HBMT 4103

HBMT4203 Teaching Mathematics In Form Three
OPEN UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA Faculty of Education and Language

HBMT4103 Teaching Mathematics in Form Three Semester May 2011 Nama Azyyati bte A.Rahim Matriculation Number 761022017628002 IC Number 761022017628 Phone Number 017-7337690 E-Mail azy7628@yahoo.com Tutors Name Dr. Suhaidah bte Tahir Learning Centre Institut Perguruan Tun Hussein Onn
AZYYATI A.RAHIM 761022017628
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Alhamdulillah , I am so happy with this development. The idea of coming up with these assignment is to provide more ongoing good teacher to teach our students. The main focus of this assignment is to develop and enhance teachers skills. It also aims to encourage myself to prepared some technique to solve the problem and interesting activity in my lessons with cooperative learning. The main focus of the assignment is to develop teachers basic communicative skills and build confidence in preparing the lesson plan. It is aim to assist teachers to manage classrooms interaction as well as the teaching and learning processes. It will also enhance teachers abilities in using the accurate terminology and classroom language so the students are able to follow the lesson taught effectively. I would like to express my sincere thanks and appreciation especially to my tutors Dr. Suhaidah binti Tahir for she commitment as a guider to finish these assignment. Thanks for all who is participate to help me to complete this assignment. I would also like to acknowledge their dedication and perseverance guiding me to make a good task. Likewise I hope that this initiative will grow in scope and make a greater impact from the small yet significant beginnings we make today. Thank you.
CONTENT PAGES Acknowledgment Content 1.0 Introduction 2.0 History of Trigonometry 3.0 Trigonometry in use 4.0 Activity to determine the tangent, sine and cosine of an acute angle 5.0 Three Activities To Demonstrate On How To Find And Angle Using The Scientific Calculator 6.0 Reflection References 54 59 60 - 65 66 - 67 47 - 53 4 5 - 41 42 - 46
1.0 INTRODUCTIONS Trigonometry developed from the study of right-angled triangles by applying their relations of sides and angles to the study of similar triangles. The word trigonometry comes from the Greek words "trigonon" which means triangle, and "metria" which means measure. The term trigonometry was first invented by the German mathematician Bartholomaeus Pitiscus, in his work, Trigonometria sive de dimensione triangulea, and first published 1595. The primary use of trigonometry is for operation, cartography, astronomy and navigation, but modern mathematicians has extended the uses of trigonometric functions far beyond a simple study of triangles to make trigonometry indispensable in many other areas. Especially astronomy was very tightly connected with trigonometry, and the first presentation of trigonometry as a science independent of astronomy is credited to the Persian Nasir ad-Din in the 13 century. Trigonometric functions have a varied history. The old Egyptians looked upon trigonometric functions as features of similar triangles, which were useful in land surveying and when building pyramids. The old Babylonian astronomers related trigonometric functions to arcs of circles and to the lengths of the chords subtending the arcs. Centuries later, trigonometric functions acquired a geometric interpretation when they came to be looked upon as the lengths of specific line segments related to the central angle.
2.0 HISTORY OF TRIGONOMETRY The history of trigonometry dates back to the early ages of Egypt and Babylon. Angles were then measured in degrees. History of trigonometry was then advanced by the Greek astronomer Hipparchus who compiled a trigonometry table that measured the length of the chord subtending the various angles in a circle of a fixed radius r. This was done in increasing degrees of 71. In the 5th century, Ptolemy took this further by creating the table of chords with increasing 1 degree. This was known as Menelaus's theorem which formed the foundation of trigonometry studies for the next 3 centuries. Around the same period, Indian mathematicians created the trigonometry system based on the sine function instead of the chords. Note that this was not seen to be ratio but rather the opposite of the angle in a right angle of fixed hypotenuse. The history of trigonometry also included Muslim astronomers who compiled both the studies of the Greeks and Indians. In the 13th century, the Germans fathered modern trigonometry by defining trigonometry functions as ratios rather than lengths of lines. After the discovery of logarithms by the Swedish astronomer, the history of trigonometry took another bold step with Issac Newton. He founded differential and integral calculus. Euler used complex numbers to explain trigonometry functions and this is seen in the formation of the Euler's formula. The history of trigonometry came about mainly due to the purposes of time keeping and astronomy. It is quite difficult to describe with certainty the beginning of trigonometry... In general, one may say that the emphasis was placed first on astronomy, then shifted to spherical trigonometry, and finally moved on to plane trigonometry. An early Hindu work on astronomy, the Surya Siddhanta, gives a table of half-chords based on Ptolemys table. But the first work to refer explicitly to the sine as a function of an angle is the Aryabhatiya of Aryabhata (ca. 500 AD). Now begins an interesting etymological evolution that would finally lead to our modern word "sine". When the Arabs translated the Aryabhatiya into their own language, they retained the wordjiva without translating its meaning. When the Arabic version was translated into Latin, jiva, or jaib was translated into sinus, which means curve.
We find the word sinus in the writings of Gherardo of Cremona, who translated many of the old Greek works. Other writers followed and soon the word sinus or sine became common in mathematical texts throughout Europe.The remaining two main functions have a more recent history. The cosine function, which we today regard as equal in importance to the sine, first arose from the need to compute the sine of the complementary angle. The name cosinus originated with Edmund Gunter in 1620: he wrote co.sinus, which was modified to cosinus by John Newton (not related to Isaac Newton). The word "tangent" comes from the Latin tangere, to touch. It was introduced by the Dane Thomas Fincke in 1583. 2. 1 Early Astronomy and the Beginnings of a Mathematical Science 1. Ancient Instruments and Measuring the Stars The most ancient device found in all early civilisations, is a "shadow stick". The shadow cast from a shadow stick was used to observe the motion of the Sun and thus to tell time. Today we call this instrument a Gnomon. The name gnomon comes from the Greek and refers to any Lshaped instrument, originally used to draw a right angle.
In Euclid Book II, where Euclid deals with the transformation of areas, the gnomon takes the form of an "L-shaped" area touching two adjacent sides of a parallelogram. Today, a gnomon is the vertical rod or similar device that makes the shadow on a sundial.
For more about sundials go to Leo's article - Brief History of Time Measurement.
At midday the shadow of a stick is shortest, and the civilisations of Mesopotamia, Egypt, and China took the North - South direction from this alignment. In contrast, the Hindus used the East - West direction, the rising and setting of the sun, to orient their "fire-altars" for religious practices. To do this they constructed the "gnomon circle" whose radius was the square root of the sum of the square of the height of the gnomon and its shadow [See Note 2 below].
The Merkhet is one of the oldest known astronomical instruments. It was developed around 600 BCE and uses a plumb line to obtain a true vertical, as in the picture. The other object is the rib of a palm leaf, split at one end to make a thin slit for a sight. Babylonian and Egyptian astronomers were able to measure the altitude and lateral displacement of heavenly objects from a particular direction by using a Merkhet, thus giving the earliest ideas of turning, or angle.
A pair of merkhets were used to establish a North-South direction by lining them up, one behind the other, with the Pole Star. Viewing the plumb lines through the sight made sure the two merkhets and the sight were in the same straight line with the Pole Star. Using a water clock to determine timings, this arrangement of merkhets allowed people to take measurements of night-time events, for example times when certain stars crossed the vertical plumb line (a "transit line"). The Egyptians divided the 360 degrees of the ecliptic into 36 sections of 10 degrees each.. This division was known before 2300 BCE. Each ten degree section (called a decanfrom the Greek for ten) contained a constellation of stars lined up along the ecliptic. Since the Earth makes a full rotation in 24 hours, the stars in a new decan will rise above the horizon about every 40 minutes. The system of decans was used for determining the night hours and the seasons.
The divisions in the top part of the chart represent decans. The chart was read from right to left and the pictures represent Mars (the boat and the bull), Orion with the three stars including the Sun and Moon, Sirius, Jupiter, Saturn, Mercury and Venus. The lower section contains pictures of star gods or demons. They represent some of the most important days of the year. The chart is largely symbolic and functional but does contain pictures of some significant groups of stars. 2. Babylonian Astronomers Observations of celestial bodies by the Babylonians from about 1,800 BCE gave rise to the eventual division of the circle into 360 degrees, and by about 500 BCE, the division of the heavens into twelve regions of 30 degrees each, often referred to as the 12 houses of the zodiac. The Babylonians recorded the events of the lunar month, the daily movement of the sun across the sky over the year, and the rising and setting of the major planets. So, by 750 BCE astronomers had a reasonably accurate means of measuring the elevation (latitude) and lateral direction (longitude) of all objects in the heavens. They built up an extensive collection of data, and made tables of the positions of objects in the sky at any given time through a year (these tables are called ephemerides). Using observational techniques like heliacal rising, which occurs when a planet, star or other body first becomes visible above the eastern horizon at dawn , it was discovered that:

the constellations of the zodiac completed a full circle through the sky once a year the Sun's apparent movement daily across the sky formed the moon moved through about the Ecliptic was inclined to the horizon (about of a circle each day degrees) of a circle
planets were travelling through the starry background in regular paths that were sometimes moving back on themselves in a loop (retrograde) eclipses of the moon and the sun could be predicted transits of planets (e.g. Venus) moving across the face of the sun, and occultations (where the moon covered the stars) could be observed.
These observations continued over many centuries, slowly becoming more accurate, so that ancient people were able to make star maps, and detect the regular events in the heavens. Many seasonal phenomena like the flooding of the Nile, or special events like religious ceremonies were linked to astronomical phenomena. The ability to predict some of these major astronomical events gave rise to astrology, where people believed that there was a link between heavenly and earthly events, and that the stars had some control over their lives. See this BBC news item about a prehistoric star map. The Babylonians and Chinese both believed that the earth and the moon were spherical, that the earth and the moon rotated on an axis, and that the sun and the planets moved in circles round the earth. This enabled them to be able to explain the phases of the moon, and predict eclipses of the moon and the sun by believing that the earth cast a shadow on the moon, and the moon cast a shadow over the sun. The Babylonian astronomers recorded astronomical data systematically and by the Seleucid period (330-125BCE) there were a great many astronomical tablets showing ephemerides for the moon and the major planets. Many of the tablets contain "procedures" or instructions for how to calculate intervals between astronomical events using the properties of simple arithmetic progressions. These procedural processes were the earliest steps of a mathematical astronomy, and both the procedures and the data were used by those who came later. The Babylonians wrote down lists of numbers, in what we would call an arithmetic progression and recognised that numbers repeated themselves over periods of time.
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As you can see, Neugebauer published the sexagesimal values for twelve measurements of the position of the Moon taken from a clay tablet dated 133/132 BCE. In the table above, the top line shows the end of the year 133 BCE with the last month Aires, so the start of the Babylonian year was at the vernal equinox, and the bottom line represents the end of year 132 BCE. The height of the lines on the zig-zag graph below approximately represent the sequence of the numerical values in the table. There are two groups of numbers, one starting with 28, followed by another starting 29. The results for Gemini and Cancer differ only in the third place of sexagesimals and the minimum on the graph is interpolated from the results in the table. Similarly the results for Sagitarius and Capricorn indicate the maximum value for the longitude. Looking at the first three sets of sexagesimal numbers: 28, 55, 57, 58; 28, 37, 57, 58 and 28, 19, 57, 58 we can notice that the significant differences in the second place between 55, 37 and 19 are all giving a constant 18, which is the difference in height of the vertical lines on the zig-zag graph (except at the minimum and maximum). The graph was drawn to illustrate the periodicity of the data. It is important to realise that the Babylonians recognised the events repeated themselves after some time, but they did not see these results as a 'graph' as we can [see Note 3 below].
The use of graphs as a way of recording the data comes from Neugebauer's book The Exact Sciences in Antiquity. The Babylonian astronomers recognised the events were periodic but they did not have a theory of planetary motion.
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3. The Hindu Sulbasutras

The Sulbasutras are the only early sources of Hindu mathematical knowledge and originally come from the Vedic period (during the second millennium BCE). The earliest written texts we have from this oral tradition date from about 800 BCE. The Sulbasutras are the instructions for constructing various geometrical shapes to make 'fire-altars' using the "Peg and Cord" technique. Each 'fire-altar' was a different shape and associated with unique gifts from the Gods. For more information on Peg and Cord geometry see: The Development of Algebra Part 1: Section 4 "Early Indian Mathematics" an article by Leo already published on NRICH. The Vedic people knew how to find the cardinal directions (NSEW). The Sulbasutras gave procedures for the construction of the altars by starting with a line marking the E-W direction (sun rises in east and sinks in the west), thus the E-W direction had special religious significance. At the end of the fourth century BCE the Indian part of Alexander the Great's empire broke up into small kingdoms run by Indian Greeks. Around this time there was a collection of mathematical knowledge called jyotsia, a mixture of astronomy, calendar calculations and astrology. The rulers still maintained trading links between western India and the Hellenistic culture of the Roman Empire. At this time, Indian horoscope astrology became popular needing precise calendar and astronomical calculations. The Panca-siddhantica is a collection of five astronomical works composed in the sixth century CE by Vrahamihira. These works contain earlier mathematical knowledge and here we find an approximation for as and its diameter , because they used as or ,
the relationship between the circumference of a circle,
. Sines were calculated at intervals of
giving a series of values for Sines of angles in the first quadrant and, using the same terms in Sanskrit as the Babylonians for the radius of a circle. Also, the use of similar calculation methods as the Babylonians suggest that this is the earliest surviving Indian sine table. [See Note 4 below]
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The method of calculation and the values used by Vrahamihira is very similar to a Greek Chord table for arcs up to and intervals of the quadrant into sixths, namely arcs of
. This suggests that the Indian invention of the trigonometry of Sines was inspired by replacing the Greek Chord geometry of right triangles in a semicircle by the simpler Sine geometry of right triangles in a quadrant [See Note 5 below].
This discovery is much earlier than the account usually given of the sine table derived from chords by Aryabhata the Elder (476-550 CE) who used the word jiya for sine. Brahmagupta reproduced the same table in 628 CE and Bhaskara gave a detailed method for constructing a table of sines for any angle in 1150 CE. 4. Chinese Astronomy The Chinese were the most accurate observers of celestial phenomena before the Arabs. "Oracle Bones" with star names engraved on them dating back to the Chinese Bronze Age (about 2,000 BCE) have been found, and very old star maps have been found on pottery, engraved on stones, and painted on the walls of caves. Surviving records of astronomical observations made by two astronomers Shi Shen and Gan De date from the 4th century BCE. Shi Shen wrote a book on astronomy, and made a star map and a star catalogue. In 364 BCE Gan De made the first recorded observation of sunspots,
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and the moons of Jupiter and they both made accurate observations of the five major planets. Their observations were based on the principle of the stars rotating about the pole (equivalent to the earth rotating on its axis). A famous map due to Su Song (1020-1101) and drawn on paper in 1092 represents the whole sky with the positions of some 1,350 stars.
The equator is represented by the horizontal straight line running through the star chart, while the ecliptic curves above it. The oldest star map found so far is from Dunhuang. Earlier thought to date from about 940 CE, it was made with precise mathematical methods by the astronomer and mathematician Li Chunfeng (602-670) and shows 1339 stars in 257 Chinese star groups with a precision between 1.5 and 4 degrees of arc. In all there are 12 charts each in 30 degree sections displaying the full sky visible from the Northern hemisphere. Up to now it is the oldest complete preserved star atlas discovered from any civilisation. It has been on display this year in the British Library to celebrate 2009 as the International Year of Astronomy. Some elements of Indian astronomy reached China with the expansion of Buddhism (25-220 CE). Later, during the period (618-907 CE) a number of Indian astronomers came to live in China and Islamic astronomers collaborated closely with their Chinese counterparts particularly during (1271-1368).
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Very little of the knowledge of the Indians and the Chinese was known in Europe before the Portuguese navigators and the Jesuit scientist Matteo Ricci in the fifteenth century. Babylonian astronomy contributed direct empirical data as a foundation for Greek theory and exactly the same data which provided the information for the "zig-zag" data results in Babylonian theory were used to calculate the mean motions of the sun and moon by Hipparchus. 5. The Beginnings of Mathematical Astronomy As we have seen, the Babylonians were interested in predicting the time at which a particular celestial event would occur whereas Greek astronomy became much more interested in predicting where a celestial body would be at any particular time . This contrast is clearly illustrated by the development of a geometrical model of the motions of the heavens by the Greek mathematician Eudoxus. Eudoxus (408-355 BCE) The original belief of an Earth-centred system in perfect circles came from the Pythagoreans (6th/5th centuries BCE) and was discussed and elaborated over the years. Eudoxus was taught by Archytas, one of the leading Pythagorean philosophers of his time, who maintained that the most perfect shape was a circle, so Eudoxus proposed a system of concentric spheres to describe the movement of the planets. This idea, where the planets moved about the Earth in circles on the surfaces of different spheres, remained the widely held theory of the universe until it was challenged by Nicolaus Copernicus in 1543. The simple idea is shown in the diagram below. However, there were enough data from the Babylonians and others to show that the system was much more complicated, and Eudoxus finally produced a system with 27 spheres altogether.
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Using data derived from the Babylonian astronomers, Eudoxus was able to calculate that the variation in latitude of the Moon was about +/5 (in our terms), and the angle between the equator and the ecliptic [See Note 1 below] was measured as 115 of a circle or 24 which is the angle subtended at the centre of a 15 sided polygon. This construction was included in Euclid's Elements Book IV proposition 16, because it was so useful for astronomy. Eudoxus also developed the theory of proportion, now contained in Book V of Euclid's Elements, which became the major logical tool for empirical investigaton until the seventeenth century, and his method of exhaustion became the foundation of the technique developed by Archimedes (287-212 BCE) for finding areas of circles and other shapes. The theory of the solar system that the Greeks developed was principally an "explanatory device" more descriptive than predictive, and as observations became more accurate, it needed constant revision and modification. Aristarchus (310-230 BCE) Using Eudoxus' theory of proportion, Aristarchus measured the relative sizes and distances to the Moon and Sun and found the Sun to be bigger than Earth! So, he reasoned that the Sun rather than Earth is the centre of the Universe and the Earth is one of the planets.
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In his book On the Sizes and Distances of the Sun and the Moon he assumed that the Earth is at the centre of a sphere on which the Moon moves, and at half Moon the edge of the shadow is in a direct line with the eye. At this time he claimed that its angular distance from the Sun is 87(actually it is about 89). Using the time taken for a complete eclipse he estimated that the width of the Earth's shadow is two Moon diameters (actually it is nearer three), and the Moon had an angular diameter of 2 (this is about four times too large). Using these hypotheses he obtained the ratio of the distance from the earth to the sun as: 18d1dm20 Today, this would simply involve finding cos87(=sin3) but the concepts of cos and sinwere not thought of until much later. Applying his logical reasoning to the theory of proportion, he arrived at an estimate for the distance to the Sun of about 19 times the distance to the Moon. This estimate was generally accepted for the next 2,000 years.
Aristarchus' observations showed that Eudoxus' model was not able to account for some of the simplest motions of the planets, and so Greek mathematicians like Apollonius (262-190 BCE) managed to find more complicated geometrical constructions in order to keep the Earth at the centre of the universe.
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Although it might seem like a missed opportunity to us for Greek scholars to abandon Aristarchus' model of the solar system, even though he had shown that the Sun was larger than the Earth, there was no real evidence to show that the Sun was the centre of our system. The fact that the Sun might be larger than the Earth was no reason to suppose that the Sun was at the centre when the obvious apparent rotation of the Sun, Moon and Planets around the Earth was so strong. Hipparchus (190-120 BCE) The first known table of chords was produced by the Greek mathematician Hipparchus in about 140 BC. Although nothing has survived, it is claimed that he wrote twelve books of tables of chords, but Neugebauer shows this to be impossible. Hipparchus developed great observational skills, improved the design of instruments and compiled a catalogue of about 850 stars. He also tried to improve the geometrical model of the universe. His most important discovery was the "Precession of the Equinoxes". Since the Earth's axis is tilted with respect to the stars it slowly describes a circle. This results in the intersection points of the celestial equator and the ecliptic (the equinoxes) changing slowly. Precession also explains why the "Polar Star" changes its position in the heavens over the centuries.
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Hipparchus is credited with constructing the first known table of chords. The importance of Hipparchus' achievement in doing this was to change the mathematical tools involved from the arithmetical 'procedures' of the Babylonian scholars to a geometrical device' , namely the use of arcs of a circle imagined to be on the surface of the 'heavenly sphere'. Even so, he was still using the new technique to investigate the location of heavenly bodies, and the process was still clearly embedded in astronomy. Trigonometry, as a separately identifiable science in its own right, does not appear before the Arab scholars developed it much further in the eleventh and twelfth centuries CE. Menelaos (70-130 BCE) In about 100 BCE Menelaos compiled a Book of Spherical Proportions Sphaerica, in which he set up the basis for treating spherical triangles by using arcs of great circles instead of arcs of parallel circles on the sphere. The plane triangle version of the theorem states: If a straight line crosses the three sides of a triangle (one of the sides has to be produced) then the product of three of the non-adjacent segments thus formed is equal to the product of the other three segments of the triangle.
This proof uses similar triangles ABC is a triangle with a transversal DE that cuts AC produced in F First, insert a construction line CX parallel to AD (CX will be eliminated later). Now triangles ADF and CXF are similar, so ADCX=FAFC , and in the cyclic quadrilateral, BFCD,BEEC=DBCX Multiply ADCX=FAFC by equal quantities, and ADCXBEEC=FAFCDBCX
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Insert the ratio CXCX(=1) into the Left Hand Side product before cancellation, and ADDBBEECFCFA=1 Note: The orientation of FC is important. Menelaus produced a spherical triangle version of this theorem and a modification of it appears in Ptolemy's Almagest. Claudius Ptolemy (c85-c165 CE) Ptolemy was the most influential Greek astronomer of this time. He supported the geocentric theory of the universe, and his book The Mathematical Compilation dominated astronomical thought until Copernicus (1473-1543) published his heliocentric theory in 1543.
The aim of the Almagest was to provide numerical data for astronomical phenomena and observation and to explain the empirical foundations and theoretical reasons for the data. The Almagest contains a collection of all the then known astronomical knowledge: geometrical and numerical procedures, the longitude and latitude of heavenly bodies, information about parallax, the distance and relative sizes of the Sun and the Moon, lunar theory, solar motion, and the occurrence of eclipses, transits and occultations. This was the reason the Arab scholars called it "Al Megiste" (the great one) and the name has remained. Ptolemy was the author of a new table of chords, based on exactly the same principles inherited from the Babylonians, and using more sophisticated observational techniques, more accurate data, and the new mathematics of Euclid, Apollonius Archimedes and Menelaos. He divided the circle into 360 parts and used a diameter of 120 units, and calculated in the traditional sexagesimal numbers that astronomers had been using for two thousand years. Ptolemy calculated chords by constructing a series of regular polygons in a circle as shown by Euclid.
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The Chords of regular polygons of 3, 4, 5, 6 and 10 sides respectively subtend angles of 120,90,72,60, and 10 at the centre of a circle. By continued bisection and interpolaton he could find chords for many other angles which he expressed as ratios of chord to diameterfinally arriving at chords of angles of 12 where in our terms, chord =120 Sin
In sexagesimal notation, the chords for the regular polygons are: chord 36 = 37; 4, 55, chord 60 = 1, 0; 0 chord 72 = 1, 10; 32. 3 chord 90 = 1, 24; 51, 10 from Pythagoras' theorem: chord 2 + chord2(180)=1202 he obtained chord 120 = 1, 43; 55, 23. and chord 144 = 1, 54; 7, 37.
Converting Ptolemy's chord calculations with base ten:

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for chord 602 the sexagesimal 1, 0; 0. is 60 in base ten and 120 sin 30 = 120 12 or 60 units, which is the radius of the circle. similarly, chord 90 = 1, 24; 51, 10. or in base ten, chord 90 = 60 + 24 + 3060+103600 which is 84.8527 units and chord 902 = 120 x sin 450 or 120 x or 84.8536 units Using what is now called "Ptolemy's theorem" (this property of cyclic quadrilaterals was known much earlier) he set up a system where one of the sides of the quadrilateral was a diameter, that enabled him to calculate sums and products of chords.
Converting the chords expression to modern notation, and putting x=2 and y=2 this is equivalent to: sin(xy)=sinxcosycosxsiny Similarly he obtained sin(x+y)=sinxcosy+cosxsiny and also derived 2sin2x=1cos2x Using the table of chords with the geometry and formulae above, Ptolemy was able to solve all the triangles he needed to create his table of chords in steps of half degrees from 12 to 180 which is equivalent to a table of sines from 14 to 90.
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6. Ptolemy's use of Spherical Triangles Menlaos' Sphaerica was the major work that established the science of spherical geometry, and this was, in a sense, a non-Euclidean geometry where the sides of a triangle were formed by the intersections of three great circles on a sphere, and the angle sum of a triangle could be more than1800. At the time, it was not seen as a radically new geometry, but more as an extension of Euclid, and most of the time the triangles used were constructed with only one right angle. At this time, spherical geometry was included in the quadrivum (arithmetic, geometry, music, astronomy), and taught as part of astronomy. The new relationships developed were possible by the use of proportional reasoning, a direct result of Eudoxus' theory. Ptolemy was well aware of the new possibilities, because finding the distance between two stars was equivalent to measuring an arc of a circle, and he adapted the spherical geometry for use with tables of chords. 7. Passing on the Knowledge By this time, mathematicians and astronomers had developed a complex mathematically based science, had a wide range of geometrical techniques whereby they measured the Earth, estimated the distances of the Moon and the Sun, developed a theory of the movement of the planets, and precisely catalogued hundreds of stars. A substantial body of geometrically based mathematics had been developed and scholars made commentaries on the works of Euclid, Apollonius, Archimedes, and others. In the next centuries, Diophantos wrote his Arithmetica, which was to inspire Fermat centuries later, Pappus recorded much of the earlier learning for later generations, and contacts along the trade routes began to be made with people in India and China. In September 622 Mohammed made his famous escape from persecution in Mecca to safety in Medina, and within two hundred years, the Arab culture had established an empire from India through the Middle East and North Africa and into Spain. 8. The Arabs collect knowledge from the known world The Arab civilisation traditionally marks its beginning from the year 622 CE the date when Muhammad, threatened with assassination, fled from Mecca to Medina where Muhammad and his followers found safety and respect. Over a century later, the Arabs had established themselves as a powerful unified force across large parts of the Middle East and The Caliph Abu
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Ja'far Al-Mansour moved from Damascus to establish the city of Baghdad during the years 762 to 766. Al-Mansour sent his emissaries to search for and collect knowledge. From China, they learnt how to produce paper, and using this new skill they started a programme of translation of texts on mathematics, astronomy, science and philosophy into Arabic. This work was continued by his successors, Caliphs Mohammad Al-Mahdi and Haroun Al-Rasheed. The quest for knowledge became a lasting and significant part of Arab culture. Al-Mansour had founded a scientific academy that became called 'The House of Wisdom'. This academy attracted scholars from many different countries and religions to Baghdad to work together and establish the traditions of Arabic science that were to continue well into the Middle Ages. Some of this work was later translated into Latin by Mediaeval scholars and passed on into Europe. The dominance of Baghdad and the influence of the Arab World was to last for the next 500 years. The scholars in the House of Wisdom came from many cultures and translated the works of Egyptian, Babylonian, Greek, Indian and Chinese astronomers and mathematicians. The Mathematical Treatise of Ptolemy was one of the first to be translated from the Greek into Arabic by Ishaq ben Hunayn (830-910). It was admired for its extensive content and became known in Arabic as Al-Megiste (the Great Book). The name 'Almagest' has continued to this day and it is recognized as both the great synthesis and the culmination of mathematical astronomy of the ancient Greek world. It was translated into Arabic at least five times and constituted the basis of the mathematical astronomy carried out in the Islamic world. 9. India: The Sine, Cosine and Versine Greek astronomy began to be known in India during the period 300-400 CE. However, Indian astronomers had long been using planetary data and calculation methods from the Babylonians, and even though it was well after Ptolemy had written the Almagest, 4th century Indian astronomers did not entirely take over Greek planetary theory. Ancient works like the Pancasiddhantica (now lost) that had been transmitted through the version by Vrahamihira and Aryabhata's Aryabhatiya (499 CE) demonstrated that Indian scholars had their own ways of dealing with astronomical problems and that they had great skill in calculation.
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Even in the oldest Indian texts, the Chord [to remind yourself about Chords see the section on Claudius Ptolemy is not used, and instead there appear some very early versions of trigonometric tables using Sines. However, the Indian astronomers divided the 90arc into 24 sections, thus obtaining values of Sines for every 345 of arc.
In this diagram, SB is the arc for the angle and AS is the jiya. So the relation between the jiyaand our sine is: jiya()=Rsin where R is the radius of the circle. Many Indian Sine tables use R=3438 which is the result if the circumference of the circle is 36060 or 21,600 minutes. By the 5th century, two other functions had been defined and used. The length EA was called thekotijya (our cosine), and AB was called the utkrama-jya (our versine). This was sometimes called the sama meaning an 'arrow', or sagitta in Latin The versine function for a circle radius R is: vers =Rcos . In Aryabhata's work, he uses R=3438 and took this value to calculate his table of Sines. This became the standard for later works. Comparison with Varhamihira's Sines (in sexagesimal numbers) and Hipparchs' table (in lengths of chords) suggests a possible transmission of at least some of the Greek works to the Hindus. However, we have no way of knowing this for certain, and it is quite possible that the Hindus calculated their values independently. The 'Great Work' (the Mahabhaskariya) of Bhaskara I was written in about 600 CE. He produced a remarkable method for approximating values for the Sines, by using the ratio of two quadratic functions. This was based entirely on comparing the results of his calculations with earlier values.
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However, since these tables only gave values for every 345, there was cnsiderable room for improvement. It is curious that since Ptolemy's table of chords enabled him to find values equivalent to Sines from 14 to 90 that the Indian scholars did not go further at this stage. Later, Brahmagupta (598-670) produced an ingenious method based on second order differences to obtain the Sine of any angle from an initial set of only six values from 0 in 15 intervals to 90. 10. Trigonometry in the Arab Civilisation The introduction and development of trigonometry into an independent science in the Arab civilisation took, in all, some 400 years. In the early 770s Indian astronomical works reached the Caliph Al-Mansur in Baghdad, and were translated as the Zij al-Sindhind, and this introduced Indian calculation methods into Islam. Famous for his algebra book, Abu Ja'far Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi had also written a book on Indian methods of calculation (al-hisab al-hindi) and he produced an improved version of the Zij al-Sindhind. Al-Khwarizmi's version of Zij used Sines and Versines, and developed procedures for tangents and cotangents to solve astronomical problems. AlKhwarizmi's Zij was copied many times and versions of it were used for a long time. Many works in Greek, Sanskrit, and Syriac were brought by scholars to Al-Mansur's House of Wisdom and translated. Among these were the works of Euclid, Archimedes Apollonius and of course, Ptolemy. The Arabs now had two competing versions of astronomy, and soon the Almagest prevailed. The Indian use of the sine and its related functions were much easier to apply in calculations, and the sexagesimal system from the Babylonians continued to be used, so apart from these two changes, the early Arabic versions of the Almagest remained faithful to Ptolemy. Abu al-Wafa al-Buzjani (Abul Wafa 940-998) made important contributions to both geometry and arithmetic and was the first to study trigonometric identities systematically. The study of identities was important because by establishing relationships between sums and differences, and fractions and multiples of angles, more efficient astronomical calculations could be conducted and more accurate tables could be established. The sine, versine and cosine had been developed in the context of astronomical problems, whereas the tangent and cotangent were developed from the study of shadows of the gnomon. In his Almagest, Abul Wafa brought them together and established the relations between the six
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fundamental trigonometric functions for the first time. He also used R=1 for the radius of the basic circle.
From these relations Abul Wafa was able to demonstrate a number of new identities using these new functions: sec2=1+tan2. . . . . . . cosec2=1+cot2 Abul Wafa also devised methods for calculating trigonometric tables by an improved differencing technique to obtain values that were accurate to 5 sexagesimal (8 decimal) places. Greek astronomers had long since introduced a model of the universe with the stars on the inside of a vast sphere. They had also worked with spherical triangles, but Abul Wafa was the first Arab astronomer to develop ways of measuring the distance between stars using his new system of trigonometric functions including the versine.
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In the diagram above, the blue triangle with sides a, b, and c represents the distances between stars on the inside of a sphere. The apex where the three angles , , and are marked, is the position of the observer. The blue curves are Great Circles on the sphere, and by measuring the angles, finding more accurate values for their functions, and assuming a value for R the radius of the sphere, it became possible to find the great-circle distances between the stars.
By an ingenious application of Menelaos' Theorem using special cases of great circles with two right angles, Abul Wafa showed how the theorem could be applied in spherical triangles. This was a considerable advance in Spherical Trigonometry that enabled the calculation of the correct direction for prayer (the quibla) and was to have important applications in Navigation and Cartography.
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The Abul Wafa crater of the Moon is named in recognition of his work in astronomy. Abu al-Rayhan Muhammad ibn Ahmad Al-Biruni (973-1050) was an outstanding scholar reputed to have written over 100 treatises on astronomy, science, mathematics, geography, history, geodesy and philosophy. Only about twenty of these works now survive, and only about a dozen of these have been published. Al-Biruni's treatise entitled Maqalid 'ilm al-hay'a (Keys to the Science of Astronomy) ran to over one thousand pages and contained extensive developments in on trigonometry. Among many theorems, he produced a demonstration of the tangent formula, shown below.
From the diagram, O is the centre of the semicircle, and AED a right-angled triangle with a perpendicular from E to C.
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Consequently, triangles AEC and EDC are similar. Angle EOD is twice angle EAD, and angles EAC and DEC are equal. If the radius of the circle R=1, then EC=sin and OC=cos So tan(2)=ECAC=sin1+cos . . . and . . . tan(2)=DCEC=1cossin From which he derived the half angle and multiple angle formulae. While many new aspects of trigonometry were being discovered, the chord, sine, versine and cosine were developed in the investigation of astronomical problems, and conceived of as properties of angles at the centre of the heavenly sphere. In contrast, tangent and cotangent properties were derived from the measurement of shadows of a gnomon and the problems of telling the time.
In his Demarcation of the Coordinates of Cities he used spherical triangles for finding the coordinates of cities and other places to establish local meridian (the quibla) and thereby finding the correct direction of Mecca, and in his Exhaustive Treatise on Shadows he showed how to use gnomons for finding the time of day. Abu Muhammad Jabir ibn Aflah (Jabir ibn Aflah c1100 - c1160) probably worked in Seville during the first part of the 12th century. His work is seen as significant in passing on knowledge to Europe. Jabir ibn Aflah was considered a vigorous critic of Ptolemy's astronomy. His treatise helped to spread trigonometry in Europe in the 13th century, and his theorems were used by the astronomers who compiled the influential Libro del Cuadrante Sennero (Book of the Sine Quadrant) under the patronage of King Alfonso X the Wise of Castille (1221-1284). A result of this project was the creation of much more accurate astronomical tables for calculating the position of the Sun, Moon and Planets, relative to the fixed stars, called the Alfonsine Tables made in Toledo somewhere between 1252 and 1270. These were the tables
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Columbus used to sail to the New World, and they remained the most accurate tables until the 16th century.
By the end of the 10th century trigonometry occupied an important place in astronomy texts with chapters on sines and chords, shadows (tangents and cotangents) and the formulae for spherical calculations. There was also considerable interest in the resolution of plane triangles. But a completely new type of work by Nasir al-Din al-Tusi (Al-Tusi 1201-1274) entitled Kashf al-qina 'an asrar shakl al-qatta (Treatise on the Secrets of the Sector Figure), was the first treatment of trigonometry in its own right, as a complete subject apart from Astronomy. The work contained a systematic discussion on the application of proportional reasoning to solving plane and spherical triangles, and a thorough treatment of the formulae for solving triangles and trigonometric identities. Al-Tusi originally wrote in Persian, but later wrote an Arabic version. The only surviving Persian version of his work is in the Bodleian Library in Oxford. This was a collection and major improvement on earlier knowledge. Books I, II and IV contain parts of the Elements, the Almagest and a number of other Greek sources. Book III deals with the basic geometry for spherical triangles and the resolution of plane triangles using the sine theorem: asinA=bsinB=csinC Book V contains the principal chapters on trigonometry dealing with right-angled triangles and the six fundamental relations equivalent to those we use today; sine, cosine, tangent, cotangent, secant and cosecant. He provided many new proofs and showed how they could be used to solve many problems more easily.
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Al-Tusi invented a new geometrical technique now called the 'Al-Tusi couple' that generated linear motion from the sum of two circular motions. He used this technique to replace the equant used by Ptolemy, and this device was later used by Copernicus in his heliocentric model of the universe. Al-Tusi was one of the greatest scientists of Mediaeval Islam and responsible for some 150 works ranging from astronomy, mathematics and science to philosophy and poetry. 11. Arab Science and Technology Reaches Europe The Arab astronomers had learnt much from India, and there was contact with the Chinese along the Silk Road and through the sea routes, so that Arab trading posts were established in India and in China. Through these contacts Indian Buddhism spread into China and was well established by the 3rd century BCE, probably later carrying with it some of the calculation techniques of Indian astronomy. However few, if any, technological innovations seemed to have passed from China to India or Arabia. By 790 CE, the Arab empire had reached its furthest expansion in Europe, conquering most of the Iberian peninsula, an area called Al-Andalus by the Arabs.
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At this time many religions and races coexisted in Iberia, each contributing to the culture. The Muslim religion was generally very tolerant towards others, and literacy in Islamic Iberia was more widespread than any other country in Western Europe. By the 10th century Cordoba was said to have equally good libraries and educational establishments as Baghdad, and the cities of Cordoba and Toledo became centres of a flourishing translation business. Between 1095 and 1291 a series of religiously inspired military Crusades were waged by the Christians of Europe against the Arab Empire. The principal reason was the restoration of Christian control over the Holy Land, but there were also many other political and economic reasons. In all this turmoil and conflict there were periods of calm and centres of stability, where scholars of all cultures were able to meet and knowledge was developed, translated and transmitted into Western Europe. The three principal routes through which Greek and Arab science became known were Constantinople (now Istanbul) Sicily and Spain. Greek texts became known to European monks and scholars who travelled with the armies through Constantinople on their way South to the Holy Land. These people learnt Greek and were able to translate the classical works into Latin. From Sicily, Arabs traded with Italy, and translation took place there, but probably the major route by which Arabic science reached Europe was from the translation houses of Toledo and Cordoba, across the Pyrenees into south-western France.
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During the twelfth and thirteenth century hundreds of works from Arabic, Greek and Hebrew sources were translated into Latin and the new knowledge was gradually disseminated across Christian Europe. Geometrical knowledge in early Mediaeval Europe was a very practical subject. It dealt with areas, heights, volumes and calculations with fractions for measuring fields and the building of large manors, churches, castles and cathedrals. Hugh of St. Victor (1078-1141) in his Practica Geometriae divides the material into Theorica (what is known and practised by a teacher) and Practica (what is done by a builder or mason). Theoretical geometry in the Euclidean sense was virtually unknown until the first translations of Euclid appeared in the West. The astrolabe was commonly used to measure heights by using its 'medicline' (a sighting instrument fixed at the centre of the circle) and the shadow square engraved in the centre of the instrument, and then comparing the similar triangles. The horizontal distance from the centre of the astrolabe to the edge of the square was marked with twelve equal divisions.
This system was in use well into the 16th century as seen in the illustration below:
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This is from Thomas Digges' Pantometria of 1571. The same system is still used, but the square in the quadrant is marked with six divisions. A popular twelfth century text, the Artis Cuiuslibet Consummatio shows the gradual insertion of more technical knowledge, where the measuring of heights (altimetry) was much more related to astronomy, showing how to construct gnomons and shadow squares. Gradually the translations made on the continent of Europe came to England. Richard of Wallingford (1292-1336) After entering Oxford University in about 1308, Richard entered monastic life at St Alban's in 1316. After his ordination as a priest, his Abbot sent him back to Oxford where he studied for nine years. In 1327 he became Abbot of St Albans.
Richard's early work was a series of instructions (canons) for the use of astronomical tables that had been drawn up by John Maudith, the Merton College Astronomer. Later he wrote an important work, the Quadripartitum, on the fundamentals of trigonometry needed for the solution of problems of spherical astronomy. The first part of this work is a theory of trigonometrical identities, and was regarded as a basis for the calculation of sines, cosines, chords and versed sines. The next two parts of the Quadripartitum dealt with a systematic and rigorous exposition of Menelaos' theorem. The work ends with an application of these principles to astronomy. The main sources of the work appear to be Ptolemy's Almagest, and Thabit ibn Qurra (826-901 CE).
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The Quadripartitum was probably the first comprehensive mediaeval treatise on trigonometry to have been written in Europe, at least outside Spain and Islam. When Richard was abbot of St. Albans, he revised the work, taking into account the Flores of Jabir ibn Afla. In 1326 to 1327 Richard also designed a calculation device, called an equatorium, a complex geared astrolabe with four faces. He described how this could be used to calculate lunar, solar and planetary longitudes and thereby predict eclipses in his Tractatus Albionis. It is possible that this led to his design for an astronomical clock described in his Tractatus Horologii Asronomici, (Treatise on the Astronomical Clock) of 1327, which was the most complex clock mechanism known at the time. The mechanism comprised a rotating star map that modeled the lunar eclipse and planets by gearing, presented as a geocentric model. It appeared at a transitional period in clock design, just before the advent of the escapement. This makes it one of the first true clocks, and certainly one of first self powered models of the heavens. Unfortunately it was destroyed during Henry VIII's reformation at the dissolution of St Albans Monastery in 1539. Georg von Peuerbach (1423-1461) Peuerbach's work helped to pave the way for the Copernican conception of the world system; he created a new theory of the planets, made better calculations for eclipses and movements of the planets and introduced the use of the sine into his trigonometry.
His early work, Tabulae Eclipsium circulated in manuscript was not published until 1514, contained tables of his eclipse calculations that were based on the Alfonsine Tables. He calculated sines for every minute of arc for a radius of 600,000 units and he introduced the Hindu-Arabic numerals in his tables. [See Note 9 below]
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Peuerbach's Theoricae Novae Planetarum, (New Theories of the Planets) was composed about 1454 was published in 1473 by Regiomontanus' printing press in Nuremburg. While the book was involved in attempting a technical resolution of the theories of Eudoxus and Ptolemy, Peuerbach claimed that the movement of the planets was determined by the Sun, and this has been seen as a step towards the Copernican theory. This book was read by Copernicus, Galileo and Kepler and became the standard astronomical text well into the seventeenth century.
In 1460 he began working on a new translation of Ptolemy's Almagest, but he had only completed six of the projected thirteen books before died in 1461.
Johannes Muller von Konigsberg or Regiomontanus (1436-1476)
Regiomontanus had become a pupil of Peuerbach at the University of Vienna in 1450. Later, he undertook with Peuerbach to correct the errors found in the Alfonsine Tables. He had a printing press where he produced tables of sines and tangents and continued Puerbach's innovation of using HinduArabic numerals.
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As promised, he finished Peuerbach's Epitome of the Almagest, which he completed in 1462 and was printed in Venice. The Epitome was not just a translation, it added new observations, revised calculations and made critical comments about Ptolemy's work.
Realising that there was a need for a systematic account of trigonometry, Regiomontanus began his major work, the De Triangulis Omnimodis (Concerning Triangles of Every Kind) 1464. In his preface to the Reader he says, "For no one can bypass the science of triangles and reach a satisfying knowledge of the stars .... You, who wish to study great and wonderful things, who wonder about the movement of the stars, must read these theorems about triangles. Knowing these ideas will open the door to all of astronomy and to certain geometric problems. For although certain figures must be transformed into triangles to be solved, the remaining questions of astronomy require these books." The first book gives the basic definitions of quantity, ratio, equality, circles, arcs, chords and the sine function. Next come a list of axioms he will assume, and then 33 theorems for right, isosceles and scalene triangles. The formula for the area of a triangle is given followed by the sine rule giving examples of its application. Books III to V cover the all-important theory of spherical trigonometry. The whole book is organised in the style of Euclid with propositions and theorems set out in a logical hierarchical manner. This work, published in 1533 was of great value to Copernicus. Regiomontanus also built the first astronomical observatory in Germany at Nuremburg with a workshop where he built astronomical instruments. He also took observations on a comet in 1472 that were accurate enough to allow it to be identified as Halley's Comet that reappeared 210 years later. Regiomontanus died during an outbreak of plague in Rome in 1476.
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12. The Final Chapter: Trigonometry Changes the World System Nicolaus Copernicus (1473 - 1543) Copernicus wrote a brief outline of his proposed system called the Commentariolus that he circulated to friends somewhere between 1510 and 1514. By this time he had used observations of the planet Mercury and the Alfonsine Tables to convince himself that he could explain the motion of the Earth as one of the planets. The manuscript of Copernicus' work has survived and it is thought that by the 1530s most of his work had been completed, but he delayed publishing the book.
His student, Rheticus read the manuscript and made a summary of Copernicus' theory and published it as the Narratio Prima (the First Account) in 1540. Since it seemed that the Narratiohad been well accepted by colleagues, Copernicus was persuaded to publish more of his main work, and in 1542 he published a section on his spherical trigonometry as De lateribus et angulis traingulorum (On the sides and angles of triangles). Further persuaded by Rheticus and others, he finally agreed to publish the whole work, De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium (The Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres) and dedicated it to Pope Paul III. It appeared just before Copernicus' death in 1543.
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Georg Joachim von Lauchen called Rheticus (1514-1574)

Rheticus had facilitated the publication of Copernicus' work, and had clearly understood the basic principles of the new planetary theory. In 1551, with the help of six assistants, Rheticus recalculated and produced the Opus Palatinum de Triangulis (Canon of the Science of Triangles) which became the first publication of tables of all six trigonometric functions. This was intended to be an introduction to his greatest work, The Science of Triangles. When he died his work was still unfinished, but like Copernicus, Rheticus acquired a student, Valentinus Otho who supervised the calculation (by hand) of some one hundred thousand ratios to at least ten decimal places filling some 1,500 pages. This was finally completed in 1596. These tables were accurate enough to be used as the basis for astronomical calculations up to the early 20th century.
Bartholomaeus Pitiscus (1561 - 1613)
The term trigonometry is due to Pitiscus and as first appeared in his Trigonometria: sive de solutione triangulorum tractatus brevis et perspicuus, published in 1595. A revised version in1600 was the Canon triangularum sive tabulae sinuum, tangentium et secantium ad partes radii 100000 (A Canon of triangles, or tables of sines tangents and secants with a radius of 100,000 parts.) The book shows how to construct sine and other tables, and presents a number of theorems on plane and spherical trigonometry with their proofs.
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However, soon after Rheticus' Opus Palatinum was published, serious inaccuracies were found in the tangent and secant tables at the ends near 1 and 90. Pitiscus was commissioned to correct these errors and obtained a manuscript copy of Rheticus' work. Many of the results were recalculated and new pages were printed incorporating the corrections. Eventually, Pitiscus published a new work in 1613 incorporating that of Rheticus with a table of sines calculated to fifteen decimal places entitled the Thesaurus Mathematicus. By the beginning of the seventeenth century, the science of trigonometry had become a sophisticated technique used in calculating more and more accurate tables for use in astronomy and navigation, and had been instrumental in fundamentally changing man's concept of his world.
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3.0 TRIGONOMETRY IN USE The Babylonians, sometime before 300 B.C.E. were using degree measurement for angles. The Babylonian numerals were based on the number 60, so it may be conjectured that they took the unit measure to be what we call 60, then divided that into 60 degrees. Perhaps 60 was taken as the unit because the chord of 60 equals the radius of the circle, see below about chords. Degree measurement was later adopted by Hipparchus. The Babylonians were the first to give coordinates stars. They used the ecliptic as their base circle in the celestial sphere, that is, the crystal sphere of stars. The sun travels the ecliptic, the planets travel near the ecliptic, the constellations of the zodiac are arranged around the ecliptic, and the north star, Polaris, is 90 from the ecliptic. The celestial sphere rotates around the axis through the north and south poles. The Babylonians measured the longitude in degrees counterclockwise from the vernal point as seen from the north pole, and they measured the latitude in degrees north or south from the ecliptic. Hipparchus of Nicaea (ca. 180 - ca. 125 B.C.E.) Hipparchus was primarily an astronomer, but the beginnings of trigonometry apparently began with him. Certainly the Babylonians, Egyptians, and earlier Greeks knew much astronomy before Hipparchus, and they also determined the positions of many stars on the celestial sphere before him, but it is Hipparchus to whom the first table of chords is attributed. It has been hypothesized that Apollonius and even Archimedes constructed tables of chords before him, but there is no reference to any such earlier table. Some of Hipparchus' advances in astronomy include the calculation of the mean lunar month, estimates of the sized and distances of the sun and moon, variants on the epicyclic and eccentric models of planetary motion, a catalog of 850 stars (longitude and latitude relative to the ecliptic), and the discovery of the precession of the equinoxes and a measurement of that precession.
for
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According to Theon, Hipparchus wrote a 12-book work on chords in a circle, since lost. That would be the first known work of trigonometry. Since the work no longer exists, most everything about it is speculation. But a few things are known from various mentions of it in other sources including another of his own. It included some lengths of chords corresponding to various arcs of circles, perhaps a table of chords. Besides these few scraps of information, others can be inferred from knowledge that was taken as well-known by his successors. Aristarchus of Samos (310 250 BC), a mathematician and astronomer was the first man to propound a heliocentric theory of the universe eighteen centuries before Copernicus. He made an attempt to compare the distance from Earth to the Sun and to the Moon. His reasoning was perfectly sound but instrument he used to determine the angle of sight between the sun and the half moon failed him by fault calibration. He found the distance to the sun to be about eighteen - twenty times that to the moon, instead of the correct figure of approximately 390 times. The first known attempt to calculate circumference of the Earth was made by Eratosthenes of Alexandria. Having heard that, at the summer solstice, the sun was at zenith at Aswan, he decided to determine the height of the sun also at Alexandria. From his measurement he deduced, correctly, that the distance between Alexandria and Aswan must equal 1/50 th of the Earths circumstances, but all his other data were inaccurate or pure guesswork. But remember that this was approximately 1700 years before Columbus tried to find India, and found America. Hippoarchus of Nicea (? 127 BC) is also famous and most determination of the length of the lunar month ( the time the moon use in one revolution around the Earth), to within one second of todays accepted value. As a mathematician, Hippoarchus introduced to Greek the Babylonian method of dividing the circle into 360 degrees. The most important work in the history of trigonometry and astronomy is Almagest, which means the greatest of the great. It was written by the great mathematician and astronomer Ptolemy of Alexandria in the second century AD. It is a thirteen-book mathematical collection, and it contains over 1000 pages in modern edition. In the first book, there are tables of chords for all arcs 0 180 , at 0,5 intervals to at least 5 places of decimals. The Almagest also
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contains theorems corresponding to the present day law of sines. That so much of early Greek work on astronomy has been lost, could be a result of the completeness and elegance of presentation of the Almagest. The Almagest had become the basic textbook in astronomy for more than a thousand years. Building further on the Almagest the Persian Abu al-Wafa systematised theorems and proves of trigonometry and prepared extensive trigonometric tables of sines and tangens. The earliest work on spherical trigonometry was
Menelaus' Spherica(ca. 100 C.E.) . It included what is now called Menelaus' theorem which relates arcs of great circles on spheres. Of course, Menelaus stated his result in terms of chords, but in terms of modern sines, his theorem reads sin CF sin FD
sin CE = sin EA
sin BD sin BA
and sin CA sin CD sin BF = sin EA sin FD sin BE
He proved this result by first proving the plane version, then "projecting" back to the sphere. The plane version says
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CF
CE = EA
BD BA
FD and CA CD BF = EA FD BE
Claudius Ptolemy's(ca. 100 - 178 C.E.) famous mathematical work was the Mathematike Syntaxis (Mathematical Collection) usually known as the Almagest. It is primarily a work on astronomy which included mathematical theory relevant to astronomy. It included trigonometric table, a table of chords for angles from 1/2 to 180 in increments of 1/2, the chords were rounded to two sexagesimal places, about five digits of accuracy. He also included the geometry necessary to construct the table. He computed the chord of 72, an central angle of a pentagon, a constructable angle. Along with the chord of 60 (the radius which Ptolemy took to be 60), that gives crd 12, then crd 6, crd 3, crd 1 1/2, and crd 3/4. He used interpolation to find crd 1 and crd 1/2.
Ptolemy proved the theorem that gives the sum and difference formulas for chords. Theorem. For a cyclic quadrilateral (that is, a quadrilateral inscribed in a circle), the product of the diagonals equals the sum of the products of the opposite sides. AC BD = AB CD + AD BC When AD is a diameter of the circle, then the theorem says crd AOC crd BOD = crd AOB crd COD + d crd BOC. Where O is the center of the circle and d the diameter. If we
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take a to be angle AOB and b to be angle AOC, then we have crd b crd (180 - a) = crd a crd (180 - b) + d crd (b - a) which gives the difference formula crd b crd (180 - a) - crd a crd (180 - b) crd (b - a) = d With a different interpretation of a and b, the sum formula results: crd b crd (180 - a) + crd a crd (180 - b) crd (b + a) = d These, of course, correspond to the sum and difference formulas for sines. In a modern presentation of trigonometry, the sine and cosine of an angle a are the yand x-coordinates of a point on the unit circle, the point being the intersection of the unit circle and one side of the angle a; the other side of the angle is the positive x-axis. For this description of trigonometry, we'll leave the radius unspecified as r and it's double, the diameter, we'll denote d. The chord of an angle AOB where O is the center of a circle and A and B are two points on the circle, is just the straight line AB. Chords are related to the modern sine and cosine by the formulas crd a = d sin (a/2) sin a = (1/d) crd 2a crd (180 - a) = d cos (a/2) cos a = (1/d) crd (180 - 2a)
where a is an angle, d the diameter, and crd an abbreviation for chord. 4.0 Activity to determine the tangent, sine and cosine of an acute angle Before defining the trigonometric functions, we must see how to relate the angles and sides of a right triangle. A right triangle is composed of a right angle, the angle at C, and two acute angles, which are angles less than a right angle. It is conventional to label the acute
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angles with Greek letters. We will label the angle at Bwith the letter ("THAY-ta"). And we will label the angle atA with the letter ("fie"). As for the sides, the side AB, opposite the right angle, is called thehypotenuse ("hyPOT'n-yoos"). Each acute angle is formed by the hypotenuse and the side adjacent to the angle. Thus, angle is formed by the hypotenuse and side BC. Angle is formed by the hypotenuse and side AC. With respect to angle , though, side AC is its opposite side. While side BC is the side opposite . Any two sides of the triangle will have a ratio a relationship to one another. It is possible to form six such ratios: the ratio of the opposite side to the hypotenuse; the adjacent side to the hypotenuse; and so on. Those six ratios have historical names and abbreviations, with which the student will have to make peace. They are the following.
sine of =
sin
e hypoten use
opposit
hypoten cosecant csc use = = opposit of e hypoten secant sec use = = adjace of nt cotangent of = cot adjacen =t opposite
adjace cosine cos nt = = hypoten of use tangent of = tan opposite = adjacen t
Notice that each ratio in the right-hand column is the inverse, or thereciprocal, of the ratio in the left-hand column. The reciprocal of sin is csc ; and vice-versa. The reciprocal of cos is sec .
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And the reciprocal of tan is cot . Each ratio moreover is a function of the acute angle. That is, one quantity is a "function" of another if its value depends on the value of the other. The circumference of a circle is a function of the radius, because the size of the circumference depends on the size of the radius, and when the radius changes, the diameter also will change. As we will see in the next topic, the value of each ratio depends only on the value of the acute angle. That is why we say that those ratios are functions of the acute angle. We call them the trigonometric functions of an acute angle. All of trigonometry is based on the definitions of those functions. Problem 1. Complete the following with either "opposite," "adjacent to," or "hypotenuse." To see the answer, pass your mouse over the colored area. To cover the answer again, click "Refresh" ("Reload").
a) In a right triangle, the side opposite the right angle is called the a) hypotenuse. b) CA is called the side opposite angle . c) BC is called the side adjacent to angle . d) AC is called the side adjacent to angle . e) BC is called the side opposite angle .
Problem 2.
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The sides of a right triangle are in the ratio 3 : 4 : 5, as shown. Name and evaluate the six trigonometric functions of angle .
sin = cos = tan =
4 5 3 5 4 3
csc = sec = cot =
5 4 5 3 3 4
Problem 3. The sides of a right triangle are in the ratio 8 : 15 : 17, as shown. Name and evaluate the six trigonometric functions of angle .
1 sin 5 =1 7 cos
1 csc 7 =1 5 sec 1
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8 = 1 7 1 5 8 =
7 8 cot = 8 1 5
tan =
Notice that the sides of this triangle satisfy, as they must, the Pythagorean theorem: 8 + 15 = 17 64 + 225 = 28 9
PLANE TRIGONOMETRY is based on the fact of similar figures. Figures are similar if they are equiangular and the sides that make the equal angles are proportional. For triangles to be similar, however, it is sufficient that they be equiangular. (Theorem 15 of "Some Theorems of Plane Geometry.") From that it follows: Right triangles will be similar if an acute angle of one is equal to an acute angle of the other.
In the right triangles ABC, DEF, if the acute angle at B is equal to the acute angle at E, then those triangles will be similar. Therefore the sides that make the equal angles will be proportional. If CA is half of AB, for example, then FD will also be half of DE.
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A trigonometric Table is a table of ratios of sides. In the Table, each value of sin represents the ratio of the opposite side to the hypotenuse in every right triangle with that acute angle. If angle is 28, say, then in every right triangle with a 28 angle, its sides will be in the same ratio. We read in the Table, sin 28 = .469 This means that in a right triangle having an acute angle of 28, its opposite side is 469 thousandths of the hypotenuse, which is to say, a little less than half. It is in this sense that in a right triangle, the trigonometric ratios the sine, the cosine, and so on are "functions" of the acute angle. They depend only on the acute angle. Example. Indirect measurement. Trigonometry is used typically to measure things that we cannot measure directly.
For example, to measure the height h of a flagpole, we could measure a distance of, say, 100 feet from its base. From that point P, we could then measure the angle required to sight the top. If that angle (called the angle of elevation) turned out to be 37, then h so that so that so that From the Table, we find tan 37 = .754 Therefore, on multiplying by 100, h = 75.4 feet. (Skill in Arithmetic: Multiplying and dividing by powers of 10.) h = 100 tan 37. 10 0 = tan 37
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If we know the value of any one trigonometric function, then with the aid of the Pythagorean theorem we can find the rest.
In a right triangle, sin =
5 13
Sketch the triangle, place the ratio numbers, and evaluate the remaining functions of . To find the unknown side x, we have x + 5 = 13 x = 169 25 = 144. Therefore, x= = 12. We can now evaluate all six functions of : 5 sin = 1 3 csc = 13 5
1 2 cos = 1 3 5 tan = 1 2
sec =
13 12
1 cot = 2 5
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Sine, Cosine, and Tangent Sine, Cosine and Tangent are all based on a Right-Angled Triangle Before getting stuck into the functions, it helps to give a name to each side of a right triangle:
"Opposite" is opposite to the angle "Adjacent" is adjacent (next to) to the angle "Hypotenuse" is the long one 53
Adjacent is always next to the angle And Opposite is opposite the angle
The three main functions in trigonometry are Sine, Cosine and Tangent. They are often shortened to sin, cos and tan. To calculate them: Divide the length of one side by another side ... but you must know which sides! For a triangle with an angle , the functions are calculated this way:
Sine Function: sin() = Opposite / Hypotenuse Cosine Function: cos() = Adjacent / Hypotenuse Tangent Function: tan() = Opposite / Adjacent
5.0 THREE ACTIVITIES TO DEMONSTRATE ON HOW TO FIND AND ANGLE USING THE SCIENTIFIC CALCULATOR ACTIVITY 1 Introduction: In this lesson, three trigonometric ratios (sine, cosine, and tangent) will be defined and applied. These involve ratios of the lengths of the sides in a right triangle. In a right triangle, one angle is 90 and the side across from this angle is called the hypotenuse. The two sides which form the 90 angle are called the legs of the right triangle. We show a right triangle below. The legs are defined as either opposite or adjacent (next to) the angle A.
54
We shall call the opposite side opp, the adjacent side adj and the hypotenuse hyp. Definitions: In the following definitions, sine is called sin, cosine is called cos and tangent is called tan. The origin of these terms relates to arcs and tangents to a circle. i. ii. iii. sin(A) = cos(A) = tan(A) =
For example, in the triangle below, in relation to angle , opp = 5, adj = 6, and by the Pythagorean Theorem, hyp = .
By the three definitions we have:
sin() =
cos() =
tan() =
55
Often, fractions involving radicals are rewritten (Radical Simplifying) so that there is not
a radical expression in the denominator. Then we have sin() =
and cos() =
We can also find the measure of the angle when we know any of these three trigonometric
ratios. In this case, tan() =
. Using a calculator, we can determine what angle has this
tangent. Using a TI-83 calculator, we press Let's Practice: i.
and get
In the triangle below, what is the sin() and what is the length of the adjacent side? What is the measure of angle ?
The adjacent side can be found using the Pythagorean Theorem and is = had used ii. Using we get we would still get
. The sin() . If we
. Notice that the adjacent side is .
In the triangle below, what is the length of side x?
56
We know that
. Therefore,
We solve
this equation by multiplying by 6 and get x = 2.9088. iii. In the triangle below, what is the length of the hypotenuse x?
41 7 Since 7 is the length of the adjacent side, we have cos(41) = cos(41) get . Therefore,
. We solve this equation by multiplying by x and dividing by 0.7547. We .
ACTIVITY 2
Are you having trouble remembering angles in trigonometry? With all of the different angles in trigonometry it can be hard to remember what the exact value of each angle is. Here is an easy way to find the exact value of the basic angles in trigonometry without remembering the whole table.
Difficulty:
Instructions Things You'll Need

Calculator Pencil Paper
Moderate
57
1. o
1
First you need to know the three basic Trigonometric functions which are sine cosine and tangent. Also make sure your calculator is set in degrees and not radians.
2
Remember that there are two known triangles in Trigonometry. The known triangles are the 30-6090 triangle which has a 1,2,3 ratio, and the 45-45-90 triangle which has a 1,1,2 ratio.
3
For example: You are asked to find the exact value cos (3/2). Type in your calculator ((3)/2) and you'll get 0.866025404. Now to find the exact value of 0.866025404 you need to plug in your known angles 30, 45, 60, and 90. After trying the known angles you will find that cos(30) = 0.866025404. That means sin (3/2)= sin(30) = /6.
Now if you were asked to find sin (2/2) or sin (1/2). Type in your calculator (2)/2 and press enter you'll get 0.707106781. Now to find the exact value of 0.707106781 you plug in your known angles again 30,45,60,90. type in your calculator sin(30) which is 0.5 so we can eliminate 30 degrees. Now try sin(60) which equals 0.866025404 so we can eliminate 60 degrees. Now try sin(45) which equals 0.707106781. That means sin((2)/2) (or sin (1/2)) = sin (45) = /4.
o
5
After using sine and cosine to find exact values of angles now we will use tangent. Lets say you were asked to find tan(3/3) or tan(1/3). Again type in your calculator (3)/3 and you will get
58
0.577350269. Now try plugging in your known angles to find the exact value. Try plugging in 30, 45, 60, and 90. you'll notice that tan(30) = 0.577350269 which means tan(3/3)(or tan(1/3)) = /6.
ACTIVITY 3
Trigonometry uses triangles and the angles between their sides to compute a variety of useful information. The mathematics of triangles is used in architecture to calculate where the sun will shine within a structure as the seasons change; it is also applied to figure the slope of a roof. The Pythagorean theorem says that for a right triangle -- one with a 90-degree angle between two of its sides -- the length of the sloped side squared is equal to the sum of the squared lengths of the other two sides.
Difficulty:
Moderately Easy
Instructions Things You'll Need

Calculator with trigonometric functions Protractor
59
1.
o
Draw Right Triangle
1
Use the flat side of a protractor to draw a right triangle that measures 3 inches high by 4 inches long by 5 inches on the sloped side. Label the vertical portion "a" the bottom "b" and the remaining sloped side "c." Note that "c" is called the hypotenuse of the triangle.
2
Use the calculator to prove to yourself that a^2 plus b^2 equals c^2: 9 + 16 = 25.
3
Try drawing several more right triangles. Measure the sides on each one and crunch the numbers. Use the square root function on a calculator to solve for triangles that don't come out to round numbers. Verify that all adhere to the formula. If they don't, you measured incorrectly.
2.
o
Using Sines
1
Look at the first triangle you drew with sides measuring 3, 4 and 5. Label the angle between the hypotenuse c and the "bottom" b of the triangle as A. Label the opposite angle between sides c and a as B. Divide the length of the side directly opposite angle A (side a) over the hypotenuse of the triangle. Write down the answer: You will get 0.6.
2
Understand the following relationship: Sine equals the length of the opposite side (from the angle in question) divided by the hypotenuse. Reverse this concept using the inverse sine function on your calculator to solve for the angle: Enter the number "0.6" in your calculator and press the "arc-sin" or "sin -1" key. Examine the display to verify that it reads "36.86." This is the angle A in degrees -- the angle between sides c and b.
3
Determine the remaining angle B inside the triangle. Add the right angle, which is 90 degrees to the angle A, which is 36.86 degrees. Subtract this number from 180 to solve for angle B. Verify that your answer reads 53.14 degrees. Write down this formula: sin = opposite/hypotenuse.
3.
o
Using Cosines
1
Use the protractor to draw a right triangle with sides 10, 24 and 26. Label the vertical side "a," the bottom "b" and the hypotenuse "c."
2
Use the formula cos B = sin A to understand the relationship between sines and cosines. Because the three angles together must equal 180 degrees, and the right angle takes up 90 degrees, the
60
angles A and B adjacent to the hypotenuse will always add up to 90 degrees. In a similar fashion, the sine and cosine of angle A or B are related through the equation sin A = cos B. Note that just as the sine of an angle is given by the length of the opposite side (from the angle) divided by the hypotenuse, the cosine is given by the adjacent side divided by the hypotenuse. Write down this formula: cos = adjacent/hypotenuse.
o
3
Explore this concept further. Use your calculator to compute the cosine of the angle A for the triangle where a = 10, b = 24 and C = 26. Check your answer: It should read 0.923.
4
Take the inverse cosine of this angle to get 22.62. Use the 180 degrees formula: 180 - 90 - 22.62 = 67.38. This is angle B. Use the relationship cos A=sin B to find another way to arrive at this result. Note that the sine of angle B is also 0.923, the cosine of angle A.
6.0 REFLECTION Educational technology is recognized as an essential component of the instructional process. In particular, scientific calculator has emerged as a useful tool for teaching and learning of Mathematics. This was intended to avoid wastage of time in solving mathematical problems and improve students performance as before. This has raised questions as to the potential contribution of scientific calculators to the teaching and learning of Mathematics as performance did not improve with their use. It was also not clear what challenges were faced by users of this gadget. The purpose of this study therefore was to establish challenges and benefits that may result from the use of scientific calculators in the teaching and learning of Mathematics.
61
Mathematics is a compulsory subject in the current curriculum. It involves the process of manipulating mathematical procedures and algorithms concerning specified instructions and axioms relating to mathematical concepts under investigation. This calls on the learner to be able to think logically, present information in logical steps and proofs of theorems systematically. Several studies have been carried out to find out the real cause of the poor performance in the subject with no tangible results. It is widely believed that performance in the subject depends largely on the effective teaching and learning process. Ouko (2004) notes that for the last ten years, performance in national examinations indicates that, national examinations mean grade for Mathematics has been grade E which is a score below 20%. The same was noted by Aduda (2005), and Kituku (2004). A report from the KNEC newsletter found out that, the greatest challenge the learners face in the process of examination was time management. The report further noted that during examinations, candidates were not able to complete both Mathematics examination papers on time, which greatly contributes to the poor performance in the subject. In line with this, factors like teaching methods, attitude of both the teacher and the learner and teaching and learning resources in Mathematics have been addressed through studies, yet the root cause of this performance has not been discovered. Of much focus was the use of teaching and learning aids in the learning process. The study established that, there are various challenges linked to scientific calculator use in Mathematics in Mathematics class. These included provision of scientific calculators to the learners. On provision, it was established that parents and guardians were to provide learners with scientific calculators. This was a problem because the study established that, most learners did not have scientific calculators because of poverty. In addition, since most learners did not access scientific calculators frequently, they were unable to use scientific calculators effectively in Mathematics, especially when provided with one during examination time. In addition, there were learners with sight problems who were not able to use the calculators effectively. These learners were grouped as those with special needs, under an integrated system of learning. Time management for this group of learners was a real problem. These challenges should be addressed to make the teaching and learning of Mathematics effective.
62
The research was conceptualized on the benefits and difficulties in the use of scientific calculators in the teaching and learning of Mathematics. To address this problem, there was need to introduce technology in Mathematics that could aid learners in time management in their examinations. Much of technology commonly in use in the teaching and learning process included visual aids (charts, hand-outs, pictures, photographs, cut-outs, models, flash cards, muted videos and drawings), audio aids (radio and cassette recorded sounds) and audio-visual aids (video and film clips) have been used in Mathematics, mainly to facilitate concept understanding of facts, which would otherwise be thought abstract to the learner. The aforementioned media in Mathematics are specifically designed to make learners understand concepts faster, than merely observing the teacher manipulate mathematical procedures and algorithms. This means that their integration in Mathematics makes teaching and learning process effective but not to aid in time management. The difficulties include inability to use scientific calculators properly in Mathematics under topical requirements, de-linking the mind of the learner from basic computation capabilities, accessibility to scientific calculators during Mathematics learning process and sight problem in some of the learners. Although, a study by Ambuko (2008) points out that, availability of various media resources and their advantages in classroom instruction has necessitated the integration of such media in the teaching and learning process, these media may present difficulties to the teachers and learners in the learning process, such as accessibility, negative attitudes and lack of training. Therefore, challenges may arise from the methods used in the teaching and learning of Mathematics using a scientific calculator. Difficulties may also arise from a situation where a learner does not access a scientific calculator in the teaching and learning process. This may affect attitude of both the teacher and the learner towards the use of scientific calculators in Mathematics. To effectively use calculator technology in a Mathematics learning process, each learner in the class should have access to a calculator during learning sessions. The calculators can be provided to the learners through a system that ensures all learners have the gadget. Whereas the study by Burrill was conducted to compare the availability of scientific calculators between the rural and urban schools, this study sought to establish the extent to which learners accessed
63
scientific calculators during the teaching and learning of Mathematics in secondary schools in Emuhaya District. The aspect of time management especially when it comes to computations was addressed by the introduction of Slide rules and Mathematical tables. They were integrated in the teaching and learning process in secondary school Mathematics both as topical requirement and purely as tools to aid in computations. Learners used to spend a lot of time in computations at the expense of mathematical processes when confined to both slide rules and mathematical tables. The integration of the calculators was to impact positively on the teaching and learning process by reducing drudgery of applying arithmetic and algebraic procedures and improving manipulative skills. According to the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM, 1989 (a)), the use of calculators along with traditional paper-and-pencil instruction enhances the learning of basic skills. This is concurred by Roberts (1991) who noted that the integration of the calculator into the school Mathematics program should be at all grade levels in class work, homework, and evaluation" (Roberts, 1991, p.51). In addition, Roberts observes that the use of calculators should not eliminate the teaching of the basic algorithmic skills and processes of Mathematics. It should be properly integrated to reinforce the basic concepts, that are being taught and to aid in the application of these Mathematics processes in the real-world situations. The implication is that teacher supervised activities relating to the mathematical concepts being learned are reduced. Learning therefore becomes student-centered. The study concludes that, calculator use can benefit the learner and the teacher. This is observed when the learners are actively involved in the learning process with minimum teacher supervision and direction. The benefits include making Mathematics concepts well understood, increasing the mastery of computing skills and amount of calculations, displaying accurate answers on the screen and using it to confirm answers, motivate learners to want to work more, and are convenient for confidential working for those who know how to use the calculator. These benefits should be exploited to increase the number of learners who are proficient in the use of the calculator to make teaching and learning more effective and learner centred. This will go towards improving performance in the subject. The benefits included making Mathematics concepts well understood, increasing the mastery of computing skills and amount of calculations, as well as using it to confirm answers,
64
displaying accurate answers on the screen, motivating learners to want to work more and the calculator being convenient for confidential working. To solve these problem or to encourage pupils The Ministry of Education should fund the purchase of scientific calculators for all learners at secondary school level, to ensure every learner accesses a scientific calculator during the learning sessions and during examination times. This should be carried out under similar scheme of Free Secondary Education (FSE) currently underway. District policy on calculator technology acquisition use and integration in Mathematics should be formulated. Provide a calculator that caters for learners with sight problems and schools should set up Mathematics laboratory (Technology in Education Centre) that pays special attention to practical sessions in Mathematics, to promote participatory and collaborative learning in the use of scientific calculators in Mathematics. This will reduce the role of the teacher to a facilitator rather than a provider of knowledge. Refresher courses on the use of calculator technology to be regular at the district level, to upraise teachers knowledge and skills on calculator use while at the same time developing positive attitude, toward calculator technology integration in Mathematics. The government should set out guidelines to suppliers on the quality of calculator expected to be supplied to the learners. The Ministry of Education should source funds from development partners and donors in the education sector, to be able to purchase calculators for every learner, as well as formulating a policy on provision of scientific calculators to the learners, to eliminate problems associated with accessibility and use of scientific calculators in Mathematics in secondary schools, to ensure equitable accessibility to calculators by the learners. The Ministry of Education should organize seminars that concern calculator use in Mathematics and other related disciplines across the secondary school curriculum for teachers. Do away with topical requirement of scientific calculator, since this tends to make teachers and learners spend a lot of time mastering calculator manipulative skills, instead of using calculators as tools to aid computations. The manufacturers through the Ministry of Education to provide a calculator that caters for learners with sight problems; a calculator made with ear-phones could be ideal where sounds will be produced upon pressing the relevant keys (talking calculators). More materials on calculator technology to be supplied to schools as teaching and learning aids, to cater for individual differences amongst learners. A special panel set up to design and produce
65
materials related to calculator technology use, such as texts and charts to be accessed by the learners in specially designed places like Mathematics labs, classroom walls displays.
REFERENCES Aduda D (2OO5). New Report Spells out the Future of Education. The Daily Nation Monday. April, 2005 Nation Media Group Nairobi. Retrieved @ www.kaeam.or.ke/e-journal/articles/vo. Ambuko BS (2008). Media selection and use in teaching and learning. Kiswahili. Unpublished Thesis M.Ed Thesis, Maseno University
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Azita M (1999). Computers and school mathematics reform: implications for mathematics and science teaching. J. Comput. Math. Sci. Teach., 18(1): 31- 48. Balozi C, Njunge J (2004). Trends in Teaching approaches and methods in Science and Mathematics Education SMASSE project. Borg RW, Gall JP (1996). Educational Research: An Introduction. New York: Longman Publishers. Briggs L (1977). Instructional Design: Principles and Applications. New York: Englewood Cliffs. Burrill G (1992). The graphing calculator: A tool for change. In J. T. Fey & C. R. Hirsch (Eds.). Calculators in mathematics education. pp. 14 22 Campbell P, Stewart EL (1993). Calculators and Computers. In R. Jensen (Ed.), Early Childhood Mathematics, NCTM Research Interpretation Project pp. 251-268. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company
Carlson MP (1995). A successful transition to a calculator integrated college algebra curriculum: Clues, surveys, and trends. In P. Bo Honlyn Limited All Rights Reserved. 2004. History of Trigonometry. Retrived @ http://www.trigonometry-help.net/history-of-trigonometry.php
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Jon Anders Pettersen, Gjermund Vingerhagen and Tommy Tveter Heggenes. Trigonometry. Mathematics From the birth of numbers, Jan Gullberg Trigonometric delights, Eli Maor. Retrived @ http://home.c2i.net/greaker/comenius/9899/historytrigonometry Aveni, A, (1997) Stairways to the Stars. N.Y and Chichester Wiley Skywatching in three ancient cultures: Megalithic Astronomy, the Maya and the Inca. Van Brummelen, G. (2009) The Mathematics of the Heavens and the Earth: The Early History of Trigonometry. Princeton, Princeton University Press. Evans, J. (1998) The History and Practice of Ancient Astronomy. Oxford.O.U.P. Leo Rogers. (2010). History of Trigonometry . Speacilists in Rich Mathematics. Retrived @ http://nrich.maths.org/6853&part= Katz, V. (1998) A History of Mathematics. New York. Addison Wesley. Katz, V. (Ed.) (2007) The Mathematics of Egypt, Mesopotamia, China, India, and Islam. Princeton. Princeton University Press.
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HBMT4203 Teaching Mathematics In Form Three

OPEN UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA Faculty of Education and Language

AZYYATI A.RAHIM 761022017628

HBMT4203 Teaching Mathematics In Form Three

AZYYATI A.RAHIM 761022017628

HBMT4203 Teaching Mathematics In Form Three

AZYYATI A.RAHIM 761022017628

HBMT4203 Teaching Mathematics In Form Three

AZYYATI A.RAHIM 761022017628

HBMT4203 Teaching Mathematics In Form Three

AZYYATI A.RAHIM 761022017628

HBMT4203 Teaching Mathematics In Form Three

HBMT4203 Teaching Mathematics In Form Three

AZYYATI A.RAHIM 761022017628

HBMT4203 Teaching Mathematics In Form Three

AZYYATI A.RAHIM 761022017628

HBMT4203 Teaching Mathematics In Form Three

AZYYATI A.RAHIM 761022017628

HBMT4203 Teaching Mathematics In Form Three

AZYYATI A.RAHIM 761022017628

HBMT4203 Teaching Mathematics In Form Three

AZYYATI A.RAHIM 761022017628

HBMT4203 Teaching Mathematics In Form Three

3. The Hindu Sulbasutras

the relationship between the circumference of a circle,

. Sines were calculated at intervals of

AZYYATI A.RAHIM 761022017628

HBMT4203 Teaching Mathematics In Form Three

HBMT4203 Teaching Mathematics In Form Three

AZYYATI A.RAHIM 761022017628

HBMT4203 Teaching Mathematics In Form Three

AZYYATI A.RAHIM 761022017628

HBMT4203 Teaching Mathematics In Form Three

AZYYATI A.RAHIM 761022017628

HBMT4203 Teaching Mathematics In Form Three

AZYYATI A.RAHIM 761022017628

HBMT4203 Teaching Mathematics In Form Three

AZYYATI A.RAHIM 761022017628

HBMT4203 Teaching Mathematics In Form Three

HBMT4203 Teaching Mathematics In Form Three

HBMT4203 Teaching Mathematics In Form Three

Converting Ptolemy's chord calculations with base ten:

HBMT4203 Teaching Mathematics In Form Three

AZYYATI A.RAHIM 761022017628

HBMT4203 Teaching Mathematics In Form Three

HBMT4203 Teaching Mathematics In Form Three

AZYYATI A.RAHIM 761022017628

HBMT4203 Teaching Mathematics In Form Three

HBMT4203 Teaching Mathematics In Form Three

HBMT4203 Teaching Mathematics In Form Three

AZYYATI A.RAHIM 761022017628

HBMT4203 Teaching Mathematics In Form Three

AZYYATI A.RAHIM 761022017628

HBMT4203 Teaching Mathematics In Form Three

HBMT4203 Teaching Mathematics In Form Three

AZYYATI A.RAHIM 761022017628

HBMT4203 Teaching Mathematics In Form Three

HBMT4203 Teaching Mathematics In Form Three

AZYYATI A.RAHIM 761022017628

HBMT4203 Teaching Mathematics In Form Three

AZYYATI A.RAHIM 761022017628

HBMT4203 Teaching Mathematics In Form Three