Encoding and Modulation

N N N N

Baud rate Pulse encoding (digital to digital) Modulation (digital to analog) Pulse code modulation

Encoding
N

There are four types:

N N N N

Digital information, digital signal Analog information, digital signal Digital information, analog signal Analog information, analog signal

N N

Modulation - data onto analog signal Encoding - data onto digital signal

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Encoding vs Modulation
x(t) g(t) digital or analog x(t) Encoder digital Decoder g(t)

t (a) Encoding onto a digital signal

S(f) m(t) digital or analog s(t) Modulator analog fc (a) Modulation onto an analog signal fc Demodulator m(t)

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Digital Data, Digital Signals

N

Categories of this encoding are:

N N

Unipolar - one voltage level used. Polar - two voltage levels are use. Examples NRZ, NRZ-L, NRZ-I, RZ and Manchester encoding Bipolar - ones are represented by alternating positive and negative voltages: examples include AMI, B8ZS, HDB3.

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Baud rate
N

Also known as Signalling rate or modulation rate.

N N N N

Signal elements per second (baud). The rate at which signal elements are transmitted. bit rate = baud rate x M where M is the number of bits per signal element for two-level signalling (binary), bit rate is equal to the baud rate.

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Criteria for Digital Encoding Formats

N

Various techniques are compared in terms of the following:

N N N N N N

Reduced bandwidth. Ease of synchronization. No zero frequency component (DC). Possible error detection. Reduced cost and complexity. Immunity to noise and interference.

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Unipolar
N N N

Binary 1 is encoded as a positive value; Binary 0 as zero voltage, or an idle line. Unipolar encoding is simple and primitive. The average amplitude of a unipolar signal is nonzero. This creates a DC component. Some transmission media cannot handle that. When a signal is not varying (e.g. long runs of 1s or 0s), the receiver cannot determine the beginning and ending of each bit.
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Non-return to zero (NRZ)

N

In NRZ-L, the level of signal depends on the type of bit it represents. A positive voltage represents binary 1, and a negative voltage represent binary 0. In NRZ-I, the transition between a positive and a negative voltage represents a 1 bit. A 0 bit is represented by no change. An advantage of NRZ-I over NRZ-L is that signal changes every time a 1 bit is transmitted, it enables synchronization.
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Manchester encoding
N

In Manchester encoding, the transition at the middle of the bit is used for both synchronization and bit representation.
N N

Binary 0 = positive-to-negative transition Binary 1 = negative-to-positive transition

In Differential Manchester encoding, the transition at the middle of the bit is used only for synchronization.
N N N

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Always a transition in middle of interval. Binary 0 = transition at beginning of interval. Binary 1 = no transition at beginning of interval. Module 5

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Bipolar encoding
N

Bipolar encoding uses three voltage levels: positive, negative and zero.
N

Bipolar-AMI
N N N

0 bit = no line signal 1bit = positive or negative level, alternating for successive ones. This encoding achieves two things: first, the DC component is zero, and second, a long run of 1s stays synchronized. 0 bit = positive or negative level, alternating for successive zeros 1 bit = no line signal
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Pseudoternary
N N

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Digital Data, Analog Signals

N N N N

Modem - to produce signals in the voice frequency range (300-3400Hz). Carrier signal is a sine wave. Modulation - to superimpose digital data on a carrier signal. One or more characteristics of carrier is changed
N

Amplitude, Frequency or Phase.

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Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

N N

In ASK, the amplitude of the carrier signal is varied to represent binary 1 or 0. Two binary values are represented by two different amplitudes the carrier.
N N N

Binary 1 = Acos(2pi f_c t). Binary 0 = 0. Where f_c is the carrier frequency.

N N

Inefficient and susceptible to noise. Optical fiber channels.

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Frequency-shift-keying (FSK)
N N

In FSK, the frequency of the carrier signal is varied to represent binary 1 or 0. The two binary values are represented by two different frequencies.
N N

Binary 1 = Acos(2 pi f_1 t). Binary 2 = Acos(2 pi f_2 t).

N N N
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Full-duplex operation over voice grade lines. High-frequency operation. Used in some local area networks.
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Phase-shift-keying (PSK)
N N

In ASK, the phase of the signal is varied to represent binary 1 or 0. The phase of the carrier signal is shifted to represent data. In the binary case:
N N

Binary 1 = A cos(2 pi f_c t + pi). Binary 0 = Acos(2 pi f_c t).

N N N

4,8,16 levels of signalling possible. High efficiency. High speed modems.

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QPSK
N

4PSK; the phase of the carrier signal is shifted to represent data.

N N N N

Binary 00 = A cos(2 pi f_c t ). Binary 01 = Acos(2 pi f_c t+pi/2) Binary 11 = Acos(2 pi f_c t+pi) Binary 10 = Acos(2 pi f_c t + 3pi/2)

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Quadrature amplitude modulation

N N

In QAM, both the phase and amplitude of the carrier signal vary. QAM enables a higher data transmission than other modulation methods.

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Analog-to-digital encoding
N N

This is called pulse code modulation (PCM). PCM involves sampling, quantizing each sample to a set number of bits, and then assigning voltage levels to the bits. The term sampling means measuring the signal at regular intervals.

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Pulse amplitude modulation (PAM)

N

The first step of PCM is called PAM. This method takes analog information, samples and generates a series of pulses based on the results of the sampling. According to the Nyquist theorem, the sampling rate must be at least two times the highest frequency.

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Voice Digitization
N N N N

Normal voice signal bandwidth 4kHz. Sampling rate 8000/sec. 8 - bit encoding (256 levels) 64 kbps - PCM signal

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PCM
PAM signal

Analog voice signal

Sampling

Quantizer and compander

PCM signal

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Quantization
N N N

n-bit encoding, there are only 2^n - levels Signal level x approximated by the nearest quantization level. SNR due to this noise is given by
N

SNR = 6n , approximately

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Companding
N N N N

Lower amplitudes are more affected by the quantization noise. Uniform quantizing is not effective Non uniform quantizing More gain to weak signals

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