Problem:

A 1 mA meter movement with an internal resistance of 50ohms is to be used in a 0-1 V, 0-10V, 0-50V, 0-100V ranges in the arrangement shown below. Find the value of the required multiplier resistances.
R1 R2 R3 R4 Im Rm 50V 10V 100V S 1V DC Input, Vin

Problem:

In the circuit shown below, the voltage across 25kohm is to be measured by a voltmeter with sensitivity of 1 k ohms/V. Find the percentage error in the measurement.
50 Kohms

75 V

25 Kohms

Problem: Design a series ohmmeter with following specification Half-scale deflection resistance is 2500ohm Battery voltage is 3V Meter with internal resistance of 50 ohm and Ifsd 1mA Find the change in the value of R2 and half-scale deflection resistance if the battery voltage reduce by A R1 10%
I2 Rm I R2 E B Rx

Ohmmeter Series Type

R1 I2 Rm I R2 E A Rx B

Scale

To calculate R1 and R2 ( By Half Deflection Method) Let Rh = Half deflection resistance. For this value of Rx, I = Ifsd/2. At half deflection

E Ih = 2 R

R2 Rm Rh = R 1 + R2 + Rm E , I2 = It - Ifsd , It = Rh

and I2R2 = IfsdRm

Solving these equations

I
R2 =

fsd

RmRh
fsd

E I

Rh

I
R1 = Rh -

fsd

Rm Rh E

Shunt Type
R1 It E S Im Rm Ish Rsh B

A Ix Rx

To calculate R1 and Rsh (Half Deflection Method) Let Rh = Half deflection resistance. For this value of Rx, Im = Ifsd/2. At half deflection Ix = Ish + Im , Ix =

Em Im Rm = Rh Rh ( R
m

Ish = I Solving these equations

R Rh

I m Rm Rsh = I sh

It = Ish + Ix + Im = 2(Im + Ish) = 2Im(Rm/Rh)

R1 = (E ImRm)/It

Multimeter

Decibel Scale
Audio frequency signals are expressed in dB It is log scale Human ear perceives changes in amplitude on log basis --- Making measurements on dB scale reflects audibility more accurately dB= 10 log (P1/P2) dB= 20 log (V1/V2)

Decibel Scale
Denominator variable is stated reference For power based measurements reference impedance must be specified---- 600ohm in audio & 50ohm in microwave circuits High impedance VMs are calibrated in dB for voltage required to reach 1mW in the reference impedance (0.775V-600 ohm)

Calibration
Rheostat

Ammeter

Regulated DC Voltage Source

A

R Ammeter under test Rheostat

Standard Instrument

Voltmeter

Regulated DC Voltage Source

Standard Resistor

Voltmeter V under test

Standard M Instrument

AC Analog Meters

Common Voltage Parameters

Vrms= 0.707 Vpk Vrms= 1.1 Vavg

Types of AC Volt Meters

Average reading

RMS reading Peak reading Peak to peak reading True RMS reading

Half Wave Rectifier Based Meter

Vs +Vp 0 -Vp 2 3 t
B A RS Im Rm Ideal Diode

I +Ip 0 2 3 t

Ip = Iav =

Vp RS + Rm
I
p

= 0.318 Ip

AC voltmeters are marked in the root mean square (rms) value of the pure sinusoidal input voltage, which is 0.707 of the peak voltage.

To calculate Rs

0 .707 Vrms = 0.707 Vp = 0.707 Ip (RS + Rm) = Iav (RS + Rm) 0 .318

V rms RS = 0.45 - Rm I av
Problems in the circuit In the negative half cycle of the input, reverse current flows in the circuit, thereby reducing the overall average value of the current. The meter reads low. In the reverse direction, diode may breakdown due to large reverse voltage.

Problem:

A 50A meter movement with an internal resistance of 50ohm is to be used in a 0-50 rms range in the arrangement shown below. Find the value of the required multiplier Ideal resistance.
A RS Im Rm Diode

Practical version of the circuit

A RS D1

D2

Rm

B Reverse current protection for both Diodes No reverse current through meter due to Diode D2

Sensitivity of the Voltmeter

Rin = 0.45

V fsd I fsd

= Sac Vfsd (Neglecting Rm)

0 . 45 Sac = I fsd
Sdc =

1 I fsd

Sac < Sdc

Nonlinearity on the Lower RMS ranges

A RS D2 B D1

Rsh

Rm

V rms RS = 0.45 2 I av 0.45

- (RD+ Rsh||Rm)

Sac =

2 I fsd

Full Wave Rectifier Based Meter

D3 D1 I
+

Vs Vs +Vp 3 t Iav =

D2

D4

IR +Ip

0 -Vp

0
2I
p

2 3

Vrms RS = 0.9 - Rm I av
Sac=

= 0.636 Ip

0 .9

I fsd

Nonsinusoidal Waveform Input

RMS value of the wavform Form Factor = Average value of the wavform

For a sinusoidal waveform,

Form Factor =

0.707Vp (2 / ) Vp

= 1.11

Peak Reading Voltmeter

Ideal Diode Vi Vout

+Vp -Vp
0

Ideal Diode Vi Vout

+Vp -Vp
0

2 t

Vi C R Vout

+Vp
Vf

2 t

Vi C Vout

+Vp t

Relationship between frequency, R and C

Vf = Vp e-T/RC We can define accuracy as
Vf Vp = e T / RC

Ideally, right hand side should be unity. For small values of T/RC, we can write

Vf Vp

= e T / RC 1 T/RC = accuracy
For a 99% accurate peak detector RC = 100 T = 100/f For a 95% accurate peak detector RC = 20 T = 20/f

Peak to Peak Reading Voltmeter

Vp Vi 0 R Vout Vi Vout C

+Vp -Vp
0

2 t

t -2Vp

Negative DC clamping
Vout = Vi - Vp Used for signals whose positive and negative cycles are not equal.

Peak to Peak Reading Voltmeter

A Positive Clamper Positive Peak Detector DC Voltmeter

+Vp 0 -Vp 2 t

+2Vp

+2Vp