AGROCHEMATICALS AND THEIR IMPACT ON THE ENVIRONMENT (A Handbook for Teachers)

Henry Muyunda, October 2003 NIED, Okahandja Namibia

National Institute for Educational Development (NIED) Ministry of Basic Education and Culture Private Bag 2034 Okahandja Namibia Copyright NIED, Ministry of Basic Education and Culture, 2003 ISBN 99916-69-04-3 Printed by NIED Publication date: October 2003

CONTENTS
Acknowledgement................................................................................................................................... ..1 Introduction............................................................................................................................................. ..2 How To Use This Booklet.........................................................................................................................2 The Aims Of Environmental Education In Namibian School Curriculum For Agriculture .............3 Specific Objectives ....................................................................................................................................3 Approach In The Implementation Of Environmental Education In Schools ......................................4 International Conventions On The Environment...................................................................................4 What Are Agrochemicals And Why Do Farmers Use Them?...............................................................5 Agrochemicals And The Environment ....................................................................................................6 Water Pollution Trends In Namibia ......................................................................................................10 Inorganic Fertilisers Vs Organic Manure .............................................................................................11 Different Methods Of Controlling Pests And Weeds ...........................................................................12 Traditional Knowdge And Practices Of Pests And Weed Control .....................................................15 Safety Precautions And Protective Clothing.........................................................................................16 Conclusion ...............................................................................................................................................17

References................................................................................................................................................ 18 1 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I would like to extend my sincere gratitude to the Supporting Environmental Education in Namibia (SEEN) project for proving me with the opportunity to participate in SADC Attachment Programme. Many thanks also to all the staff of the Wildlife and Environment Society of South Africa (WESSA) for all the support and assistance throughout the course. In particular I would like to thank Elizabeth Martens for her profound assistance in making this booklet a reality. Finally I would like to thank all my family in Okahandja, Namibia and the SADC Attachment Participants for their support and encouragement that helped me to complete this project. 2 INTRODUCTION Namibia is a young democratic country that attained its independence only in 1990. At the time of independence there existed no cohesive framework for dealing with basic demands of the environmental education in Namibia according (Jansson:1991). It was in 1999 when the first Environmental Education Policy for Namibia was drafted by the Namibia Environmental Education Network (NEEN) project. The policy was based on the legal framework of Article 95 of the constitution of the Republic of Namibia, which advocate for active involvement and support from education authority to implement environment education in schools. The Namibia Environmental Education Network project became fully operational in October 2001 and the projects ultimate aim was to explore and reflect upon teachers and learners, the sort of environmental learning that will help the present and future generations develop sustaining livelihoods and environment. It is therefore the intention of this booklet to address environmental problems in agriculture focusing mainly on the effect agricultural chemicals have on the environment and human beings. It is important for teachers and learners of Agriculture in Namibia to value the needs for practicing sustainable agriculture in a way that not harm the environment. Teachers and learners should understand the environment management policy that influences peoples behaviour to ensure that their economic activities do not reduce the productivity of the land. The usage of agrochemicals is well covered in the Agriculture syllabus from Grades 5-12 in the Namibian Curriculum. However, the current syllabuses mainly focused on the positive role of agrochemical on plant growth, ignoring the negative impact these chemicals may have on the environment. It is therefore believed that this booklet will help teachers to understand the biophysical, social, economic and political implications of environmental education in Namibia and at global level. The biophysical environment refers to the plants, animals, soil air, water and all matter within the ecosystem. The social environment includes the social interaction of human beings and the natural environment including cultural beliefs. Economics in this context focuses on environmental prosperity

driven by economic growth and industrialisation leading to over exploitation of the fragile and limited renewable resource base. The political environment includes the countrys policy on environmental issues and the political will and commitment to address environmental issues such as poverty, hunger and disease. HOW TO USE THIS BOOKLET The main objective of developing this booklet was to assist teachers and learners to acquire knowledge and skills on the care and usage of farm chemicals. The booklet has been tailored in such a way that it can be used by teachers and learners at all phases but it is recommended to be used at the senior secondary level. The booklet has been developed on the basic principle of caring for the environment so that the environment can care for us on a sustainable basis. The booklet covers different types of topics related to agrochemicals and the environment. The topics will provide factual information aimed at assisting teachers and learners to understand the impact of agrochemicals on the environment. In some cases pictures will included to enhance better understanding of facts and information provided. Examples of activities will be provided under each main text to cover essential skills such communication skills, information skills, numerical skills, problem solving skills, social and cooperative skills including physical skills. 3 THE AIMS OF ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION IN NAMIBIAN SCHOOL CURRICULUM FOR AGRICULTURE The aims of the agriculture curriculum have been amplified to take into account the following environmental goals: provide insight and understanding of crucial global issues, which affect the quality of life in this rapid changing world; encourages teaching of Agriculture within the principles of sustainable agricultural practices; demonstrate desirable behavioural pattern and frame of mind in interacting with the environment in a manner that is protective, preserving and nurturing; develop an appreciation of the environment and promote the conservation of the landscape and its resources; promote an appreciation of Agriculture as an applied science; stimulate an interest in, and create an awareness of existing problems and opportunities in agricultural and rural development; stimulate positive attitudes by showing that farming can be both a beneficial and a rewarding profession; develop scientific attitudes such accuracy and precision, objectivity, integrity, enquiry, initiative and inventiveness; demonstrate the value of agriculture to the family and community, and to show how improved agriculture can contribute to the worldwide campaign for freedom from hunger; provide an important element, together with the basic sciences and mathematics, in the background required for more advanced studies in Agriculture;

 ensure that schools take an active part in rural development by the integrating Agricultural activities into the school curriculum; encourage a respect for livestock and promote their welfare. These aims lead to specific objectives which learners of Agriculture are expected to achieve. The specific objectives are listed below and have been formulated within the context of the usage of farm chemicals in Agriculture. SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES Learners should acquire skills that will enable them to address environmental problems and find out what action can be taken to improve a better standard of living for the Namibian society. In their efforts to address the problems caused by agrochemicals to the environment, learners of Agriculture should develop an understanding of the following specific objectives: discuss the danger of using agrochemicals to human health and the environment; create general awareness about the perils of agrochemicals misuse; describe the necessary precautions to be taken when handling and storing chemicals in order to minimize pollution; make a distinction between different types of agrochemical used in farming; discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using chemicals to control weeds, pests and diseases. 4 APPROACH IN THE IMPLEMENTATION OF ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION IN SCHOOLS A local problem solving curriculum action is proposed in this handbook by integrating issues of environment into the school curriculum. This strategy advocates for participatory approach to environmental education where direct curriculum linkages are made. This involves a team approach where real and local environmental issues are tackled. These environmental issues can be biophysical, social, economic or political in nature. This approach is essential as it fosters interactions between learning institutions and the community. This is the only means by which the outside work can be drawn into the classrooms, thereby influencing the curriculum itself. The approach thus involves: The identification of learning resources (including people) in the immediate environment of the learning institutions. Enthusiastic and committed teachers as well as school management in sustaining an environmental ethos. Engaging teachers in action research towards continually improving curricula, through first hand involvement with the environment. Encouraging advisory teachers to provide support on environmental education as facilitators in a collaborative manner. INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS ON THE ENVIRONMENT Namibia is a signatory to the International Convention on Biodiversity. This Convention focuses on three dimensions: conservations of biological diversity; the sustainable use of biological resources; and the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from use of genetic resources. The first notable international environmental meeting was the United Nation Conference in Stockholms in 1972. It was

the first time participants tackled the issue of sustainable development aimed at creating a common and inspirational guideline for the preservation and enhancement of an environment conducive for human life. Twenty years later more conventions were ratified by member states at the United Nation Conference on environment in Rio de Janeiro. These included Conventions on Biological Diversity, Climate Change and Agenda 21. President Sam Nujoma signed the Biodiversity Convention at the Rio Earth Summit in 1992. The content of Convention is fully supported by the Namibian Constitution in Article 95 (1), and Article 100 claims sovereign ownership of the natural resources (Tarr, 1996:161). Activity Example: Signing Environmental Conventions is costly, find out from any source why developed countries like Namibia might have benefited from Global Environmental Facility (GEF). 5 WHAT ARE AGROCHEMICALS AND WHY DO FARMERS USE THEM? Fertilizers Fertilisers are inorganic chemicals that are used by crop farmers to improve production. Inorganic fertilisers have been widely adopted by farmers because of its wide range of benefits: their cheapness, their cleanliness and ease of handling, their ease of storage and transport. In addition the guaranteed composition of inorganic fertilisers make it easier for users to determine the rate of application and to predict the effect upon yield, Biggs and Courtney (1989). Activity Example: Look at the table below that shows the annual use of nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium fertilisers in the world during the 20th century. year nitrogen phosphorous potassium (all in thousands of tonnes) 1905 366 460 430 1925 1183 1290 1536 1945 2025 1475 1750 1965 18700 6400 10250 1985 61000 13450 22800
Source: B. McDuel, 1990. Chemicals on the farm

(i) Which element do you think is most widely used in fertilisers today? (ii) Why do you think this kind of fertiliser has now become popular? (iii) Which element was mostly widely used in 1905? It must be noted that there has been a growth in the use of chemical fertilisers during the 20th century, especially during the last 50 years and this seem to be the common phenomenon for the whole world. From 1960 liquid fertilisers became more popular because of its effect on high crop production without taking consideration of the possible dangers to the environment. Pesticides Pests may damage an estimated 30% of crops produced on the farm. Pests are natural enemies affecting crops and may include weeds, insects, slugs, snails, rats and mice. Pesticides are chemicals, which are used to kill or control these pests. There are two different types of pesticides used to control pests, namely herbicides and insecticides. (i) Herbicides Herbicides are agrochemicals, which kill or control weeds. These herbicides are either selective

or non-selective. Selective herbicides kill the weed without affecting the crop. Non-selective herbicides will kill every plant that comes into contact with it. Activity Example: Find out why it is necessary for the farmer to kill or control weeds? (ii) Insecticides Insecticides are used to kill or control insect pests. They are particularly more useful in tropical areas where insect pests pose a great threat to crops. Some types of insecticides can kill pests by contact e.g. DDT. Meanwhile, other insecticides are absorbed by the plants and kill the insects when they feed on the treated plants. 6 Activity Example: Find out from the local farmers or the Poison Working Group in Namibia the danger of toxic chemicals to the environment. Why insecticides? Did you know that a large swarm of locusts could consume 3000 tonnes of green crops in a day? However, never forget that even though there are over a million types of insects, only about 10 000 are pests. The environmental benefit of this is that many of these insects feed on pests e.g. ladybirds eat greenfly. AGROCHEMICALS AND THE ENVIRONMENT Agrochemicals are essential to help in intensifying crop production and to reduce the effects of pests and parasites on farm animals. These agrochemicals can however be easily washed into the streams or infiltrate the soil, eventually contaminating ground water reserves. Activity Example: Several aquifers in Namibia are particularly vulnerable to contamination. 1. Discuss how Namibian rivers and underground water system may be contaminated by heavy use of agricultural chemicals. 2. Copy table 1, below into your notebooks. You should use the knowledge you have in the trend of chemical pollution on land and water in Namibia to complete the table. (Tarr, 2002:33) Pollution Activities Potential consequences Draining cattle dip into the river Damage to fish and other aquatic life Table:1 7 (Tar r, 2002:32) In Namibia, the use of pesticides and fertilisers is more concentrated in places such as in Caprivi, Kavango, Hardap Dam area and in the maize growing area around Otavi, Tsumeb and Grootfontein. About 20% of agrochemicals and fertilisers used by farmers in the Hardap area are washed into the Fish River basin from where it is flushed into the Orange River (Tarr: 2002:33). 8 Remember that some agrochemicals pollution has also been detected in the Kwando River and underground aquifers in the vicinity of the maize-growing triangle in Namibia. It is important for learners to find

out if this practice is the violation of International Convention on Biodiversity that Namibia signed in 1992. Activity Example: Discussion Environmentalists are worried that plans for the development of large-scale sugar-cane estate, will have a negative environmental impact on the valuable wetlands of the Caprivi Region in Namibia. (Tarr, 2002:32) 1. Organise a school/classroom debate around this issue to find out what could be possible environmental consequences of such a project once established in this area. 2. What was the conclusion of the discussion on this issue? 3. What would be the possible advice from the school to those planning to establish the project? Did you know? Several pesticides, referred to as persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are classified among the most dangerous chemicals known! Direct exposure to dangerous chemicals can cause paralysis, blindness and even death! Low-level exposure over a prolonged period can cause sterility, birth defects and weakened immune system! DDT, a pesticide banned in most countries in the world is still used in Namibia for malaria control! Pesticides can be transported over a long distance by wind and water. This entails that the possibility exist for them to accumulate in aquatic and marine food chains far from their point of release. Activity Example: 1. Discuss the reasons why DDT is still used Namibia despite being banned in many countries. 2. Why do you think it is necessary to purify water from rivers and dams that are located far from agricultural activities? Chemical pollutant is a threat to public health Have you ever wondered why you might have at times experienced stomach problems after taking water? This experience could be associated to the consumption of polluted water. Chemical pollutants pose major threats to public health through poisoning. In both fresh and sea water, algae can multiply rapidly or bloom when there is a sudden increase in water nutrients particularly nitrates and phosphate (Tarr, 1992:42). This contaminated algae in turn become an important source of 9 food for fresh water and marine animals. Toxic algal blooms have a variety of effects on public health. In some cases people experience signs of acute diarrhoea and even death when they eat fish or animals contaminated by toxins. Harmful algal bloom has begun to increase in many parts of the world as a result of an increase in nitrate and phosphate-rich fertilisers and sewage to wash into the open seas and rivers through runoff. Activity Example: Explain why most marine algae are said to be beneficial to the environment. Chemical pollutants are also a threat to both animals and human life

It is a clear fact that most unpolluted freshwater ecosystems with clean water support a large number of diverse plant and animal population. (Tarr, 2002:42) Pollution threatens the life of many living organisms as seen in the diagram above either by toxic substances that enter the habitat or the change in pH, salinity and other waste substances. Did you know? Both the role the insects play in the management of weeds and the contemporary influence on production of desired forage has been studied. Some research also looked at the biophysical interactions of grasshoppers and root borers (beetle) with snakeweed. Researchers are wondering whether the weed problem is due to heavy spraying for grasshoppers, caterpillars, and native insects that kill the weeds natural enemies. The gradual increase in nitrates from fertilisers in Lake Victoria has promoted the growth of a floating weed called hyacinth that has choked up small bays and threatens navigation on the lake! It is feared that increased use of agricultural fertilisers in the wetland areas of Caprivi in Namibia will cause the invasive waterweed called Salvinia molesta, which is currently kept in check, to spread. 10 WATER POLLUTION TRENDS IN NAMIBIA Pollution levels in Namibia are till relatively low, but a growing population and expanding development will create increasing volumes of more complex pollution waste (Tarr, 2002:70). Apart from threats to human health and environment, risks associated with this pollution trend may have an impact to Namibias economic trend, particularly food exports. (Tarr, 2002:70) NB: It is interesting to note the increasing trend of pesticides, fertilisers and sanitation in the table above. 11 INORGANIC FERTILISERS VS ORGANIC MANURE A changing pattern of fertiliser usage has not occurred without controversy. According to Briggs and Courtney (1989:108) there has been a growing debate on the merits of organic manure and inorganic fertilisers. As was indicated earlier in the text above, fertilisers have been widely favoured by most farmers because of the variety of benefits obtained from them. Inorganic fertilisers increase production and there are easy to manage and handle. It has also been discovered that inorganic fertilisers lack several of the important properties of organic manure. Many farmers are now growing crops without using agrochemical such as fertilisers. However, using organic manure result in crops not looking nice and the farmer does not grow as much on each hectare of land. The produce from organic farms, however, does not cost more in specialist shops and supermarkets. Before a farm can be called organic, the soil has to be regularly tested to show all synthetic chemicals were absent. Remember that farmyard manure (FYM) and compost provide an important input of organic matter to the soil to improve the soils structure. It became clear from long term experiments previously conducted

that occasional dressing of farm yard manure(FYM) may have a lasting effect upon soil structure, although there are some evidence that the effect is less substantial than that provided by residues from grass crops. What is more apparent is that regular dressing of farmyard manure can result in crop yields equivalent to those attained by fertilisers. In areas where structural deterioration of land occurs as a result of soil erosion there may be significant advantage in applying organic manure. Briggs and Courtney (1989:109) contends that given the existing conditions in many parts of the temperate world, there is little incentive for farmers to increase the use of organic manure at the expense of inorganic fertilisers. However, control upon the disposal of wastes manures are already making it more attractive for farmers to return farmyard manure to the land. Activity Example: Choose the correct answer from each of the following questions. 1. The following is an example of inorganic fertiliser (a) Ammonium nitrate (b) DDT (c) Crop residue (d) Kraal manure 2. Why do farmers prefer to use organic manure instead of inorganic fertilisers? (a) Easy to work with (b) Reduced danger to the environment (c) Provide high quality food products (d) Used on a large scale of land 3. Why are inorganic fertilisers highly recommended for use in the temperate parts of the world? (a) Less soil degradation due to erosion (b) Few insects affecting the crops (c) They increase the activity of soil micro-organisms (d) It is easy to manufacture them in this part of the world 12 DIFFERENT METHODS OF CONTROLLING PESTS AND WEEDS Physical control Physical control refers to mechanical or hand control of pests and weeds. Physical control is however mostly used in weed control. The methods used in the physical control of weeds include tillage, fire, removal by hand, grazing and mowing, all used to destroy weeds and prevent reproduction. Some insects may also be destroyed by tillage, which destroy their eggs or even over winter stage. Biological control Insects and weeds can also be controlled using a biological method. Some research has been conducted where the release and post release of insects was done to control exotic range-range weeds. Another biological activity can be conducted by applying the biological control spotted beetle to diffuse knapweed, where all available bio agents for weeds can be released. A very interesting research was conducted in New Mexico States that focussed on the interaction and biological control of rangeland weeds. Both the role the insects play in the management of weeds and the contemporary influence on production of desired forage has been studied. Some research also looked at the biophysical interactions of grasshoppers and root borers (beetle) with snakeweed. Researchers are wondering are wondering

whether the weed problem is due to heavy spraying for grasshoppers, caterpillars, and native insects that kill the weeds natural enemies. Pests can also be controlled by biological means by introducing natural enemies such as birds and other insects that feed on the pests. A good example of biological control is the ladybird that feed on greenfly. Integrated management system of pests and weeds Various physical, biological and chemical control methods may be incorporated to form an integrated weed and pest management control scheme. Using an integrated system helps to reduce the reliance on a single method that may affect the environment if it is used too often. Both the role the insects play in the management of weeds and the contemporary influence on production of desired forage has been studied. Adopting integrated pest management can reverse the trend of rising use of pesticides. Integrated pest management involves many methods including practising multi cropping, crop rotation, biological control, which are sometimes used with selected low impact pesticides. If properly implemented, integrated pest management can result in substantial economic, environmental and health benefits for a country. 13 BOX 19. The Ujams Integrated Biosystem Project for waste management
In spite of the problems regarding waste management in Namibia, non-governmental organisations and the private sector have projects for waste reduction. The Ujams Integrated Biosystem provides an excellent example. This project aims to utilise some of the organic waste from the Northern Industrial Area of Windhoek for a variety of other projects including growing mushrooms and flowers, and rearing pigs and ducks. The initiatives proposed by Ujams Integrated Biosystem Project are as follows: Waste sludge containing grain from Namibia Breweries is used as a substrate to grow mushrooms. After growing mushrooms, the organically rich substrate is fed to pigs. The manure discarded by Meatco abbatoir, is used ti improve soil quality and as a substrate for growing several hundred tonnes of earthworms each year. These earthworms are fed to pigs and ducks. The wastewater from the northern industrial area is treated in order to make it useful for irrigating crops and to prevent the continued pollution of the groundwater.

 The first step in the water treatment process is anaerobic digestion. The bacterial culture contained in the anaerobic digesters consume dissolved carbohydrates and proteins in the wastewater and excrete biogas as a waste product. The methane-containing biogas is collected and burned as a low-energy fuel. The next step in the water treatment process is algae cultivation. The algae reoxygenate the wastewater, neutralise acids and remove heavy metals. Following the algae cultivation, the water is used to grow duckweed. Duckweed removes nitrogen, phoshorus and potassium from the water, it can be harvested regularly and used as a nutritious food source for the pigs and ducks. Finally, the purified water that is left over is used for irrigating flowers.

(Tarr, 2002:62) 14 Activity Example: Identify the advantage and disadvantage physical, biological, and integrated method of controlling of weeds and insects by completing the following table. Method Advantages Disadvantages Physical Control Biological Control Integrated Method There is a range of machines used on the market for mechanical weeding in arable lands. Timing operation and weather are critical to get an effective kill. Good cultivation prior to planting is important. Mulching In small situations such as around trees, you can use heavy mulches to prevent weed seedlings getting light. Mulch that comes in close contact with the tree trunk can cause fungal infections. Rotations Rotations can be used to prevent weeds from building up and are also the basis of all good husbandry. Weeds are often an indication that management procedures need attention. Cover crops This is where the seeds of one crop are sown into an existing crop. This saves time and prevents a lot of weed build up on the bare ground in the existing crop. An example is where grass and clover seeds are sown into a cereal crop when it is about 150mm high. When the grain is harvested the new pasture is well established and ready to grow. Peppering This is used in Biodynamic systems where the weed seed heads are collected and burned, and the ash returned to the soil. For full information, see the Bio-Dynamic Association. 15 TRADITIONAL KNOWDGE AND PRACTICES OF PESTS AND WEED CONTROL Traditional methods of controlling pests and weeds were practised in many parts of the world especially in Africa. These practices are actually still in pace today in many African countries including Namibia. The value of the traditional methods of controlling weeds and pests is that they pose less threat to the environment. Some of the well known practices of controlling weeds and pests are described below: In the northern part of Namibia communal farmers have special way of controlling some pests such as the armed crickets and locust. Farmers would dig deep trenches into which these pests

can fall in and then destroyed by burning them with fire in the trenches. In some cases communal farmers use different types of traps to kill different kinds of pests that attacks their crops such as birds, mice and other types of trouble animals. Traditional farmers could also smoke out trouble animals such as porcupine from their hidings in the anthill holes to avoid further damages of their crops instead of using poison which could kill other innocent animals. It is a known practice that people in communal area control insects such as mosquitoes by smoking them with burning fresh leaves or elephant/cow dung. This method can also be used in harvesting honey from bee hives as it weakens the bees and therefore reduce their vicious attack to the harvester. Even though this method could contribute to air pollution as a result of smoke its adverse effects to the environment is minimal compared to the use of chemicals to kill pests. Some communal farmers in Namibia also make use of ash to protect their stored grains from being attached by pests such as weevils. To ensure that grains are not attacked by fungicides, farmers have to make sure that they are stored when completely dry. The grains are stored in rain proof silos made from cheaper and available local materials. Some grains can be stored in clay pots that are completely sealed to avoid insects to enter and destroy the grains. Weeds can also be traditionally controlled by hoeing or uprooting them with hands. In advanced situation especially at a larger scale of farming, weeds are ploughed under the soil when they have grown to a certain height. This practice normally ensures little emergence of weeds after planting of crop seeds. Remember that there are varieties of ways of controlling weeds using indigenous knowledge that learners can explore from the local communities. Activity Example: Investigation Focus: What kind of traditional knowledge does exists within our local community on ways of controlling pests and weeds? 1. Learners would be required to engage in real situation exercise to complete this task. 2. They will actually need more time to conduct simple interviews with the local community. A suitable time need to be arranged with the school management with the assistance of the subject teacher. 3. Prior preparations are necessary and this includes simple design of interview schedule and logistic issues. 4. Organise an appointment with people you want to visit and get their consent for interviews. 5. Explain the reasons to the interviewees why you want to conduct the interviews. 6. After completing your interviews compile your report on your findings and organise forums for presentation of your findings. Guiding questions: (i) What methods were people using in the past to control pests in their fields? (ii) What methods were people in the past used to control livestock pests and or parasites? (iii) How were people able to control weeds in the past in their field with limited resources they had? 16 (iv) What methods are in place today within our different communities which they use to control weeds and pest for both plants and livestock? (v) How effective are these new methods compared to the old practices of controlling weeds and pests? NB: Learners should be able to simply analyse the information resulting from the interviews and write a

report to be presented to the class or any other forum. SAFETY PRECAUTIONS AND PROTECTIVE CLOTHING Safety precaution measures to be taken in using agrochemicals depend on the hazard involved in transportation, storage and use of a particular chemical, the level of toxicity that varies according to their chemical structure, purity and formulations. The risk of poisoning by the more toxic chemicals can be reduced by suitable formulations and packaging. Increasing emphasis is given to the design of application equipment that minimise the risk of the operator. Agrochemicals like medicine must be stored and used according to instructions. The first thing the user of agrochemicals must do is to read the label and adhere to instructions accordingly. In what ways can human beings be affected by chemical poisons? Agricultural chemicals such as pesticides and herbicides may be taken into the human body by mouth, through the skin, or through the lungs. The uptake of chemical poison through mouth is minimal during pesticide application unless operators unwisely eat, drink or smoke before washing hands and or face. Oral poisoning normally occurs when pesticides have been improperly stored in food containers, especially soft drinks or beer bottles. Other incidents of pesticides poisoning usually occurred when recently sprayed fruits have been eaten or a person has committed suicide Contamination of body takes place principally by absorption through the skin, which is particularly vulnerable where there is any cut or graze. Remember that the back of the hands and wrists absorbs chemicals more than the palms. Similarly, the back of the neck, feet, armpits and groins are areas that need more protection and great care must be taken to avoid contamination of the eyes. The risk of skin absorption is increased in hot weather, when sweating occurs. In hot weather conditions are not favourable for wearing of protective clothing and hence the high risk of contamination. Classification of pesticides The World Health Organisation (WHO) differentiated between acute and dermal toxicity data and liquid formulations in its classification. Table 2: WHO classification
Class Hazard level Oral toxicity * Dermal toxicity* Solids # Liquids # Solids # liquids # Ia Extremely hazardous <5 <20 <10 <40 Ib Highly hazardous 5-50 20-200 10-100 40-400 II Moderately hazardous 50-500 200-2000 100-1000 400-4000 III Slightly hazardous >500 >2000 >1000 >4000

NB: * Based on LD50 for the rat (mg/kg body weight) # The terms solids and liquids refer to the physical state of product or formulation being classified.

17 Remember that good quality granular materials are less poisonous to apply compared to sprays of the same chemical. Protective clothing Appropriate protective clothing must be worn whenever a class I pest is applied or when application equipment contaminated with such pesticides is repaired. The minimum protective clothing is an overall defined as a single garment with fastening at the neck and wrists.

Safe protective clothing must meet the following requirements: It must cover the whole body and all clothing other than that which is covered by other protective clothing such as face shield, goggles, respirator, footwear or gloves. Must have sleeves over the top of gauntlet gloves, unless elbow-length gloves are needed for dipping plants in pesticides. It must be resistant to penetration by liquid or solid particles in the circumstances in which it is being used, and minimize thermal stress to the operator who wear them. Risks of contamination of spray operator is reduced if they spray operator is upwind of nozzles and power operated equipment. It is advisable to wash protective clothing preferably at the end of each days spraying after all the equipment has been cleaned and stored. Activity Example: Individual 1. Why do think it is necessary for the agrochemical operator to cover his or her face with the face shield? 2. The statement that reads: Keep out of reach of children is often reflected on containers of chemicals. Why do you think this is done? 3. Explain what a sprayer can do if he/she cannot afford to obtain a protective clothing to use during spraying exercise. NB: Learners can still work in smaller groups of two or more to try and find answers to these kinds of questions. CONCLUSION This booklet focused on agrochemicals and their impact on the natural and social environment. This has been a deliberate attempt by the author to try and improve the incorporation of aspects of environmental education in the schools curriculum in a slightly detailed manner. The booklet covers environmental aspects within the context of agrochemicals which appears to have been slightly addressed in the curriculum for Agriculture Grades 5-12. Readers may have realised that most of the burning issues on the effects of agrochemicals on the environment were not fully addressed in this booklet, and this was mainly due to time constraints and other related factors. This then makes it a challenge for all of us concerned with the risk posed by agrochemicals to the fragile environment in Namibia and elsewhere in the world to take the issue further by producing additional materials on this topic. It is also the conviction of the author that the work covered in this small booklet may motivate teachers and learners of Agriculture wherever they are to stand up and fight in favour of the preservation our essential natural resources by all means at their disposal. 18 REFERENCES Briggs, D and Courtney, F (1994).Agriculture and Environment, Longman: London Enviro Facts, (1999). Agriculture and Environment: Share-Net, Howick, South Africa. Janson, S.D.O. (1991). Report: Environmental Profile of Namibia: Swedish International Development Authority (SIDA), Windhoek: Namibia.

MBESC/NIED,(2003). NGCSE Agriculture Syllabus for Grade 11-12 (Unpublished Material: Ministry of Basic Education, Sport and Culture, NIED, Okahandja (Namibia). McDuel, B. (1990). Chemical on the Farm: Stanley Thornes (Publishers) Ltd: Leckhampton, England. Murray, S (2002). Supporting Environmental Education in Namibia (SSEN). Published Material on Environmental Education in Namibia, NIED/Okahandja Namibia Environmental Education network (1991). A Draft Environmental Policy for Namibia (Unpublished material). Tarr, J (2002). Water Pollution: A Resource Book for IGCSE in Namibia: Pollination Publishers, Windhoek