Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Mohammed Jhilila
Socilinguistics
20/06/2008
Enhanced by Eliezer Ben Yehuda, a tiny group of Jewish Idealists started their plan to
revive Hebrew, which extinguished for centuries because of the Diaspora of the Jewish
Hebrew is now widely used among the Jewish population in Israel, which to the nearest past
was considered as impossible. The impossibility was due to the rejection that was led by the
religious circles in Israel. In this article, the authors concern themselves with the language
acculturation of the Jewish immigrants to Israel. They concern themselves on the other hand
on the linguistic shift and maintenance conducted by these immigrants by reading the case of
a Romanian social group. Their study, as they mentioned it in the beginning, is based on the
principles of Professor Bachi and aims at modernizing his views. For the authors
(International Migration Review, 1971), there are different and multiple types of languages
that were used by the pre-contact immigrants while living in Diaspora. For them, the social,
economic and demographic contexts dictated a certain linguistic behaviour on the first settlers
in Israel. Wittingly, they highlight the motives that led to the revival of Hebrew. These drives
ranged values associated motives, what is related to the belief and ideological, as well as
functional ones, instrumental. For them, the former drives preceded the latter. Instrumentality,
in this respect, is itself a means to an end which were, in the early beginnings, individualistic.
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The symbolic value of Hebrew decreased because, in the beginnings of the Israeli community,
language served as a unifying means. In this article, the authors pigeon-hole that language
Shift or Language maintenance are fuelled more by pragmatic finalities, economic and social
The Data
Based on two census one held on November 1948 the other on June 1961. The
population studied was asked to classify the language or languages used in their daily basis in
• Hebrew as a non-spoken 0%
The author draws the attention of the non-reliability of the census of 1948 which was
modified for the sake of national purposes and which was batteried by patriotic drives. The
1961 census for them is more reliable than the precedent one. The 1961 census is itself not
wholeheartedly reliable, since it was operated by the government and the interview was
introduced in the mother tongue, which could have pushed the respondents to over-report
The increase of Hebrew speakers was substantially remarkable during the British
Mandate, when the Israeli ideologies spread and flourished. Between the Turkish period and
the British mandate the number of the Jewish immigrants to Israel doubled, but the rate drop
was not a big one; from 71,3% in 1948 to 60,9% in 1954. During that era, Hebrew was
already introduced in the institutions especially those of instruction and education. In 1961,
the rate increased and was estimated to be 73,6% of the Israeli people speak Hebrew as their
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first language. For Bachi, Hebrew represented a crucial charge to either stay in or leave Israel.
Age in its turn played a big role in the acquisition of Hebrew; for the authors, a working man
needed from 10 to 15 years to learn Hebrew. The immigrants’ country of exit influenced the
exposure to Hebrew as well; those for example coming from England and German (Fisherman
ed., 347) had lesser tendency to shift to Hebrew because they were deeply attached to their
cultures and because they had little Zionist preparations. The immense reimbursement
guaranteed to Hebrew speaking population in Israel made language shift huge even among the
German Jewish group. For the non-Jewish Hebrew speakers, the drives were more
instrumental and economically fuelled; the contact with the Jewish mainstream pushed this
group, which consists mostly of male peasants, to opt for Hebrew. Their descendents, on the
other hand, had to learn Hebrew as a second language at schools which made the drop of the
Pre-contact variables
Bachi’s work showed that the length of the stay in Israel results in the rise of the use of
Hebrew. However, before the installation in Israel, Jews used to speak different variables and
different languages. Education, from him, served in promoting Hebrew and propagating in
among the population. It was believed that to have had no education was better than to have
had a non-Hebrew education. Thus education served in eradicating illiteracy- most of the
illiterate were originally from Africa- as well as in augmenting Hebrew speakers. Education
or non-education is dictated by the continent of birth for Bachi. Those who had opportunities
or access to education were Europe-born Jews while the African ones had little if not none.
For fisherman ed., the context variables also played a crucial role in the shift to Hebrew; for
them, the more compact the settlements were the less the population learns Hebrew. The
density of the settlement, especially of the German Jews, entailed identity fetishism.
Kibbutzim is also more deterrent to Hebrew use in the rural areas than in industrialised ones
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while Moshavim, those coming from North Africa, discouraged peasants from Hebrew
learning as well, reported the assessment of the census of 1961. Those living in cities used to
read newspapers which are issued in easy Hebrew. The circulation of Maariv newspapers
reached a weekly figure of 30.477 in 1950 which mounted to 156.623 in 1969. The arte of the
Language Maintenance
The Jews, for the authors, who came to settle in Palestine first then in Israel were
deprived of their Jewish culture and countries of origins. This alienation led to the strong and
swift of language use from a number of languages to Hebrew. However, the first forerunners
did not show this linguistic loyalty as their followers. The press that was issued in the early
years of the Israeli State rated 20% which was a marker of inertia towards the integration into
the Jewish culture, but later one Hebrew was adopted as the authors say with no sentiment
(353). The languages that prevailed in the 1916 census read as follows: Yiddish, dzudezmo,
Arabic and German. This is mainly due to the adjacency to the Arab world and the hardship
the German Jews experienced. Yet, the hatred of Arabic among the Sephardic helped in the
drop of that language and the shift to Hebrew. Influxing from Balkan countries, Bulgarians
Hungarians and polish maintained their first tongue while they learnt English or French for
materialistic purposes.
Retentiveness
Retentiveness as defined by the two sociolinguists has three meanings: 1- it refers to the
external strength of the language; 2- the internal power of the language and its use within the
speech community; 3- and the extent of the maintenance of the aforementioned, internal and
external, powers. In the 1948 census, Bulgarian, Hungarian Turkish and Yiddish were the
strongest internal languages which were maintained by their users as an index of their cultural
pride. Starting from 1961, none of the abovementioned languages had the same power. The
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general loss of internal power was marked by non-paternal drop. As Yiddish, English French
and Dzudezmo started winning external command. The loss of the internal, however slow,
shows the groups readiness to switch from a language to another, which is due to the pre-
contact era. Those who used to speak French, mainly from North African origins, found that
other languages were empowered than their original language that’s why the shift took place.
Yet, the collective gatherings of groups that used the same language helped in the
“resurrection” of some languages. Yiddish, for example, is said to have already extinguished
in the eastern European countries, but its literature flourished when Yiddish speaking groups
immigrated to Israel. The political decisions had also their influence on the linguistic level of
these communities. The majority of schools in Israel fostered English learning, Arabic and
French were also included but non-profitable, because of the historical attachment of Israel
As stated by the researchers, Rumanian was classified as the third most used language in
Israel in 1961 -the first two ones were Yiddish and Arabic. News programmes were broadcast
and papers were edited in Rumanian. Yet, being in the know of other languages, resulted in
language oscillation. Many Rumanians speak Yiddish besides German; the average shows that
The Rumanians who immigrated to Israel in its early years had little knowledge of
Hebrew because of the communist rise among the eastern European countries. 30% of these
immigrants learnt Hebrew systematically, while 60% learnt it through contact. The second
generation of the Rumanian immigrants learnt Hebrew because of the advantages provided to
those speaking Hebrew. The governmental decisions and the individual interests met on the
necessity to learn Hebrew, which came into the immigrants private lives through necessity.
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What the authors found is that there persisted an interference of Rumanian into Hebrew and
vice versa. The public institutions like schools administrations were referred to in Hebrew
even in family talks. By and large, the shift was also punctuated by maintenance. The elder
Rumanians maintained their first tongue, while Rumanian was used among families. This
language maintenance is a kind of cultural affiliation and identity security. Their young
descendents responded in Rumanian because Hebrew was not spoken in the everyday talks.
An interview of 95 persons shows that: 80 know Rumanian well. 15 know reduced Rumanian.
42 talk only Rumanian at home with their families. 39 interviewees read and write Rumanian,
and 28 among them speak Rumanian though they were born in Israel. The circulation of
population only 11% read Hebrew literature, while 40 % read Rumanian novels.
To bring this analysis to an end, I need to mention that Hebrew resurrection and
renaissance remain one of the most remarkable successes of the Israeli State. The notion that
Israel’s identity is dating back to centuries is a forged idea since it is being constructed. Most
immigrants to Israel had other identities, the ones they acquired during the Diaspora, than