AS Unit F321: Atoms, Bonds and Groups Module 1: Atoms and Reactions 1.1.

1 Atoms a) All elements are made up from atoms. Atoms are made up from 3 types of particles, protons, neutrons and electrons. Electrons have a -1 relative charge, and Protons have a +1 charge, whilst Neutrons are neutral. Protons and neutrons have a relative mass of 1, whilst electrons have a relative mass of - 12000-. b) The majority of mass is in the nucleus of the atom, where you find the protons and neutrons, but its diameter is tiny compared to the diameter of the whole atom. c) The top number on a nuclear symbol is the mass (nucleon) number, which is the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus. The atomic (proton) number is the number of protons, and is on the bottom. The neutrons can be found by subtracting the atomic number from the mass number. d) Negative ions have more electrons than protons, and positive ions have fewer. e) Isotopes of an element are atoms with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons. It is the number and arrangement of electrons that decides the chemical properties of an element. Isotopes have the same configuration of electrons so theyve got the same chemical properties. They do have slightly different physical properties due to the change in mass, such as different densities and rates of diffusion. f)
12

C is used as the standard measurement of relative masses, with one atom of carbon-12 weighing 12.

g) Relative isotopic mass is the mass of an atom of an isotope of an element on a scale where an atom of carbon-12 is 12. Relative atomic mass (Ar) is the average mass of an atom of an atom of an element on a scale where an atom of carbon-12 is 12. h) Relative isotopic abundance and how to work it out from a mass spectrum. i) Relative Molecular Mass (Mr) is the average mass of a molecule or formula unit on a scale where an atom of carbon-12 is 12. Relative Formula Mass is used for compounds that are ionic or giant covalent.

1.1.2 Moles and Equations a) The amount of substance is the quantity whose unit is the mole. The amount of substance is measured using a unit called the mole and given the symbol n. One mole is the amount of any substance containing as many particles as there are in carbon atoms in exactly 12g of carbon-12 and is equal to 6.02 x 1023 particles. This number is known as the Avogadro constant.

b) Molar mass is the mass per mole of a substance. Its unit is g mol-1. c) The empirical formula is the simplest whole-number ratio of atoms of each element present in a compound. The molecular formula is the actual number of atoms of each element in a molecule. d) Practice calculating molecular and empirical formulae by using composition by mass and percentage composition. e) A chemical reaction starts with reactants and ends with products. An equation is a symbolic representation of the reaction taking place. f) Practice calculations involving mass, gas volume and solution volume and concentration. g) Stoichiometry is the molar relationship between the relative quantities of substances taking part in a reaction. h) The concentration of a solution tells you how much solute is dissolved in the solvent, measured in moles per cubic decimetre, dm 3 (1000 cm3). A standard solution is a solution of known concentration and is usually used in titrations to work out information about the other substance. The terms concentrated and dilute are descriptive terms for the amount, in mol, of dissolved solute in a solution. Concentrated is a large amount of solute per dm 3 and dilute is a small amount. Concentrated acids usually have a concentration of greater than 10 mol dm3.

1.1.3 Acids a) Acids release H+ ions (protons) in aqueous solution. H + ions are the active ingredient in acids. An H+ ion is responsible for all acid reactions. An acid is a proton donor. b) Commons acids include sulphuric acid (H 2SO4), hydrochloric acid (HCl) and nitric acid (HNO3). c) Common bases are metal oxides and hydroxides and ammonia. Bases are proton, H+, acceptors. They neutralise acids, and will readily accept H + ions, e.g. NH3 forming NH4+. d) An alkali is any chemical compound that gives a solution with a pH of greater than 7.0 when dissolved in water. It is a type of base that dissolves in water forming hydroxide ions, OH- (aq) ions. e) Common alkalis include sodium hydroxide (NaOH), Potassium hydroxide (KOH) and aqueous ammonia (NH3). f) A salt is an ionic compound with the following features: the positive ion ( cation) is usually a metal ion or ammonium ion, NH4+. The anion, negative ion, is derived

from an acid. The formula for a salt is the same as the parent acid, except that an H+ ion has been replaced by the cation. A salt is produced when the H + ion of an acid is replaces by a metal ion or NH 4+. When an acid has two replaceable H + ions (such as H2SO4) it is called a diprotic acid and can form an acid salt such as NaHSO4, which is acidic, as it still has a replaceable H + ion. g) Salts can be produced by neutralising acids with carbonates, bases and alkalis. When reacted with carbonates a salt, water and CO 2 are formed. On reacting with bases and alkalis a salt and water is formed. They can also be formed by reacting metals with acids, which are known as redox reactions. h) Hydrated refers to a crystalline compound containing water molecules. Anhydrous refers to a substance that contains no water molecules. Water of crystallisation refers to water molecules that form an essential part of the crystalline structure of a compound. i) How to calculate the formula of a hydrated salt from percentage composition, mass composition or experimental data. j) Titrations and calculations Indicator Methyl orange Bromothymol blue Phenolpthalein Colour in Acid Red Yellow Colourless Colour in base Yellow Blue Pink End point colour Orange Green Pale Pink

1.1.4. Redox a) An oxidation number is a measure of the number of electrons that an atom uses to bond with atoms of another element. The rules are set out in the table below:

Species Uncombined element Combined oxygen Combined hydrogen Simple ion Combined fluorine

Oxidation Number 0 -2 +1 Charge on ion -1

Examples C,Na,O2, P4 H2O, CaO NH3,H2S Na+, +1, Cl- -1 NaF, CaF2

When bonded to fluorine, oxygen had an oxidation number of +2. In peroxides, it has an oxidation number of -1. When bonded to metals in hydrides, hydrogen has an oxidation number of -1. b) Oxidation is loss of electrons or an increase in oxidation number. Reduction is gain of electrons or a decrease in oxidation number. OILRIG. A redox reaction is a reaction in which both reduction and oxidation take place. c) Because a name may be ambiguous when writing, Roman numerals are used to indicate the magnitude of the oxidation state of an element e.g. iron (II) chloride (Fe oxidation number +2) iron (III) chloride (Fe oxidation number +3) d) Half equations e) Metals generally form ions by losing electrons with an increase in oxidation number to form positive ions. Non-metals generally react by gaining electrons with a decrease in oxidation number to form negative ions. f) See text book page 33 and learn reaction of metals with dilute hydrochloric and sulphuric acids. And bottom part of page too.

Module 2: Electrons, Bonding and Structure

1.2.1 Electron Structure a) The first ionisation energy of an element is the energy required to remove one electron from each atom in one mole of gaseous atoms to form one mole of gaseous 1+ ions. Successive ionisation energies are a measure of the energy required to remove each electron in turn e.g. the second ionisation energy of an element is the energy required to remove one electron from each ion in one mole of gaseous 1+ ions to form one mole of gaseous 2+ ions. b) To form a positive ion, energy must be supplied to an electron to overcome the attraction from the nucleus. The nuclear attraction experienced depends on three factors: atomic radius (the further away the weaker the attraction experienced by the outer electrons), nuclear charge (the greater the nuclear charge, the greater the attractive force on the outer electrons) and electron shielding. Electron shielding is the repulsion between electrons in different shells. The more inner shells, the larger the shielding effect and the smaller he nuclear attraction experienced by the outer electrons. c) Know how to predict the number of electrons in each shell of an element and its group by using successive ionisation energies. d) The number of electrons that can occupy each shell is up to 2n 2 electrons. e) An atomic orbital is a region within an atom that can hold up to two electrons, with opposite spins. Orbitals are regions where electrons can be found f) An S orbital is spherical. From n=1 upwards each shell contains one s-orbital. A p-orbital has a 3-dimensional dumb-bell shape. From n=2 upwards each shell contains three p-orbitals, px, pz and py, at right angles to each other. The structures of the f and d orbitals are more complex. From n=3 upwards, each shell contains 5 d-orbitals. From n=4 upwards, each shell contains 7 f-orbitals.

g) A sub-shell is a group of the same type of atomic orbital (s, p, d or f) within a shell. The sub-shells within a shell have different energy levels. Within a shell the sub-shell energies increase in the order s, p, d and f. h) The order of sub shells is as follows: 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 4d, 4f. Each energy level must be full before the next, higher energy level starts to fill. Each orbital is filled singly in a sub-shell before pairing starts. The 4s sub-shell has a lower energy level than the 3d sub-shell meaning that it fills before the orbitals in the 3d sub-shell. i) 4s: first in, first out. The 4s and 3d energy levels are so close together that, after the 4s-orbital has been filled it is actually at a slightly higher energy than the 3d level. So 4s-electrons are lost before the 3d-electrons.

1.2.2 Bonding and structure a) A compound is a substance formed from two or more chemically bonded elements in a fixed ratio. An Ionic bond is the electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions. It generally occurs between metals and non metals, when the metal transfers electrons to the non-metal, and the metal becomes positive and the non-metal negative. b) Know how to draw dot and cross diagrams to describe ionic bonding c) All ionic compounds exist as a giant ionic lattice in the solid state, a threedimensional structure of oppositely charged ions, held together by strong ionic bonds. By looking at which group an element is in you can work out what ionic charge it will have. Atoms of metals in groups 1-3 lose electrons and form positive configuration of the previous noble gas in the periodic table. Atoms of non-metals in groups 5-7 gain electrons and form negative ions with the electron configuration of the next noble gas. d) NO3-, C O3-, SO42- and NH4+. e) A covalent bond is a bond formed by a shared pair of electrons. The electrons are attracted to both nuclei, overcoming the repulsion between the two positively charged nuclei. A lone pair is an outer-shell pair of electrons that is not involved in chemical bonding. A dative covalent or a coordinate bond is a shared pair of electrons which has been provided by one of the bonding atoms only. It can be shown by an arrow in the direction of the donation. f) Pages 56-57 g) The shape of a molecule or ion is determined by the number of electron pairs in the outer shell surrounding the central atom; as electrons have a negative charge each electron pair repels other electron pairs, pushing each other as far away as possible.

h) A lone pair of electrons is slightly more electron dense than a bonded pair so therefore repels more than a bonded pair. Each lone pair reduces the bond angle by around 2.5o, due to the extra repulsion. i) Learn the 7 shapes of molecules and ions.

j) Predict the shapes of molecules similar to those seen here k) Electronegativity is a measure of the attraction of a bonded atom for the pair of electrons in a covalent bond. l) Because the atoms in some compounds are different, they differ in their Electronegativity. The Cl atom in a molecule of HCl is more electronegative than the H atom and attracts the pair of bonded electrons more. This means that the bonding electrons are closer to the Cl atom and the Cl atom becomes delta negative. This creates a small charge difference called a permanent dipole. A permanent dipole is a small charge difference across a bond that results from a difference in the electronegativities of the bonded atoms. A polar covalent bond has a permanent dipole. The greater the difference between the electronegativities of the bonding atoms, the greater the ionic character of the bond (the smaller, the greater the covalent character). m) Van der Waals forces are attractive forces between induced dipoles in neighbouring molecules. They are caused by the movement of electrons in the shells which induces an instantaneous dipole at any moment. This induces a dipole in neighbouring molecules which in turn induce dipoles in other neighbouring molecules. The strength of van der Waals forces increase with increasing numbers of electrons, due to the larger induced dipoles and the greater the attractive force between molecules. They are the only attractive intermolecular force acting between non-polar molecules. n) A hydrogen bond is a strong dipole-dipole attraction between: a electron deficient H (delta +) on one molecule and a lone pair of electrons on a delta negative O or N on a different molecule.

o) Hydrogen bonding is strong enough to give water some anomalous properties: Firstly, ice is less dense than water because ice has an open lattice with hydrogen bonds holding the water molecules apart. It has relatively high melting and boiling point due to these extra forces and the extra intermolecular bonding also explains the relatively high surface tension and viscosity of water. p) Metallic bonding is the electrostatic attraction between positive metal ions and delocalised electrons. The delocalised electrons are shared between all the atoms in the metallic structure, whilst the positive ions occupy fixed positions. Metallic bonding is strong meaning that metals have a high melting/boiling point. Metals are also good conductors of electricity, due to the fact that the delocalised electrons can move freely and can carry a charge. They also account for metals malleability and ductility because the metallic structure can move. q) Structures with ionic bonding are known as giant ionic lattices, with each ion being surrounded by oppositely charged ions. All ionic compounds exist as a giant ionic lattice in the solid state. Ionic compounds have a high melting and boiling point due to the strong electrostatic forces that hold the oppositely charged ions together. In a solid ionic lattice the ions are in fixed positions and cannot move, so do not conduct electricity, but when an ionic compound is melted or dissolved the solid lattice breaks down and the ions can move so can thus conduct electricity. Ionic lattices dissolve in polar solvents, such as water because the solvent surrounds each ion to form a solution. r) Elements and compounds with covalent bonds are either simple molecular lattices or giant covalent lattices. Simple molecular structures are made up from small, simple molecules such as Ne, H2 and H2O. In a simple molecular lattice molecules are held together by weak IMFs with the atoms within molecules being strongly bonded together by covalent bonds. Simple molecular structures have low melting and boiling points because the IMFs (van der Waals) are weak so little energy is needed to break them. They do not conduct electricity because there are no charged particles free to move. They are soluble in non-polar solvents (e.g. Hexane) because van der Waals forces form between the structure and the solvent weakening the lattice structure. s) Giant covalent structures are a three-dimensional structure of atoms, bonded together by strong covalent bonds. They have high melting and boiling points because high temperatures are needed to break the strong covalent bonds. Aside from graphite there are no free charged particles so they do not conduct electricity. They are insoluble in both polar and non-polar solvents because the covalent bonds are too strong to be broken by polar or non-polar solvent. Diamond has a tetrahedral structure held together by covalent bonds. It does not conduct but is very hard. Graphite has a strong hexagonal layer structure but only weak van der Waals forces in-between

layers so the layers slide easily. It is however, a good conductor due to the presence of delocalised electrons between layers.

Module 3: The Periodic Table 1.3.1 Periodicity a) The periodic table is arranged by increasing atomic number. Elements often show trends (gradual changes) in properties across a period in the table these trends are repeated across each period. Each vertical column is called a group and contains elements with similar properties and the same number of outer-shell electrons. Metals are left of the Boron step; non-metals to the right, boron, silicon, germanium, arsenic and tellurium are metalloids, sharing properties of both. b) Periodicity is a regular periodic variation of properties of elements with atomic number and position in the Periodic Table. c) Elements in the same group react in a similar way because they have similar electron configuration. d) Across each period there is a general increase in the ionisation energy due to the presence of more protons. Electrons are added to the same shell, so the outer shell is drawn inwards slightly, reducing the atomic radius, and the electron shielding will not change. At the start of a next period, a new shell is formed, increasing the distance of the outermost shell from the nucleus and increasing the electron shielding of the outermost shell by inner shell. Going down a group the first ionisation energies decrease due to the increase in the number of shells and the distance of the outer electrons from the nucleus. The number of protons also increases but the increased attraction is outweighed by the increase in distance and shielding. e) In periods 2 and 3 there is a distinct change between groups 4 and 5, in both the physical structure of the elements and the forces holding the structures

together. This change is: from giant structures to simple molecular and from strong to weak forces. The bonding changes from metallic to covalent for C and Si to van der Waals for groups 5-0.

1.3.2 Group 2 a) The alkaline earth metals all have hydroxides which are alkaline. They have reasonably high melting/boiling points, low densities and form colourless compounds. They each have two electrons in their outer shell and are strong reducing agents and reactive metals. They are oxidised in reactions to form a 2+ ion. As you go down the group reactivity increases as it becomes easier to lose electrons. They all react vigorously with oxygen in a redox reaction. They all react with water to form hydroxides (typically pH 10-12). Mg reacts very slowly, as you go down the group each metal reacts more vigorously with water. b) The solubility of the hydroxides in water increases down the group. The resulting solutions are also more alkaline. E.g. Mg (OH) 2 is only slightly soluble and forms a dilute solution. Ba (OH)2 is much more soluble in water, and forms a more alkaline solution. c) The group 2 carbonates are decomposed by heat (thermal decomposition). The carbonates become more difficult to decompose with heat as you move down the group. d) Two common uses of group 2 hydroxides are as lime (Ca (OH)2) to neutralise acidic soils and milk of magnesia (Mg(OH)2) to relive indigestion by neutralising any excess acid in the stomach.

1.3.3 Group 7 a) The Halogens have low melting and boiling points and exist as diatomic molecules. Because there is an increase in electrons as you go down the group, the van der Waals forces are consequently stronger and the boiling points increase going down the group. b) The oxidising power of a halogen is a measure of the strength with which a halogen atom is able to attract and capture an electron to form a halide ion. The halogens become less reactive down the group as their oxidising power decreases as atomic radii and electron shielding increases. Redox reactions can show this by using the reactions of aqueous solutions of halide ions and halogens in a displacement reaction. Cyclohexane is used to distinguish between bromine and iodine. Chlorine oxidises both bromide and iodide ions. Bromine oxidises iodide only. Iodine does neither.

c) Disproportionation is a reaction in which the same element is both reduced and oxidised. An example is the use of chlorine in water to kill bacteria. It reacts with water, forming HCl and HClO, and it is both oxidised and reduced. In aqueous sodium hydroxide it reacts to form bleach: Cl 2 + 2NaOH goes to NaCl +NaClO + HCl. d) Fluorine is super reactive! Chlorine is a toxic gas, and can be harmful, so must be used sparingly. e) The presence of halide ions can be detected with a simple test tube test. Firstly, the unknown halide is dissolved in water before an aqueous solution of AgNO3 is added. The silver ions, Ag+ react with any halide ions forming a precipitate the colour indicates which ion is present. To double check dilute aqueous ammonia can be added iodide precipitates are insoluble in ammonia, the other two are soluble, though bromide is only soluble in concentrated ammonia. Chloride forms a white precipitate, bromide a cream one and iodide a yellow one. A precipitation reaction takes place in aqueous solution when aqueous ions react together to form a solid precipitate.