting. On heavy, loamy soils or clayey soils, pressing in the planting material almost always causes damage. In such cases it is better to make lines in which the corms are laid; - with a dibble. There are various types of dibbles. Before planting, holes are made in the meshes of the gauze or the distance between the holes is determined with a measuring staff. The corms or cormlets are laid in the holes and the holes are then brushed over with a large broom; - with a planting roller. A planting roller is rolled across the bed. The planting material is pressed into the soil on the lines that have been made; - with a plant setting machine . In some cases a plant setting machine is used. Multi-row plant setting machines are available with which the spacing can be varied. When the high cooling or high heating system is used this machine can withdraw the hoses simultaneously in one soaking pass. Experience with this machine is currently being acquired. Covering the soil After planting you are recommended to cover the soil to obtain better control of the soil temperature and to counteract structural deterioration. Possible covering materials include pine needles, wood shavings, granulated peat, straw and styromull. Irrigation/Microirrigation If you are confronted with a high salinity (salt content) then it is advisable to rinse the soil thoroughly before planting. After planting make sure that the soil is only averagely moist and not too wet for the start of cultivation.
3.5.
4.

Freesias only take up considerable amounts of water when they have developed their tap roots. In warm weather you should preferably water in the mornings because the soil temperature is then at its lowest; this prevents overheating. Before covering the soil make sure that it is moist enough. An ideal way of watering is via microirrigation (trickle irrigation). In this case you would use 2 3 thin plastic hoses per bed laid under the covering material. To ensure an even distribution 9 12 droppers per m of bed are required, the exact number depending on the type of soil. During the first 5 to 6 weeks of the cultivation you would normally use the sprinkler line. After that you would change over to microirrigation. Start by giving 1 to 2 litres of water per m per day depending on the evaporation rate. You can also automate the trickling via a computer. To prevent blockage of the droppers you can use the best-quality rainwater or tapwater (provided it is not too salty). If you use ditchwater then always pass it through a fine filter. The great advantage of microirrigation is that you can administer water at all times without the plant becoming too wet, which is important in the winter, and that you can usually work on the plant while you are watering it. 5. Support After planting and covering the soil, supports must be fitted before the freesias emerge. When the plants emerge they can then grow straight through the meshes of the gauze. Two spans of gauze are required, except for cultivars that produce a large plant where three layers of gauze are necessary. Support is essential to keep the plants upright. The plant must remain 'open' to the light; it must also be possible for air to circulate around the plant and between the individual plants. Dividing stretchers should be placed at an equal distance not exceeding three metres to support the gauze. The height of the gauze must be matched to these stretchers. 6. Thinning out If several shoots emerge after planting you are recommended to remove the extra ones so that just one shoot remains per plant. This stops the plants from crowding each other. Thinning also improves quality and increases uniformity. 7. Screening With strong insolation (sun) and a high temperature you must take steps to protect the freesias. The aim is to keep the relative humidity up to a reasonable level (50%/60%) and, in the case of a summer planting, to keep the soil temperature down (17). You can protect the plants by applying a chalk screen on the outside of the greenhouse or by fixing up a protective cloth on the inside of it. Autumn plantings (Sept/Oct/Nov/Dec) do not need any screening apart from during the harvest and the emergence of the planting material (Apr/May/June).

Winter plantings (Jan/Feb/Mar) are only screened when the stems are emerging from theplant. Summer plantings (Apr/May/June/July) are usually screened to keep the soil temperature at as favourable a level as possible during the budding (17 C). The chalk screen must be removed in Aug/Sept in 2 to 3 phases to prevent leaf scorching. By the end of September the glass must be completely free of chalk. 8. 8.1. Climate The ideal climate Which climate is ideal for freesias depends to a very large extent on the development phase of the plant. Factors such as the type of cultivar, the corm size and temperature control of the dry planting material also affect the requirements that the climate must meet. The whole period between planting out and the lifting of the corms and cormlets can be subdivided into three developmental phases: Growth phase 1: from planting out to budding In this period all the leaves and flowers are formed. This process is highly temperaturesensitive. A temperature change of just 1 to 2 C is enough to cause a clearly discernible shift of equilibrium in vegetative and generative development. Because the leaves and flowers form at the growing point, which is located in the soil, it is obvious that, during this period, control of the soil temperature is of decisive importance for the end result of the cultivation. If you are starting from corms a soil temperature of 15 to 16 C is necessary in this phase. Depending on plant maturity and the variety, 3 to 5 weeks at this temperature is required for the leaves to emerge. After that the plant enters the budding phase, which lasts 3 to 5 weeks. For a full vegetative development cormlets require a somewhat higher soil temperature (17 to 18 C), while the time to full budding is 2 to 3 weeks longer than in the case of corms. Growth phase 2: from full budding to flowering The already emerged flowers and leaves must develop further in this period. The soil temperature is now somewhat less important than it was during the first growth phase. The climate above ground is now of more importance. For a smooth, undisturbed growth, changes in the air temperature and atmospheric humidity must be avoided as much as possible. Wide and/or sudden fluctuations are harmful, especially during the period in which the peduncles are extending themselves: the peduncles can be crooked or stunted as a result. The most suitable temperature and atmospheric humidity depend on the light intensity (see table). Table of desirable temperatures and atmospheric humidity
8.2.
8.3.
8.4.
Temperature
Night Day: overcast Day: sunny 7 to 9 C 8 to 10 C 16 to 18 C
Relative atmospheric humidity Less than 95% Less than 85% More than 60%

8.5.
'Rapid and Beach Freesias' For 25 years we have been searching within the framework of our plant breeding programme for a freesia that is less sensitive to higher soil temperatures but which nonetheless produces a guaranteed flowering. This has resulted in the RAPID and BEACH series. This is a freesia that reaches flowering in approx. 100 days without the use of soil cooling. Since the bud is formed quite easily, the ideal climate is as shown below. After planting RAPID demand more light: approx. 50% more light can be allowed compared with the 'standard' freesia. If the screening is too heavy this can reduce the soil temperature, which can cause the bud to form prematurely and the total plant to be too short. It is therefore recommended that, after planting, you allow a sufficiently large plant to develop as quickly as possible before allowing the buds to form. If you allow too much light during this period the plant will also be too short. When the plant has developed sufficiently (approx. 20 25 cm.) it may be allowed to bud. At very high temperatures extra screening must be used for approx. 3 weeks to allow the buds to form completely. After the budding more light can once again be allowed in. For further information on cultivation see the 'Climate' section earlier in this booklet.
9. 9.1.
Cultivation methods Cultivation methods Freesias are planted, harvested and lifted all the year round. A number of important periods can, however, be distinguished. We can make the following classification according to the time of year.
Flowering period
g
Summer Autumn Winter
Plantingtime
Harvestperiod
ertoJanuary
February to April May and June July to September
htoMay
June to August September to November December to February
There is another cultivation scheme in which the freesias are planted each month, see fig. 2. The classifications shown are based on averages. Differences in production time can arise as a result of differences in: - riddle size: large sizes flower earlier than small sizes and corms earlier than cormlets. - temperature control. - cultivar characteristics. - greenhouse climate.

9.2.
Spring flowering The best corms can be used as starting material for the spring flowering. Cormlets give a lower production and a lighter quality. It really only makes sense to plant cormlets in this period if you want to multiply valuable batches. Excellent planting material can be obtained from both corms and cormlets with this method of cultivation. In plantings from November onwards soil heating will be necessary to keep the soil temperature at 15 to 16 C. This prevents premature budding. After planting the soil can be covered with AC foil. During this period an air temperature of 6 to 8 C can suffice. After 3 to 4 weeks the covering material is removed. An air temperature of at least 8 to 10 C must then be maintained, but a temperature of 12 to 13 C is preferable. The soil temperature is maintained at 15 to 16 C for 5 to 7 weeks. If the freesias are covered with plastic after planting, no farmyard manure or dried fertiliser should be used before the cultivation to avoid scorching the plant. Almost all cultivars can be used for this form of cultivation. Depending on variety the spacing is 80 to 112 corms/m of bed. Summer flowering Both corms and cormlets are used for the summer flowering. To ensure adequate plant formation and to prevent premature budding, auxiliary heating will have to be used at the start of this period. For cormlets a soil temperature of approx. 17 C is maintained for 6 to 7 weeks. For corms a soil temperature of approx. 15 C for 3 to 4 weeks is adequate. In order to achieve this soil temperature soil heating is also used: if necessary the soil can be covered with AC foil. Fewer cultivars are suited to this kind of cultivation than to spring flowering. Planting material of good quality can be lifted. The maturing of the plant under warm conditions has a negative impact on the quality of the planting material. The greenhouse must therefore be shielded during strong insolation. Using this planting time a considerable increase in planting material can be achieved. In sunny weather, shortly before or during the harvest, the greenhouse is lightly shielded. The flowers then mature less rapidly, which ensures better quality. Depending on the variety the spacing is 80 to 112 corms per m bed. Autumn flowering Freesias for autumn flowering are planted mostly in May and June. This planting time causes quite a few problems, however, especially in the maintenance of the right soil temperature. The soil temperature largely determines the freesia's flowering time. A warm summer can cause up to two months delay in flowering compared with a cool summer (see the chapter on soil cooling). Both corms and cormlets can be planted in this period. Corms can produce a higher yield however. You should preferably plant cormlets in the period between May and the beginning of June. During this planting period in particular you are recommended to pretreat the planting material for one to two weeks at a temperature of 14 C.
9.3.
9.4.

Depending on variety, 100 to 128 cormlets are planted per m of bed. On light soils the gauze is rolled out before planting, after which the freesias are pressed into the meshes. On somewhat heavier soils and when the planting material is extremely mature it is easier to mark out lines within which the freesias can be planted. This helps prevent damage to the root tips. During this planting period you are recommended to plant rather deeper (6 to 8 cm.). At this depth the soil temperature is lower and more consistent than it is further up and it therefore has a favourable effect on the budding. After planting the soil is covered with organic material (preferably light-coloured). From about August onwards, depending on the temperature, the flower has formed. When the flowerbud is 2 to 3 cm above the corm a start must be made on giving the plant more light. To avoid scorching the plant this should not be done all at once. The plant must become gradually accustomed to the light and the changed climatic conditions associated with it. 9.5. Leaf removal If too strong a plant development has taken place (usually in the autumn and the winter) or is expected, you must remove the tips of the leaves. Pendent (droopy) and recumbent (lying) leaves in particular must be removed. The upper layer of the plant will then remain open, which will facilitate light entry and air movement in the plant. Leaf lopping is used most in freesia cultivation in spring and winter flowerings due to the excessively strong plant development. Nonetheless it can also be necessary at other times of year. The leaf must be removed when the flowerbud is a few centimetres above the corm. Given that this treatment involves the most active leaf parts, no more leaf should be removed than is strictly necessary. This leaf removal is usually done by machine using specially-adapted lawn mowers; this saves a considerable amount of work. Winter flowering For cultivation with winter flowering, corms are preferred over cormlets because of their greater growing power. From the end of July onwards most cultivars can be used for this form of cultivation. Depending on variety the spacing is 64 to 85 corms per m bed. If the plant is too full the flowerbuds will be wholly or partially dried up because of light deficiency (the so-called 'dull' tips). To keep the plant open, leaf removal will usually be necessary in this form of cultivation. For an optimum soil temperature the use of soil cooling is recommended (see chapter on soil cooling), because the soil temperature is often too high at the outset. To be able to lift good planting material the crop will have to remain where it is until at least the end of March/beginning of April. A precondition is that the plant is healthy and still has good roots. Often it is more sensible to lift immediately after the end of the harvest in order then to replant the freesias. An improvement in production and quality is possible through assimilation lighting. Assimilation lighting More light in the winter leads to better quality and higher production. This is apparent both from research and from practical experience. Assimilation lighting only makes sense when all the other factors, such as glass fittings, planting material, soil cooling and the administration of CO2, are optimum. Before investing in assimilation lighting you should make careful calculations because the extra costs will have to be recovered by extra production and better quality. Apply supplemental lighting to 200 225 Wh.m.
9.6.
9.7.

10.
Cultivation
10.1. Cultivation In freesia cultivation the minimum temperature that must be maintained is approximately 8 C. You can choose between hot air and tube heating. Although good results can be achieved with hot air heating, tube heating is preferable. The advantage of tube heating is the better and more even heat distribution and the fact that heating the plant with open ventilators is made easier. In addition to above-ground heating soil heating is also necessary in freesia cultivation. You can only use hot air heating to heat the soil in nurseries if a separate heating boiler is acquired for this purpose. 10.2. Plant heating For plant heating tubylene hoses are used in the bed, or aluminium and steel tubes in or around it. To obtain an effective heat distribution two hoses/tubes are desirable, laid immediately above the soil as far as, as a maximum, the lowest net to maximise heat emission. The plant heating is used as a primary heating system, so the water temperature should not be allowed to fall below 40 C. Metal tubes have the advantage that they are less subject to stretching and shrinkage than tubylene hoses and, in addition, have a better heat transfer. Tubylene hoses have the advantage of being cheaper. To largely prevent the expansion of tubylene hoses these are heated once (provided they are suitable for such a treatment) to approximately 70 C and then pulled taut. 10.3. Soil heating For a better control of freesia cultivation use is generally made of soil heating. In the late autumn, winter and early spring especially, soil heating is very suitable for keeping the soil at the right temperature. Four tubylene hoses (26 mm diameter) are required per bed. Apart from the fact that it makes soil temperature easier to control, soil heating also delivers a not unimportant energy saving. After all, if above-ground heating is used to raise the soil temperature it has to be approximately 3 C higher than the soil temperature you actually require. For the budding it is necessary for the soil temperature to be at a certain level and to fluctuate as little as possible. If the soil temperature fluctuates during the budding period than the budding and the flower quality will be adversely affected. The ideal soil temperature for budding is between 15 and 17 C. If wide differences in temperature occur, both upwards and downwards, this can lead to the problem known as 'thumbs'. After the flower is fully developed a soil temperature can be maintained that is equal to 1 2 degrees above the room temperature. 11. Soil cooling

Interest in soil cooling arose after 1980 in particular. At the moment the largest part of the area under cultivation can be cooled. Soil cooling is used in freesia cultivation to reduce the soil temperature to a level at which budding can take place undisturbed. Soil cooling can have a favourable impact on quality and production. In the autumn a wider range can be cultivated. The same circuit is used for the soil cooling as for the soil heating. In soil cooling the above-ground feed and return pipes must be insulated to vapour-tightness. If the insulation is not vapour-tight then condensation will form on the pipes, which substantially reduces the yield and causes the pipes to rust through in a short time. For the part to be cooled a capacity of approximately 40W/m is required; this can lower the soil temperature by approximately 5 C. At a year-round freesia nursery the total capacity must be such that at least 40% of the surface can be cooled simultaneously. The preference is for a water-cooled compressor cooling machine, provided that thermal contamination of the surface water by the cooling water remains within the statutory limits. If thermal contamination is going to arise then an air-cooled cooling machine must be acquired. In addition to soil cooling with the help of a cooling machine the greenhouse soil can also be cooled with well water. In this system 6 hoses are generally used per bed. The temperature of the well water is usually about 12 C. In well-water cooling the hoses are usually placed high and are withdrawn (mechanically) before each cultivation. Because the well water temperature differs only slightly from the desired soil temperature the capacity of the well and pump must be calculated generously, partly because, as yet, little is known about the required quantity of cooling water/m/hour. In practice big differences in capacity do, of course, occur. In well-water cooling PVC tubes are often used for the feed lines instead of steel pipes: the tubes are laid in the soil and not insulated. The pumped water is fed back via a so-called 'negative well' to the same depth as that from which it is being pumped. To prevent mingling, a distance of at least 100 metres must be maintained between the two sources. Limitations on the use of groundwater for well-water cooling are expected in the light of forthcoming environmental legislation. 12. Harvesting and sorting
12.1. Harvest maturity A customer who buys a bunch of freesias wants to get as much pleasure from them as possible. A precondition for this is that the flowers open well and that they have a sufficiently long vase-life. Most freesias still have a long way to go after they have been purchased before they find themselves in the customer's home or office. To prevent the flowers from being damaged excessively during transport and opening too much before they reach the customer the trade prefers a flower that is not too mature. If freesias are cut when they are insufficiently mature, however, the shelf life will be strongly diminished and the flowers will open badly. The optimum harvesting stage for freesias is when the first flower on the crest has not quite opened. The optimum cutting stage partly depends on the time of year. In the late autumn and winter the freesias must be cut when they are more mature than in the spring and summer if a satisfactory flowering is to be ensured.

12.2. Cooling At each Freesia nursery harvested flowers are stored for a longer or shorter time before they are brought to market. A coldstore is a decided necessity to stop the product continuing to grow during this storage period and to prevent the flowers from opening prematurely. The coldstore must obviously be seen as a temporary storage area to keep the flowers in good condition from the moment of harvesting to the moment of their transport to market. The optimum storage temperature for freesias is 2 C. 13. Handling the plant after the harvest
13.1. Handling after the harvest If you want to use the freesia corms for a subsequent cultivation, leave the plant standing in the soil for some time after the harvest. In the spring in particular it is important to allow the plant to grow out thoroughly so that you are lifting healthy and well-grown corms with an optimum multiplication potential. If you are harvesting the flowers in the winter then nowadays the corms are often lifted at the same time as or shortly after the harvesting, with the haulm and all, in gauze containers, after which they are dried in a special room. In the spring and summer the plant is watered again after the harvest, after which the corms can grow for a further 3 6 weeks. Aphid control after the harvest is extremely important. After the harvest virus infection can also arise through aphids, as well as through soil aphids, which will usually have settled on the plant first. In warm weather in the spring and summer, ensure a good climate for the growing out by using good ventilation and screening. Excessively high temperatures help Fusarium oxysporum to thrive. 13.2. Lifting the corms Nowadays lifting is mostly done by machine. After the lifting the corm and cormlets (if any) can easily be pulled from the soil. If the corms are lifted in the winter they are usually lifted with the haulm and all in gauze containers. Usually there are about 200 plants per gauze container: not too many, to avoid overheating during the drying. It can also happen, however, that the corms are lifted and then, if you have the time, left lying for a while, on the haulm, in neat rows in the greenhouse until the plant has died. After that the corms are broken or cut off from the haulms and laid in gauze containers to dry. If you are leaving batches to grow out normally then you only start lifting when the tap roots have started to die. Leaving them to grow out for too long creates a lot of lifting work because then the cormlets fall off the corms. Also, high temperatures can help Fusarium oxysporum to thrive if the corms are left standing too long. 13.3. Drying Irrespective of the lifting method used drying takes place in a well-ventilated room at a temperature of 20 to 25 C and an atmospheric humidity of 60 to 70%. Direct sunlight on the lifted planting material must be avoided. The material should not be allowed to become limp during the drying, as this adversely affects the shelf life and quality. Well-dried corms are usually ready for cleaning after 2 to 3 weeks. Corms lifted with the leaves can be cleaned when the leaf has dried and the green colour has faded.

13.4. Cleaning Cleaning can be done both manually and by machine. Manual cleaning takes much more time than a machine but the chance of damage is less. In addition, unsound material can be removed. When a cleaning machine and selection belt is used the results depend on the machine setting and operation and on the condition of the planting material. The most sensible approach is to clean partly by machine and then finish the work manually. 13.5. Preparation To get the planting material ready for planting again it must be given a heat treatment for 3 5 months in a specially-equipped room. The temperature must then be 28 30 C and the relative humidity 80 85%. During the preparation ensure a good air movement and refresh the air regularly. 13.6. Cooling of planting material If the planting material does not yet need to be prepared after the lifting and cleaning because no planting will be done within, say, 3 5 months, the planting material can be cooled to 2 C. The planting material is then completely dormant. Depending on the planting time the planting material can be stored for 2 6 months. Note that, after this cooling period, the planting material will need a further preparation period of 3 5 months. Take your planting schedule into account when planning for this. 13.7. Penicilium When storing corms and cormlets at 2 C it is possible that Penicilium will arise. You will then find a green web of conidiophores on the corms and cormlets. Control by: - ensuring an even temperature in the coldstore. - increasing the air circulation. 13.8. Pupation Pupation is the process whereby young tubercles appear on the old corm or cormlet during or shortly after storage. After planting, these corms will not come up unless they have been prepared all over again ('dormant corms'). Pupation can also be a desirable process if corms and cormlets have to be stored for a long period (10 12 months). This is accompanied by a loss in weight of 30 to 40%. A corm can also pupate if the dormancy of the buds is interrupted by the temperature but that of the roots is not. This symptom can arise when the corms have already had plenty of heat before the lifting or if the corms, after the inhibition at 2 C, are then stored at 13 to 15 C (for complete interruption of the dormancy 30 C is necessary). Even at a storage temperature of 5 to 7 C some pupation can occur. Control by: - bringing the planting material directly to the required temperature after the drying, cleaning and sorting. - always keeping the storage temperature sufficiently low during the inhibition (2 C).

13.9. Petrifaction During storage the corms and cormlets can become so very dry that they become greyish white and hard: this is called 'petrifaction'. After the planting out these corms do not form any shoots or only weak ones, depending on the cultivar used. Control by: - reducing the chance of drying out by allowing the plant to die off sufficiently before the lifting, avoiding damage to the corms during the harvesting and the processing of the harvest, and maintaining an atmospheric humidity of 85 to 90% during storage. - avoiding damage to the planting material as much as possible. 14. Animal parasites 14.1. Aphids When the shoot emerges one or more leaves display constrictions and light-coloured specks. This gives them a crumpled and misshapen appearance. The specks later turn white or light brown. Sometimes the flowers display similar symptoms. These anomalies arise because aphids attack the delicate tissue of the shoot so that damage occurs in patches. This causes distortions in the growth. Signs of this problem will also be found on the flowers if the buds are damaged before they open. Aphids must be controlled regularly and adequately, partly to prevent the virus from being transmitted. A type of aphid with an adapted lifestyle is the so-called 'soil aphid'. This aphid lives, apart from its winged stage, entirely under the ground. Inhibitions will then occur in the plant growth because the aphid is sucking on the underground plant parts. An attack by this aphid can be prevented by steam sterilisation after every cultivation and by good nursery hygiene. 14.2. Thrips Silvery, elongated specks arise on the leaves, flowers and bracts which become larger in the case of a severe attack. The flowerbuds develop poorly; the flowers are often misshapen. Between the specks black dots will often be found: these are the excreta of insects which will themselves be found mostly between the bracts and in the flowers. Adult examples are brown to black, 3 to 3.5 cm long and very agile. The larvae are orange-yellow and sluggish. The attack can be caused by various sorts of thrips, including the gladiolus thrips (Taeniothrips simplex Morison) and the tobacco thrips (Thrips tabaci Lindem). They multiply very fast in warm, dry conditions and are then also at their most mobile. Thrips can be carried over large distances by the wind. 14.3. Flowerbulb mite (Rhizoglyptus engelii) Round, glassy, very small mites cause brown stripes to appear on the roots among which furrows caused by biting damage will be found. In the vaginated leaves there are pin-holes with reddish-brown specks. The growing leaf is misshapen. Attacks usually take place in patches, often accompanied by fungus attacks. On the flesh of the corm brown specks with pin-holes appear, especially on the underside of the corm. In long-term storage large dark brown patches arise. The tissue is dry and crumbly ('powdery corms'). In this powder you will find mites that can infest healthy corms.

Control: - attacks are usually the result of infected soil. Disinfect the soil by steam sterilisation after cultivating freesias, lilies, glory lilies, gladioli or amaryllis. These plants can leave behind a high level of infection in the soil. 14.4. Beanseed fly An irregular emergence of the corms can point to biting damage by maggots. In the underground leaf and stem parts there are rotten patches and feeding marks, which can run all the way through to the base. Sometimes the off-white maggots will be found inside. The shoot can be totally destroyed, after which another bud will emerge which often shows no further signs of damage. If the attack is confined to the outermost leaves then the emergence of the shoot will be delayed. Biting damage will be found, above all, at the interface of the corm and the shoot. Furrows caused by biting damage will also be found in the shoot itself. The roots themselves are not affected. The flies lay their eggs, without host plants having to be present, in freshly loosened soil. The maggots feed initially on decomposing plant residues and later attack the living plants. 14.5 Symphylid Symphylids are small (approx. 0.5 cm long), white, fast-moving creatures that gnaw away the tips of young roots. Damage caused by symphylids in older plants usually occurs patchily and can be seen in the regular slackness and retarded growth of the plants. Symphylid are also often found on structurally-weak patches. Damage by symphylids is commonest in heavier soils. Control: - first check whether there is a large number (more than 10 symphylids per shovelful of soil); only then should you take controlling measures. For convenience, the soil sample can be collected in a bucket filled with water. The creatures will then float on the surface. 14.6. Slugs Slugs gnaw at leaves and corms. Slug trails will often be visible on the leaf and the soil. 14.7. Rats and mice Rats and mice can gnaw at the corms to such an extent that the plant above ground wilts. Prevent this by removing opportunities for nesting by keeping everything neat and tidy and by trimming lawn edges short. Control water voles by: - preventing damage by digging the gauze in. - blocking off escape routes with plastic humane traps or placing mole traps in the tunnels. 15. Fungous diseases

15.1. Grey mould and fire spotting (Botrytis cinerea) The attack usually begins on dead leaf tips and cracked stems on which grey conidiophores appear. The attack can spread very rapidly. The plants then quickly damp off. On the flower will appear grey to reddish brown flecks or specks (fire spotting). The disease is especially common in very damp weather. It is also very common after condensation on the plant. It is striking that a great deal of Botrytis will be found in the crop shortly after a period of frost. The disease is caused by the fungus Botrytis cinerea. The spores spread through the air. This fungus has many host plants and also grows on dead planting material. Control: - remove dead planting material; - water from below; - prevent damage to the plant as much as possible; - try to ensure an 'open' plant; - keep the plant as dry as possible. Prevent condensation through adequate ventilation and, if necessary, by heating with open ventilators; prevent horizontal and vertical temperature fluctuations. 15.2 Corm rot (Fusarium oxysporum) The disease manifests itself above ground through a yellowing and dying-off of the outermost leaves. This starts at the tips. The symptoms become gradually more serious and finally the plant dies. This can already occur before the flowering, but plants usually only die in large numbers after that, which means that the disease primarily affects corm production. The roots initially display brown patches and are completely destroyed. The corm is usually affected from the base. In warm soil in particular the disease can spread very rapidly. Control: Before cultivation: - disinfect the soil by steam sterilisation; - sort and disinfect planting material (see corm disinfection); - destroy heavily-infected batches; clean up lightly-infected batches; - do not use infected batches for summer cultivation. During cultivation: - regularly remove affected plants with the corm; - do not cultivate in conditions that are too wet and too warm. 16. Bacterial diseases
16.1. Erwinia This bacterium made its first appearance on a large scale in the summer of 1984. A continuous damp climate accompanied by a high temperature is a precondition for such an attack. Attacks take place in particular on dead, discarded material. The pattern of damage consists of mushy, foul-smelling soft rot and a dark green halo above the corm. The solution to this problem must first be sought in a good climate. Steam sterilisation alone probably does not provide sufficient help.
17.
Virus diseases

17.1. Bean yellow mosaic virus (Phasaeolus virus 2) This causes light green or sometimes yellow stripes and specks on the leaves. The flowers cannot open properly because of a constriction under the flower lobes. These are the so-called 'pincers'. This virus is also found in gladioli and beans. Transmission is by aphids. 17. 2. Freesia mosaic virus This virus disease causes no or hardly any anomalies on the leaves. In white and yellow cultivars the flowers show hardly any symptoms of disease. The bracteoles can be striped light green. In red, pink and blue cultivars the flower colour breaks up to a greater or lesser extent. This causes light and dark stripes and specks on both the inside and outside of the flowers. Sometimes the flower colour becomes more intense. The varieties of the old range were all infected with this so-called 'flower virus'. This virus is only found in freesias however. Spread: Both bean yellow mosaic virus and freesia mosaic virus are spread in various ways. The most important way, however, is via the corms and cormlets. All infected plants produce sick progeny. In addition both the viruses are very easily transmitted by aphids and also on knifes and shears during the harvesting of the flowers. They are not transmitted with the seed and do not remain behind in the soil. Control of virus diseases: Direct control of virus diseases is not yet possible. You will therefore have to prevent spreading by removing affected plants, corm and all. Strict selection of the propagating material is the first requirement. Aphid control must be performed regularly and intensively. After the harvesting of the flowers knives and shears must be disinfected. 17.3. Leaf necrosis Although we are still not sure whether this disease is caused by a virus, this seems increasingly likely. On the leaves, starting at the leaf tip, a chlorosis-like pattern arises in the form of light green specks and stripes. Later these turn yellow very quickly and, after a short time, greyish-brown, as a result of which the whole pattern arises as a necrosis. Sometimes only a few light-grey stripes on the lowest leaf sheaths are observable. No symptoms of the disease will be found on the flowers and corms. A plant infected in this way has a less satisfactory posture than a healthy plant. The only other thing we know about leaf necrosis is that the pathogen is spread via corms and cormlets and is transmitted via infected soil. It is very probable that the pathogen is spread by the spores of the fungus Olpidium brassicae. So far the disease has never been transmitted via aphids, knives or shears. 18. Physiological abnormalities
18.1. Flowerbud dry-out Symptoms: The peduncle temporarily stops growing, which can cause the flowerbuds to dry out.

Control: Most cases of flowerbud dry-out are caused by too high a room temperature in relation to the light intensity. The solution must therefore be sought in a lowering of the temperature or an increase in the light entry. The latter can be achieved by removing the chalk screen on time, removing the leaves on time, removing the 'splitters' and matching the arrangement of plants to the season and the greenhouse. 18.2 Twisted growth Symptoms: When the plant is approximately 10 cm. high twisted leaves will be found. The tips of the new foliage leaves will remain between the leaf sheaths of the older stems. The plant acquires a bunched appearance and a short peduncle. The leaves affected are those between the third and seventh leaf. Later leaves develop normally. The plants from the later-developing lateral buds will also develop normally. The bud production lags somewhat compared with a healthy plant. There appear to be wide variations in the degree of sensitivity between varieties. Control: In overcast weather you should try to encourage evaporation. Most problems seem to arise when the start of the cultivation falls in the least sunny part of the year and there is too little evaporation in relation to the soil temperature. Wide differences between room temperature and soil temperature must therefore be avoided. Twisted growth can also arise because the waste products of aphids ensure that the leaves cannot push through properly alongside each other. Since you might also be dealing with a virus infection you are advised to remove any plants exhibiting twisted growth. Thumbs' Symptoms: The flowers are not distributed evenly along the (naturally bent) peduncle. Between some successive flowers the peduncle is disproportionately long, especially between the first and second flower; the first flower then stands on the vertical part of the peduncle. In its extreme form this can lead to a stretched flowerhead. The gladiolus-shaped flowerhead. Control: 'Thumbs' arise because the soil temperature temporarily rises or fluctuates strongly during the formation of the flowerhead. By counteracting these fluctuations as much as possible (see above) thumbs can be reduced. Also, if you are planning a summer planting you should use the less thumb-sensitive varieties. 18.4 Cracked stems Symptoms: In the peduncle between the leaves and the flowers transverse cracks appear. The slightest contact with the plant causes the stem to break at the weakest place. Also, at various heights in the peduncle longitudinal clefts can arise. The degree of sensitivity to these longitudinal cracks depends on the variety. The symptom is ascribed to too low an evaporation from the leaf caused by, for example, too high a relative atmospheric humidity in relation to the water uptake through the roots. Control: These problems can be reduced by providing an active climate, i.e. by ensuring that the relative humidity is so low that the plant can evaporate continuously. This means that you must ventilate in good time and must start using a heat flush or a minimum tube temperature. You can also try to inhibit the water uptake to some extent. This is done by ensuring that the soil temperature is not too high. A high fertiliser level and a high CO2 percentage also seem to be able to reduce the percentage of cracked stems.
18.3


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