DESCRIBE SHAPES

Square

In geometry, a square is a regular quadrilateral. This means that it has four equal sides and four equal angles (90-degree angles, or right angles).[1] It can also be defined as a rectangle in which two adjacent sides have equal length. A square with vertices ABCD would be denoted ABCD. The square is the n=2 case of the families of n-hypercubes and n-orthoplexes.

Characterizations
A convex quadrilateral is a square if and only if it is any one of the following:[2][3]

a rectangle with two adjacent equal sides a quadrilateral with four equal sides and four right angles a parallelogram with one right angle and two adjacent equal sides a rhombus with a right angle a rhombus with all angles equal a quadrilateral where the diagonals are equal and are the perpendicular bisectors of each other, i.e. a rhombus with equal diagonals

Perimeter and area

The area of a square is the product of the length of its sides. The perimeter of a square whose four sides have length t is

and the area K is

In classical times, the second power was described in terms of the area of a square, as in the above formula. This led to the use of the term square to mean raising to the second power.

Coordinates and equations

The coordinates for the vertices of a square centered at the origin and with side length 2 are (1, 1), while the interior of the same consists of all points (xi, yi) with 1 < xi < 1 and 1 < yi < 1. The equation

describes a square of side 2, centered at the origin. This equation means "x2 or y2, whichever is larger, equals 1." The circumradius of this square (the radius of a circle drawn through the square's vertices) is half the square's diagonal, and equals . Then the circumcircle has the equation

Properties
A square is a special case of a rhombus (equal sides, opposite equal angles), a kite (two pairs of adjacent equal sides), a parallelogram (opposite sides parallel), a quadrilateral or tetragon (four-sided polygon), and a rectangle (opposite sides equal, right-angles) and therefore has all the properties of all these shapes, namely:[4]

The diagonals of a square bisect each other and meet at 90 The diagonals of a square bisect its angles. The diagonals of a square are perpendicular. Opposite sides of a square are both parallel and equal in length. All four angles of a square are equal. (Each is 360/4 = 90, so every angle of a square is a right angle.) The diagonals of a square are equal.

Other facts

The diagonals of a square are (about 1.414) times the length of a side of the square. This value, known as Pythagoras' constant, was the first number proven to be irrational. A square can also be defined as a parallelogram with equal diagonals that bisect the angles.

If a figure is both a rectangle (right angles) and a rhombus (equal edge lengths), then it is a square. If a circle is circumscribed around a square, the area of the circle is times the area of the square. (about 1.571)

If a circle is inscribed in the square, the area of the circle is (about 0.7854) times the area of the square. A square has a larger area than any other quadrilateral with the same perimeter.[5] A square tiling is one of three regular tilings of the plane (the others are the equilateral triangle and the regular hexagon). The square is in two families of polytopes in two dimensions: hypercube and the cross polytope. The Schlfli symbol for the square is {4}. The square is a highly symmetric object. There are four lines of reflectional symmetry and it has rotational symmetry of order 4 (through 90, 180 and 270). Its symmetry group is the dihedral group D4. If the inscribed circle of a square ABCD has tangency points E on AB, F on BC, G on CD, and H on DA, then for any point P on the inscribed circle,[6]

Non-Euclidean geometry
In non-Euclidean geometry, squares are more generally polygons with 4 equal sides and equal angles. In spherical geometry, a square is a polygon whose edges are great circle arcs of equal distance, which meet at equal angles. Unlike the square of plane geometry, the angles of such a square are larger than a right angle. Larger spherical squares have larger angles. In hyperbolic geometry, squares with right angles do not exist. Rather, squares in hyperbolic geometry have angles of less than right angles. Larger hyperbolic squares have smaller angles. Examples:

Six squares can tile the sphere Squares can tile the Euclidean Squares can tile the hyperbolic with 3 squares around each plane with 4 around each plane with 5 around each vertex, vertex and 120-degree internal vertex, with each square having with each square having 72-

angles. This is called a spherical an internal angle of 90. The cube. The Schlfli symbol Schlfli symbol is {4,4}. is {4,3}.

degree internal angles. The Schlfli symbol is {4,5}. In fact, for any n 5 there is a hyperbolic tiling with n squares about each vertex.

Graphs

3-simplex (3D) The K4 complete graph is often drawn as a square with all 6 edges connected. This graph also represents an orthographic projection of the 4 vertices and 6 edges of the regular 3-simplex (tetrahedron). In this problem, is divisible by 4 and , , , and are odd. If is not divisible by 3 (5), then two of , , , and are divisible by 3 (5) (Guy 1994).

The centers of four squares erected either internally or externally on the sides of a parallelograms are the vertices of a square (Yaglom 1962, pp. 96-97; Coxeter and Greitzer 1967, p. 84).

 Rectangle
In Euclidean plane geometry, a rectangle is any quadrilateral with four right angles. It can also be defined as an equiangular quadrilateral, since equiangular means that all of its angles are equal (360/4 = 90). It can also be defined as a parallelogram containing a right angle. The term oblong is occasionally used to refer to a non-square rectangle.[1][2] A rectangle with vertices ABCD would be denoted as ABCD. The word rectangle comes from the Latin rectangulus, which is a combination of rectus (right) and angulus (angle). A so-called crossed rectangle is a crossed (self-intersecting) quadrilateral which consists of two opposite sides of a rectangle along with the two diagonals.[3] It is a special case of an antiparallelogram, and its angles are not right angles. Other geometries, such as spherical, elliptic, and hyperbolic, have so-called rectangles with opposite sides equal in length and equal angles that are not right angles. Rectangles are involved in many tiling problems, such as tiling the plane by rectangles or tiling a rectangle by polygons.

Characterizations
A convex quadrilateral is a rectangle iff (if and only if) it is any one of the following:[4][5]

a parallelogram with at least one right angle an equiangular parallelogram a parallelogram with diagonals of equal length a parallelogram ABCD where triangles ABD and DCA are congruent a quadrilateral which has four right angles an equiangular quadrilateral

Classification
Traditional hierarchy

A rectangle is a special case of a parallelogram in which each pair of adjacent sides is perpendicular.

A parallelogram is a special case of a trapezium (known as a trapezoid in North America) in which both pairs of opposite sides are parallel and equal in length. A trapezium is a convex quadrilateral which has at least one pair of parallel opposite sides. A convex quadrilateral is

Star-shaped: The whole interior is visible from a single point, without crossing any edge. Simple: The boundary does not cross itself.

Alternative hierarchy

De Villiers defines a rectangle more generally as any quadrilateral with axes of symmetry through each pair of opposite sides.[6] This definition includes both right-angled rectangles and crossed rectangles. Each has an axis of symmetry parallel to and equidistant from a pair of opposite sides, and another which is the perpendicular bisector of those sides, but, in the case of the crossed rectangle, the first axis is not an axis of symmetry for either side that it bisects. Quadrilaterals with two axes of symmetry, each through a pair of opposite sides, belong to the larger class of quadrilaterals with at least one axis of symmetry through a pair of opposite sides. These quadrilaterals comprise isosceles trapezia and crossed isosceles trapezia (crossed quadrilaterals with the same vertex arrangement as isosceles trapezia).

Properties
Symmetry

A rectangle is cyclic: all corners lie on a single circle. It is equiangular: all its corner angles are equal (each of 90 degrees). It is isogonal or vertex-transitive: all corners lie within the same symmetry orbit. It has two lines of reflectional symmetry and rotational symmetry of order 2 (through 180).
Rectangle-rhombus duality

The dual polygon of a rectangle is a rhombus, as shown in the table below.[7]

Rectangle All angles are equal. Alternate sides are equal. Its centre is equidistant from its vertices, hence it has a circumcircle. Rhombus All sides are equal. Alternate angles are equal. Its centre is equidistant from its sides, hence it has an incircle.

Its axes of symmetry bisect opposite sides. Diagonals are equal in length. Miscellaneous

Its axes of symmetry bisect opposite angles. Diagonals intersect at equal angles.

The two diagonals are equal in length and bisect each other. Every quadrilateral with both these properties is a rectangle. A rectangle is rectilinear: its sides meet at right angles. A non-square rectangle has five degrees of freedom, comprising two for position, one for rotational orientation, one for overall size, and one for shape. Two rectangles, neither of which will fit inside the other, are said to be incomparable. With vertices denoted A, B, C, and D, for any point P in the interior of a rectangle:[8]

Formulas

The formula for the perimeter of a rectangle.

If a rectangle has length and width w

it has area it has perimeter

, ,

each diagonal has length , and when , the rectangle is a square.

Theorems
The isoperimetric theorem for rectangles states that among all rectangles of a given perimeter, the square has the largest area. The midpoints of the sides of any quadrilateral with perpendicular diagonals form a rectangle. A parallelogram with equal diagonals is a rectangle.

The Japanese theorem for cyclic quadrilaterals[9] states that the incentres of the four triangles determined by the vertices of a cyclic quadrilateral taken three at a time form a rectangle.

Crossed rectangles
A crossed (self-intersecting) quadrilateral consists of two opposite sides of a non-selfintersecting quadrilateral along with the two diagonals. Similarly, a crossed rectangle is a crossed quadrilateral which consists of two opposite sides of a rectangle along with the two diagonals. It has the same vertex arrangement as the rectangle. It appears as two identical triangles with a common vertex, but the geometric intersection is not considered a vertex. A crossed quadrilateral is sometimes likened to a bow tie or butterfly. A three-dimensional rectangular wire frame that is twisted can take the shape of a bow tie. A crossed rectangle is sometimes called an "angular eight". The interior of a crossed rectangle can have a polygon density of 1 in each triangle, dependent upon the winding orientation as clockwise or counterclockwise. A crossed rectangle is not equiangular. The sum of its interior angles (two acute and two reflex), as with any crossed quadrilateral, is 720.[10] A rectangle and a crossed rectangle are quadrilaterals with the following properties in common:

Opposite sides are equal in length. The two diagonals are equal in length. It has two lines of reflectional symmetry and rotational symmetry of order 2 (through 180).

Other rectangles

A saddle rectangle has 4 nonplanar vertices, alternated from vertices of a cuboid, with a unique minimal surface interior defined as a linear combination of the four vertices, creating a saddle surface. This example shows 4 blue edges of the rectangle, and two green diagonals, all being diagonal of the cuboid rectangular faces.

In solid geometry, a figure is non-planar if it is not contained in a (flat) plane. A skew rectangle is a non-planar quadrilateral with opposite sides equal in length and four equal acute angles.[11][citation needed] A saddle rectangle is a skew rectangle with vertices that alternate an equal distance above and below a plane passing through its centre, named for its minimal surface interior seen with saddle point at its centre.[12] The convex hull of this skew rectangle is a special tetrahedron called a rhombic disphenoid. (The term "skew rectangle" is also used in 2D graphics to refer to a distortion of a rectangle using a "skew" tool. The result can be a parallelogram or a trapezoid/trapezium.) In spherical geometry, a spherical rectangle is a figure whose four edges are great circle arcs which meet at equal angles greater than 90. Opposite arcs are equal in length. The surface of a sphere in Euclidean solid geometry is a non-Euclidean surface in the sense of elliptic geometry. Spherical geometry is the simplest form of elliptic geometry. In elliptic geometry, an elliptic rectangle is a figure in the elliptic plane whose four edges are elliptic arcs which meet at equal angles greater than 90. Opposite arcs are equal in length. In hyperbolic geometry, a hyperbolic rectangle is a figure in the hyperbolic plane whose four edges are hyperbolic arcs which meet at equal angles less than 90. Opposite arcs are equal in length.

Tessellations
The rectangle is used in many periodic tessellation patterns, in brickwork, for example, these tilings:

Stacked bond

Running bond

Basket weave

Basket weave

Herringbone pattern

Squared, perfect, and other tiled rectangles

A rectangle tiled by squares, rectangles, or triangles is said to be a "squared", "rectangled", or "triangulated" (or "triangled") rectangle respectively. The tiled rectangle is perfect[13][14] if the tiles are similar and finite in number and no two tiles are the same size. If two such tiles are the same size, the tiling is imperfect. In a perfect (or imperfect) triangled rectangle the triangles must be right triangles. A rectangle has commensurable sides if and only if it is tileable by a finite number of unequal squares.[13][15] The same is true if the tiles are unequal isosceles right triangles. The tilings of rectangles by other tiles which have attracted the most attention are those by congruent nonrectangular polyominoes, allowing all rotations and reflections. There are also tilings by congruent polyaboloes.

Area of a Rectangle
The Area is the width times the height: Area = w h

Example: A rectangle is 6 m wide and 3 m high, what is its Area?

Area = 6 m 3 m = 18 m2

Perimeter of a Rectangle
The Perimeter is the distance around the edges. The Perimeter is 2 times the (width + height): Perimeter = 2(w+h)

Example: A rectangle has a width of 12 cm, and a height of 5 cm, what is its Perimeter?

Perimeter = 2 (12 cm + 5 cm) = 2 17 cm = 34 cm

Diagonals of a Rectangle
A rectangle has two diagonals, they are equal in length and intersect in the middle. The Diagonal is the square root of (width squared + height squared): Diagonal "d" = (w2 + h2)

Triangle
A triangle is one of the basic shapes of geometry: a polygon with three corners or vertices and three sides or edges which are line segments. A triangle with vertices A, B, and C is denoted . In Euclidean geometry any three points, when non-collinear, determine a unique triangle and a unique plane (i.e. a two-dimensional Euclidean space).

Types of triangle

Euler diagram of types of triangles, using the definition that isosceles triangles have at least 2 equal sides, i.e. equilateral triangles are isosceles. By relative lengths of sides

Triangles can be classified according to the relative lengths of their sides:

In an equilateral triangle all sides have the same length. An equilateral triangle is also a regular polygon with all angles measuring 60.[1] In an isosceles triangle, two sides are equal in length.[note 1][2] An isosceles triangle also has two angles of the same measure; namely, the angles opposite to the two sides of the same length; this fact is the content of the isosceles triangle theorem, which was known by Euclid. Some mathematicians define an isosceles triangle to have exactly two equal sides, whereas others define an isosceles triangle as one with at least two equal sides.[2] The latter definition would make all equilateral triangles isosceles triangles. The 454590 Right Triangle, which appears in the Tetrakis square tiling, is isosceles. In a scalene triangle, all sides are unequal,[3] equivalently all angles are unequal. Right triangles are scalene if and only if not isosceles.

Equilateral

Isosceles

Scalene

In diagrams representing triangles (and other geometric figures), "tick" marks along the sides are used to denote sides of equal lengths the equilateral triangle has tick marks on all 3 sides, the isosceles on 2 sides. The scalene has single, double, and triple tick marks, indicating that no sides are equal. Similarly, arcs on the inside of the vertices are used to indicate equal angles. The equilateral triangle indicates all 3 angles are equal; the isosceles shows 2 identical angles. The scalene indicates by 1, 2, and 3 arcs that no angles are equal.
By internal angles

Triangles can also be classified according to their internal angles, measured here in degrees.

A right triangle (or right-angled triangle, formerly called a rectangled triangle) has one of its interior angles measuring 90 (a right angle). The side opposite to the right angle is the hypotenuse; it is the longest side of the right triangle. The other two sides are called the legs or catheti[4] (singular: cathetus) of the triangle. Right triangles obey the Pythagorean theorem: the sum of the squares of the lengths of the two legs is equal to the square of the length of the hypotenuse: a2 + b2 = c2, where a and b are the lengths of the legs and c is the length of the hypotenuse. Special right triangles are right triangles with additional properties that make calculations involving them easier. One of the two most famous is the 345 right triangle, where 32 + 42 = 52. In this situation, 3, 4, and 5 are a Pythagorean Triple. The other one is an isosceles triangle that has 2 angles that each measure 45 degrees. Triangles that do not have an angle that measures 90 are called oblique triangles. A triangle that has all interior angles measuring less than 90 is an acute triangle or acuteangled triangle. A triangle that has one angle that measures more than 90 is an obtuse triangle or obtuseangled triangle. A "triangle" with an interior angle of 180 (and collinear vertices) is degenerate. A right degenerate triangle has collinear vertices, two of which are coincident.

A triangle that has two angles with the same measure also has two sides with the same length, and therefore it is an isosceles triangle. It follows that in a triangle where all angles have the same measure, all three sides have the same length, and such a triangle is therefore equilateral.

Right

Obtuse

Acute

Oblique

Basic facts

A triangle, showing exterior angle d.

Triangles are assumed to be two-dimensional plane figures, unless the context provides otherwise (see Non-planar triangles, below). In rigorous treatments, a triangle is therefore called a 2-simplex (see also Polytope). Elementary facts about triangles were presented by Euclid in books 14 of his Elements, around 300 BC.

The measures of the interior angles of the triangle always add up to 180 degrees (same color to point out they are equal).

The measures of the interior angles of a triangle in Euclidean space always add up to 180 degrees.[5] This allows determination of the measure of the third angle of any triangle given the measure of two angles. An exterior angle of a triangle is an angle that is a linear pair (and hence supplementary) to an interior angle. The measure of an exterior angle of a triangle is equal to the sum of the measures of the two interior angles that are not adjacent to it; this is the exterior angle theorem. The sum of the measures of the three exterior angles (one for each vertex) of any triangle is 360 degrees.[note 2]
Similarity and congruence

Two triangles are said to be similar if every angle of one triangle has the same measure as the corresponding angle in the other triangle. The corresponding sides of similar triangles have lengths that are in the same proportion, and this property is also sufficient to establish similarity. A few basic theorems about similar triangles:

If two corresponding internal angles of two triangles have the same measure, the triangles are similar. If two corresponding sides of two triangles are in proportion, and their included angles have the same measure, then the triangles are similar. (The included angle for any two sides of a polygon is the internal angle between those two sides.) If three corresponding sides of two triangles are in proportion, then the triangles are similar.[note 3]

Two triangles that are congruent have exactly the same size and shape:[note 4] all pairs of corresponding interior angles are equal in measure, and all pairs of corresponding sides have the same length. (This is a total of six equalities, but three are often sufficient to prove congruence.) Some sufficient conditions for a pair of triangles to be congruent are:

SAS Postulate: Two sides in a triangle have the same length as two sides in the other triangle, and the included angles have the same measure. ASA: Two interior angles and the included side in a triangle have the same measure and length, respectively, as those in the other triangle. (The included side for a pair of angles is the side that is common to them.) SSS: Each side of a triangle has the same length as a corresponding side of the other triangle. AAS: Two angles and a corresponding (non-included) side in a triangle have the same measure and length, respectively, as those in the other triangle. (This is sometimes referred to as AAcorrS and then includes ASA above.) Hypotenuse-Leg (HL) Theorem: The hypotenuse and a leg in a right triangle have the same length as those in another right triangle. This is also called RHS (right-angle, hypotenuse, side). Hypotenuse-Angle Theorem: The hypotenuse and an acute angle in one right triangle have the same length and measure, respectively, as those in the other right triangle. This is just a particular case of the AAS theorem.

An important case:

Side-Side-Angle (or Angle-Side-Side) condition: If two sides and a corresponding nonincluded angle of a triangle have the same length and measure, respectively, as those in another triangle, then this is not sufficient to prove congruence; but if the angle given is opposite to the longer side of the two sides, then the triangles are congruent. The Hypotenuse-Leg Theorem is a particular case of this criterion. The Side-Side-Angle condition does not by itself guarantee that the triangles are congruent because one triangle could be obtuse-angled and the other acute-angled.

Using right triangles and the concept of similarity, the trigonometric functions sine and cosine can be defined. These are functions of an angle which are investigated in trigonometry.
Right triangles

The Pythagorean theorem

A central theorem is the Pythagorean theorem, which states in any right triangle, the square of the length of the hypotenuse equals the sum of the squares of the lengths of the two other sides. If the hypotenuse has length c, and the legs have lengths a and b, then the theorem states that

The converse is true: if the lengths of the sides of a triangle satisfy the above equation, then the triangle has a right angle opposite side c. Some other facts about right triangles:

The acute angles of a right triangle are complementary.

If the legs of a right triangle have the same length, then the angles opposite those legs have the same measure. Since these angles are complementary, it follows that each measures 45 degrees. By the Pythagorean theorem, the length of the hypotenuse is the length of a leg times 2.

In a right triangle with acute angles measuring 30 and 60 degrees, the hypotenuse is twice the length of the shorter side, and the longer side is equal to the length of the shorter side times 3:

For all triangles, angles and sides are related by the law of cosines and law of sines (also called the cosine rule and sine rule).

Existence of a triangle
The sum of the lengths of any two sides of a triangle always exceeds the length of the third side, a principle known as the triangle inequality. Since the vertices of a triangle are assumed to be non-collinear, it is not possible for the sum of the length of two sides be equal to the length of the third side.
Trigonometric conditions

Three positive angles , , and , each of them less than 180, are the angles of a triangle if and only if any one of the following conditions holds:[6]

Points, lines, and circles associated with a triangle

There are hundreds of different constructions that find a special point associated with (and often inside) a triangle, satisfying some unique property: see the references section for a catalogue of them. Often they are constructed by finding three lines associated in a symmetrical way with the three sides (or vertices) and then proving that the three lines meet in a single point: an important tool for proving the existence of these is Ceva's theorem, which gives a criterion for determining when three such lines are concurrent. Similarly, lines associated with a triangle are often constructed by proving that three symmetrically constructed points are collinear: here Menelaus' theorem gives a useful general criterion. In this section just a few of the most commonly encountered constructions are explained.

The circumcenter is the center of a circle passing through the three vertices of the triangle.

A perpendicular bisector of a side of a triangle is a straight line passing through the midpoint of the side and being perpendicular to it, i.e. forming a right angle with it. The three perpendicular bisectors meet in a single point, the triangle's circumcenter; this point is the center of the circumcircle, the circle passing through all three vertices. The diameter of this circle, called the circumdiameter, can be found from the law of sines stated above. The circumcircle's radius is called the circumradius. Thales' theorem implies that if the circumcenter is located on one side of the triangle, then the opposite angle is a right one. If the circumcenter is located inside the triangle, then the triangle is acute; if the circumcenter is located outside the triangle, then the triangle is obtuse.

The intersection of the altitudes is the orthocenter.

An altitude of a triangle is a straight line through a vertex and perpendicular to (i.e. forming a right angle with) the opposite side. This opposite side is called the base of the altitude, and the point where the altitude intersects the base (or its extension) is called the foot of the altitude. The length of the altitude is the distance between the base and the vertex. The three altitudes intersect in a single point, called the orthocenter of the triangle. The orthocenter lies inside the triangle if and only if the triangle is acute.

The intersection of the angle bisectors is the center of the incircle.

An angle bisector of a triangle is a straight line through a vertex which cuts the corresponding angle in half. The three angle bisectors intersect in a single point, the incenter, the center of the triangle's incircle. The incircle is the circle which lies inside the triangle and touches all three sides. Its radius is called the inradius. There are three other important circles, the excircles; they lie outside the triangle and touch one side as well as the extensions of the other two. The centers of the in- and excircles form an orthocentric system.

The intersection of the medians is the centroid.

A median of a triangle is a straight line through a vertex and the midpoint of the opposite side, and divides the triangle into two equal areas. The three medians intersect in a single point, the triangle's centroid or geometric barycenter. The centroid of a rigid triangular object (cut out of a thin sheet of uniform density) is also its center of mass: the object can be balanced on its centroid in a uniform gravitational field. The centroid cuts every median in the ratio 2:1, i.e. the distance between a vertex and the centroid is twice the distance between the centroid and the midpoint of the opposite side.

Nine-point circle demonstrates a symmetry where six points lie on the edge of the triangle.

The midpoints of the three sides and the feet of the three altitudes all lie on a single circle, the triangle's nine-point circle. The remaining three points for which it is named are the midpoints of the portion of altitude between the vertices and the orthocenter. The radius of the nine-point circle is half that of the circumcircle. It touches the incircle (at the Feuerbach point) and the three excircles.

Euler's line is a straight line through the centroid (orange), orthocenter (blue), circumcenter (green) and center of the nine-point circle (red).

The centroid (yellow), orthocenter (blue), circumcenter (green) and center of the nine-point circle (red point) all lie on a single line, known as Euler's line (red line). The center of the nine-point circle lies at the midpoint between the orthocenter and the circumcenter, and the distance between the centroid and the circumcenter is half that between the centroid and the orthocenter. The center of the incircle is not in general located on Euler's line. If one reflects a median in the angle bisector that passes through the same vertex, one obtains a symmedian. The three symmedians intersect in a single point, the symmedian point of the triangle.

Computing the sides and angles

There are various standard methods for calculating the length of a side or the size of an angle. Certain methods are suited to calculating values in a right-angled triangle; more complex methods may be required in other situations.
Trigonometric ratios in right triangles Main article: Trigonometric functions

A right triangle always includes a 90 (/2 radians) angle, here with label C. Angles A and B may vary. Trigonometric functions specify the relationships among side lengths and interior angles of a right triangle.

In right triangles, the trigonometric ratios of sine, cosine and tangent can be used to find unknown angles and the lengths of unknown sides. The sides of the triangle are known as follows:

The hypotenuse is the side opposite the right angle, or defined as the longest side of a rightangled triangle, in this case h. The opposite side is the side opposite to the angle we are interested in, in this case a. The adjacent side is the side that is in contact with the angle we are interested in and the right angle, hence its name. In this case the adjacent side is b.

Sine, cosine and tangent

The sine of an angle is the ratio of the length of the opposite side to the length of the hypotenuse. In our case

Note that this ratio does not depend on the particular right triangle chosen, as long as it contains the angle A, since all those triangles are similar.

The cosine of an angle is the ratio of the length of the adjacent side to the length of the hypotenuse. In our case

The tangent of an angle is the ratio of the length of the opposite side to the length of the adjacent side. In our case

The acronym "SOH-CAH-TOA" is a useful mnemonic for these ratios.

Inverse functions

The inverse trigonometric functions can be used to calculate the internal angles for a right angled triangle with the length of any two sides. Arcsin can be used to calculate an angle from the length of the opposite side and the length of the hypotenuse.

Arccos can be used to calculate an angle from the length of the adjacent side and the length of the hypontenuse.

Arctan can be used to calculate an angle from the length of the opposite side and the length of the adjacent side.

In introductory geometry and trigonometry courses, the notation sin1, cos1, etc., are often used in place of arcsin, arccos, etc. However, the arcsin, arccos, etc., notation is standard in higher mathematics where trigonometric functions are commonly raised to powers, as this avoids confusion between multiplicative inverse and compositional inverse.
Sine, cosine and tangent rules Main articles: Law of sines, Law of cosines, and Law of tangents

A triangle with sides of length a, b and c and angles of , and respectively.

The law of sines, or sine rule,[7] states that the ratio of the length of a side to the sine of its corresponding opposite angle is constant, that is

This ratio is equal to the diameter of the circumscribed circle of the given triangle. Another interpretation of this theorem is that every triangle with angles , and is similar to a triangle with side lengths equal to sin , sin and sin . This triangle can be constructed by first constructing a circle of diameter 1, and inscribing in it two of the angles of the triangle. The length of the sides of that triangle will be sin , sin and sin . The side whose length is sin is opposite to the angle whose measure is , etc. The law of cosines, or cosine rule, connects the length of an unknown side of a triangle to the length of the other sides and the angle opposite to the unknown side.[7] As per the law: For a triangle with length of sides a, b, c and angles of , , respectively, given two known lengths of a triangle a and b, and the angle between the two known sides (or the angle opposite to the unknown side c), to calculate the third side c, the following formula can be used:

If the lengths of all three sides of any triangle are known the three angles can be calculated:

The law of tangents or tangent rule, is less known than the other two. It states that[8]:

It is not used very often, but can be used to find a side or an angle when you know two sides and an angle or two angles and a side.
Solution of triangles Main article: Solution of triangles

"Solution of triangles" is the historical term for the solving of the main trigonometric problem: to find missing characteristics of a triangle (three angles, the lengths of the three sides etc) when at least three of these characteristics are given. The triangle can be located on a plane or on a sphere. This problem often occurs in various trigonometric applications, such as geodesy, astronomy, construction, navigation etc.

Computing the area of a triangle

The area of a triangle can be demonstrated as half of the area of a parallelogram which has the same base length and height.

Calculating the area T of a triangle is an elementary problem encountered often in many different situations. The best known and simplest formula is:

where b is the length of the base of the triangle, and h is the height or altitude of the triangle. The term "base" denotes any side, and "height" denotes the length of a perpendicular from the vertex opposite the side onto the line containing the side itself. In 499 CE Aryabhata, a great mathematician-astronomer from the classical age of Indian mathematics and Indian astronomy, used this method in the Aryabhatiya (section 2.6).[9] Although simple, this formula is only useful if the height can be readily found. For example, the surveyor of a triangular field measures the length of each side, and can find the area from his results without having to construct a "height". Various methods may be used in practice,

depending on what is known about the triangle. The following is a selection of frequently used formulae for the area of a triangle.[10]
Using trigonometry

Applying trigonometry to find the altitude h.

The height of a triangle can be found through the application of trigonometry. Knowing SAS: Using the labels in the image on the right, the altitude is h = a sin Substituting this in the formula expressed as: .

derived above, the area of the triangle can be

(where is the interior angle at A, is the interior angle at B, is the line AB). Furthermore, since sin = sin ( ) = sin ( +

is the interior angle at C and c

), and similarly for the other two angles:

Knowing AAS:

and analogously if the known side is a or c. Knowing ASA:[11]

and analogously if the known side is b or c.

Using Heron's formula

The shape of the triangle is determined by the lengths of the sides alone. Therefore the area can also be derived from the lengths of the sides. By Heron's formula:

where

is the semiperimeter, or half of the triangle's perimeter.

Three other equivalent ways of writing Heron's formula are

Using vectors

The area of a parallelogram embedded in a three-dimensional Euclidean space can be calculated using vectors. Let vectors AB and AC point respectively from A to B and from A to C. The area of parallelogram ABDC is then

which is the magnitude of the cross product of vectors AB and AC. The area of triangle ABC is half of this,

The area of triangle ABC can also be expressed in terms of dot products as follows:

In two-dimensional Euclidean space, expressing vector AB as a free vector in Cartesian space equal to (x1,y1) and AC as (x2,y2), this can be rewritten as:

Using coordinates

If vertex A is located at the origin (0, 0) of a Cartesian coordinate system and the coordinates of the other two vertices are given by B = (xB, yB) and C = (xC, yC), then the area can be computed as 12 times the absolute value of the determinant

For three general vertices, the equation is:

which can be written as

If the points are labeled sequentially in the counterclockwise direction, the above determinant expressions are positive and the absolute value signs can be omitted.[12] The above formula is known as the shoelace formula or the surveyor's formula. If we locate the vertices in the complex plane and denote them in counterclockwise sequence as a = xA + yAi, b = xB + yBi, and c = xC + yCi, and denote their complex conjugates as , , and , then the formula

is equivalent to the shoelace formula. In three dimensions, the area of a general triangle A = (xA, yA, zA), B = (xB, yB, zB) and C = (xC, yC, zC) is the Pythagorean sum of the areas of the respective projections on the three principal planes (i.e. x = 0, y = 0 and z = 0):

Using line integrals

The area within any closed curve, such as a triangle, is given by the line integral around the curve of the algebraic or signed distance of a point on the curve from an arbitrary oriented straight line L. Points to the right of L as oriented are taken to be at negative distance from L, while the weight for the integral is taken to be the component of arc length parallel to L rather than arc length itself. This method is well suited to computation of the area of an arbitrary polygon. Taking L to be the x-axis, the line integral between consecutive vertices (xi,yi) and (xi+1,yi+1) is given by the base times the mean height, namely (xi+1 xi)(yi + yi+1)/2. The sign of the area is an overall indicator of the direction of traversal, with negative area indicating counterclockwise traversal. The area of a triangle then falls out as the case of a polygon with three sides. While the line integral method has in common with other coordinate-based methods the arbitrary choice of a coordinate system, unlike the others it makes no arbitrary choice of vertex of the triangle as origin or of side as base. Furthermore the choice of coordinate system defined by L commits to only two degrees of freedom rather than the usual three, since the weight is a local distance (e.g. xi+1 xi in the above) whence the method does not require choosing an axis normal to L. When working in polar coordinates it is not necessary to convert to cartesian coordinates to use line integration, since the line integral between consecutive vertices (ri,i) and (ri+1,i+1) of a polygon is given directly by riri+1sin(i+1 i)/2. This is valid for all values of , with some decrease in numerical accuracy when || is many orders of magnitude greater than . With this formulation negative area indicates clockwise traversal, which should be kept in mind when mixing polar and cartesian coordinates. Just as the choice of y-axis (x = 0) is immaterial for line integration in cartesian coordinates, so is the choice of zero heading ( = 0) immaterial here.
Formulas mimicking Heron's formula

Three formulas have the same structure as Heron's formula but are expressed in terms of different variables. First, denoting the medians from sides a, b, and c respectively as ma, mb, and mc and their semi-sum (ma + mb + mc)/2 as , we have[13]

Next, denoting the altitudes from sides a, b, and c respectively as ha, hb, and hc, and denoting the semi-sum of the reciprocals of the altitudes as have[14] we

And denoting the semi-sum of the angles' sines as S = [(sin ) + (sin ) + (sin )]/2, we have[15]

where D is the diameter of the circumcircle:

Using Pick's theorem

See Pick's theorem for a technique for finding the area of any arbitrary lattice polygon (one drawn on a grid with vertically and horizontally adjacent lattice points at equal distances, and with vertices on lattice points). The theorem states:

where is the number of internal lattice points and B is the number of lattice points lying on the border of the polygon.
Other area formulas

Numerous other area formulas exist, such as

where r is the inradius, and s is the semiperimeter (in fact this formula holds for all tangential polygons);

and[16]

for circumdiameter D; and[17]

for angle 90. Denoting the radius of the inscribed circle as r and the radii of the excircles as r1, r2, and r3, the area can be expressed as[18]

In 1885, Baker[19] gave a collection of over a hundred distinct area formulas for the triangle. These include:

for circumradius (radius of the circumcircle) R, and

Upper bound on the area

The area of any triangle with perimeter p is less than or equal to if and only if the triangle is equilateral.[20][21]:657
Bisecting the area

with equality holding

There are infinitely many lines that bisect the area of a triangle.[22] Three of them are the medians, which are the only area bisectors that go through the centroid. Three other area bisectors are parallel to the triangle's sides. Any line through a triangle that splits both the triangle's area and its perimeter in half goes through the triangle's incenter. There can be one, two, or three of these for any given triangle.

Further formulas for general Euclidean triangles

The formulas in this section are true for all Euclidean triangles. The medians and the sides are related by[23]:p.70

and

and equivalently for mb and mc. For angle opposite side a, the length of the internal bisector is given by

for semiperimeter s, where the bisector length is measured from the vertex to where it meets the opposite side. The following formulas involve the circumradius R and the inradius r:

where ha etc. are the altitudes to the subscripted sides;[23]:p.79

[24]

and

Suppose two adjacent but non-overlapping triangles share the same side of length f and share the same circumcircle, so that the side of length f is a chord of the circumcircle and the triangles have side lengths (a, b, f) and (c, d, f), with the two triangles together forming a cyclic quadrilateral with side lengths in sequence (a, b, c, d). Then[25]:84

Let M be the centroid of a triangle with vertices A, B, and C, and let P be any interior point. Then the distances between the points are related by[25]:174

Let pa, pb, and pc be the distances from the centroid to the sides of lengths a, b, and c. Then[25]:173

and

The product of two sides of a triangle equals the altitude to the third side times the diameter of the circumcircle.[23]:p.64 Carnot's Theorem states that the sum of the distances from the circumcenter to the three sides equals the sum of the circumradius and the inradius.[23]:p.83 Here a segment's length is considered to be negative if and only if the segment lies entirely outside the triangle. This method is especially useful for deducing the properties of more abstract forms of triangles, such as the ones induced by Lie algebras, that otherwise have the same properties as usual triangles. Euler's theorem states that the distance d between the circumcenter and the incenter is given by[23]:p.85

or equivalently

where R is the circumradius and r is the inradius. Thus for all triangles R 2r, with equality holding for equilateral triangles. If we denote that the orthocenter divides one altitude into segments of lengths u and v, another altitude into segment lengths w and x, and the third altitude into segment lengths y and z, then uv = wx = yz.[23]:p.94 The distance from a side to the circumcenter equals half the distance from the opposite vertex to the orthocenter.[23]:p.99

The sum of the squares of the distances from the vertices to the orthocenter plus the sum of the squares of the sides equals twelve times the square of the circumradius.[23]:p.102

Morley's trisector theorem

Main article: Morley's trisector theorem

The Morley triangle, resulting from the trisection of each interior angle.

Morley's trisector theorem states that in any triangle, the three points of intersection of the adjacent angle trisectors form an equilateral triangle, called the Morley triangle.

Figures inscribed in a triangle

As discussed above, every triangle has a unique inscribed circle (incircle) that is interior to the triangle and tangent to all three sides. Every triangle has a unique Steiner inellipse which is interior to the triangle and tangent at the midpoints of the sides. Marden's theorem shows how to find the foci of this ellipse.[26] This ellipse has the greatest area of any ellipse tangent to all three sides of the triangle. For any ellipse inscribed in a triangle ABC, let the foci be P and Q. Then[27]

Every triangle has three inscribed squares (squares in its interior such that all four of a square's vertices lie on a side of the triangle, so two of them lie on the same side and hence one side of the square coincides with part of a side of the triangle). However, in the case of a right triangle two of the squares coincide and have a vertex at the triangle's right angle, so a right triangle has only two distinct inscribed squares. Within a given triangle, a longer common side is associated with a smaller inscribed square. If an inscribed square has side of length q and the triangle has a side of length a, part of which side coincides with a side of the square, then q, a, and the triangle's area T are related according to[28]

The largest possible ratio of the area of the inscribed square to the area of the triangle is 1/2, which occurs when a2 = 2T, q = a/2, and the altitude of the triangle from the base of length a is equal to a.

Partitioning into isosceles triangles

For any integer n 4, any triangle can be partitioned into n isosceles triangles.[29]

Figures circumscribed about a triangle

As mentioned above, every triangle has a unique circumcircle, a circle passing through all three vertices, whose center is the intersection of the perpendicular bisectors of the triangle's sides. Further, every triangle has a unique Steiner circumellipse, which passes through the triangle's vertices and has its center at the triangle's centroid. Of all ellipses going through the triangle's vertices, it has the smallest area.

Non-planar triangles
A non-planar triangle is a triangle which is not contained in a (flat) plane. Some examples of non-planar triangles in non-Euclidean geometries are spherical triangles in spherical geometry and hyperbolic triangles in hyperbolic geometry. While the measures of the internal angles in planar triangles always sum to 180, a hyperbolic triangle has measures of angles that sum to less than 180, and a spherical triangle has measures of angles that sum to more than 180. A hyperbolic triangle can be obtained by drawing on a negatively curved surface, such as a saddle surface, and a spherical triangle can be obtained by drawing on a positively curved surface such as a sphere. Thus, if one draws a giant triangle on the surface of the Earth, one will find that the sum of the measures of its angles is greater than 180; in fact it will be between 180 and 540.[30] In particular it is possible to draw a triangle on a sphere such that the measure of each of its internal angles is equal to 90, adding up to a total of 270. Specifically, on a sphere the sum of the angles of a triangle is
180 (1 + 4f),

where f is the fraction of the sphere's area which is enclosed by the triangle. For example, suppose that we draw a triangle on the Earth's surface with vertices at the North Pole, at a point on the equator at 0 longitude, and a point on the equator at 90 West longitude. The great circle line between the latter two points is the equator, and the great circle line between either of those points and the North Pole is a line of longitude; so there are right angles at the two points on the equator. Moreover, the angle at the North Pole is also 90 because the other two vertices differ by 90 of longitude. So the sum of the angles in this triangle is 90 + 90 + 90 = 270. The triangle encloses 1/4 of the northern hemisphere (90/360 as viewed from the North Pole) and therefore 1/8 of the Earth's surface, so in the formula f = 1/8; thus the formula correctly gives the sum of the triangle's angles as 270.

From the above angle sum formula we can also see that the Earth's surface is locally flat: If we draw an arbitrarily small triangle in the neighborhood of one point on the Earth's surface, the fraction f of the Earth's surface which is enclosed by the triangle will be arbitrarily close to zero. In this case the angle sum formula simplifies to 180, which we know is what Euclidean geometry tells us for triangles on a flat surface.

Triangles in construction
Main article: Truss

The Flatiron Building in New York is shaped like a triangular prism

Rectangles have been the most popular and common geometric form for buildings since the shape is easy to stack and organize; as a standard, it is easy to design furniture and fixtures to fit inside rectangularly shaped buildings. But triangles, while more difficult to use conceptually, provide a great deal of strength. As computer technology helps architects design creative new buildings, triangular shapes are becoming increasingly prevalent as parts of buildings and as the primary shape for some types of skyscrapers as well as building materials. In Tokyo in 1989, architects had wondered whether it was possible to build a 500story tower to provide affordable office space for this densely packed city, but with the danger to buildings from earthquakes, architects considered that a triangular shape would have been necessary if such a building was ever to have been built (it hasn't by 2011).[31] In New York City, as Broadway crisscrosses major avenues, the resulting blocks are cut like triangles, and buildings have been built on these shapes; one such building is the triangularly

shaped Flatiron Building which real estate people admit has a "warren of awkward spaces that do not easily accommodate modern office furniture" but that has not prevented the structure from becoming a landmark icon.[32] Designers have made houses in Norway using triangular themes.[33] Triangle shapes have appeared in churches[34] as well as public buildings including colleges[35] as well as supports for innovative home designs.[36] Triangles are sturdy; while a rectangle can collapse into a parallelogram from pressure to one of its points, triangles have a natural strength which supports structures against lateral pressures. A triangle will not change shape unless its sides are bent or extended or broken or if its joints break; in essence, each of the three sides supports the other two. A rectangle, in contrast, is more dependent on the strength of its joints in a structural sense. Some innovative designers have proposed making bricks not out of rectangles, but with triangular shapes which can be combined in three dimensions.[37] It is likely that triangles will be used increasingly in new ways as architecture increases in complexity. It is important to remember that triangles are strong in terms of rigidity, but while packed in a tessellating arrangement triangles are not as strong as hexagons under compression (hence the prevalence of hexagonal forms in nature). Tessellated triangles still maintain superior strength for cantilevering however, and this is the basis for one of the strongest man made structures, the tetrahedral truss.

 Ellipse
An ellipse (from Greek elleipsis, a "falling short") is a plane curve that results from the intersection of a cone by a plane in a way that produces a closed curve. Circles are special cases of ellipses, obtained when the cutting plane is orthogonal to the cone's axis. An ellipse is also the locus of all points of the plane whose distances to two fixed points add to the same constant. The name was given by Apollonius of Perga in his Conics, emphasizing the connection of the curve with "application of areas". Ellipses are closed curves and are the bounded case of the conic sections, the curves that result from the intersection of a circular cone and a plane that does not pass through its apex; the other two (open and unbounded) cases are parabolas and hyperbolas. Ellipses arise from the intersection of a right circular cylinder with a plane that is not parallel to the cylinder's main axis of symmetry. Ellipses also arise as images of a circle under parallel projection and the bounded cases of perspective projection, which are simply intersections of the projective cone with the plane of projection. It is also the simplest Lissajous figure, formed when the horizontal and vertical motions are sinusoids with the same frequency.

Elements of an ellipse

The ellipse and some of its mathematical properties.

An ellipse is a smooth closed curve which is symmetric about its horizontal and vertical axes. The distance between antipodal points on the ellipse, or pairs of points whose midpoint is at the center of the ellipse, is maximum along the major axis or transverse diameter, and a minimum along the perpendicular minor axis or conjugate diameter.[1] The semi-major axis (denoted by a in the figure) and the semi-minor axis (denoted by b in the figure) are one half of the major and minor axes, respectively. These are sometimes called (especially in technical fields) the major and minor semi-axes,[2][3] the major and minor

semiaxes,[4][5] or major radius and minor radius.[6][7][8][9] The four points where these axes cross the ellipse are the vertices, points where its curvature is minimized or maximized.[10] The foci of an ellipse are two special points F1 and F2 on the ellipse's major axis and are equidistant from the center point. The sum of the distances from any point P on the ellipse to those two foci is constant and equal to the major axis ( PF1 + PF2 = 2a ). Each of these two points is called a focus of the ellipse. Refer to the lower Directrix section of this article for a second equivalent construction of an ellipse. The eccentricity of an ellipse, usually denoted by or e, is the ratio of the distance between the two foci, to the length of the major axis or e = 2f/2a = f/a. For an ellipse the eccentricity is between 0 and 1 (0<e<1). When the eccentricity is 0 the foci coincide with the center point and the figure is a circle. As the eccentricity tends toward 1, the ellipse gets a more elongated shape. It tends towards a line segment (see below) if the two foci remain a finite distance apart and a parabola if one focus is kept fixed as the other is allowed to move arbitrarily far away. The distance ae from a focal point to the centre is called the linear eccentricity of the ellipse (f = ae).

Drawing ellipses
Pins-and-string method

Drawing an ellipse with two pins, a loop, and a pen.

The characterization of an ellipse as the locus of points so that sum of the distances to the foci is constant leads to a method of drawing one using two drawing pins, a length of string, and a pencil.[11] In this method, pins are pushed into the paper at two points which will become the ellipse's foci. A string tied at each end to the two pins and the tip of a pen is used to pull the loop taut so as to form a triangle. The tip of the pen will then trace an ellipse if it is moved

while keeping the string taut. Using two pegs and a rope, this procedure is traditionally used by gardeners to outline an elliptical flower bed; thus it is called the gardener's ellipse.[12]
Other methods Trammel method

Trammel of Archimedes (ellipsograph) animation

An ellipse can also be drawn using a ruler, a set square, and a pencil:
Draw two perpendicular lines M,N on the paper; these will be the major and minor axes of the ellipse. Mark three points A, B, C on the ruler. A->C being the length of the major axis and B->C the length of the minor axis. With one hand, move the ruler on the paper, turning and sliding it so as to keep point A always on line N, and B on line M. With the other hand, keep the pencil's tip on the paper, following point C of the ruler. The tip will trace out an ellipse.

The trammel of Archimedes or ellipsograph is a mechanical device that implements this principle. The ruler is replaced by a rod with a pencil holder (point C) at one end, and two adjustable side pins (points A and B) that slide into two perpendicular slots cut into a metal plate.[13] The mechanism can be used with a router to cut ellipses from board material. The mechanism is also used in a toy called the "nothing grinder".
Parallelogram method

Ellipse construction applying the parallelogram method

In the parallelogram method, an ellipse is constructed point by point using equally spaced points on two horizontal lines and equally spaced points on two vertical lines. Similar methods exist for the parabola and hyperbola.
Approximations to ellipses

An ellipse of low eccentricity can be represented reasonably accurately by a circle with its centre offset. To draw the orbit with a pair of compasses the centre of the circle should be offset from the focus by an amount equal to the eccentricity multiplied by the radius.

Mathematical definitions and properties

In Euclidean geometry Definition

In Euclidean geometry, the ellipse is usually defined as the bounded case of a conic section, or as the set of points such that the sum of the distances to two fixed points (the foci) is constant. The ellipse can also be defined as the set of points such that the distance from any point in that set to a given point in the plane (a focus) is a constant positive fraction less than 1 (the eccentricity) of the perpendicular distance of the point in the set to a given line (called the directrix). Yet another equivalent definition of the ellipse is that it is the set of points that are equidistant from one point in the plane (a focus) and a particular circle, the directrix circle (whose center is the other focus). The equivalence of these definitions can be proved using the Dandelin spheres.
Equations

The equation of an ellipse whose major and minor axes coincide with the Cartesian axes is

This means any noncircular ellipse is a squashed circle. If we draw an ellipse twice as long as it is wide, and draw the circle centered at the ellipse's center with diameter equal to the ellipse's longer axis, then on any line parallel to the shorter axis the length within the circle is twice the length within the ellipse. So the area enclosed by an ellipse is easy to calculate-- it's the lengths of elliptic arcs that are hard.
Focus

The distance from the center C to either focus is f = ae, which can be expressed in terms of the major and minor radii:

Eccentricity

The eccentricity of the ellipse (commonly denoted as either e or ) is

(where again a and b are one-half of the ellipse's major and minor axes respectively, and f is the focal distance) or, as expressed in terms using the flattening factor

Other formulas for the eccentricity of an ellipse are listed in the article on eccentricity of conic sections. Formulas for the eccentricity of an ellipse that is expressed in the more general quadratic form are described in the article dedicated to conic sections.
Directrix

Each focus F of the ellipse is associated with a line parallel to the minor axis called a directrix. Refer to the illustration on the right. The distance from any point P on the ellipse to the focus F is a constant fraction of that point's perpendicular distance to the directrix resulting in the equality, e=PF/PD. The ratio of these two distances is the eccentricity of the ellipse. This property (which can be proved using the Dandelin spheres) can be taken as another definition of the ellipse. Besides the wellknown ratio e=f/a, it is also true that e=a/d.
Circular directrix

The ellipse can also be defined as the set of points that are equidistant from one focus and a circle, the directrix circle, that is centered on the other focus. The radius of the directrix circle equals the ellipse's major axis, so the focus and the entire ellipse are inside the directrix circle.

Ellipse as hypotrochoid

An ellipse (in red) as a special case of the hypotrochoid with R = 2r.

The ellipse is a special case of the hypotrochoid when R = 2r.

Area

The area enclosed by an ellipse is ab, where a and b are one-half of the ellipse's major and minor axes respectively. If the ellipse is given by the implicit equation .
Circumference

, then the area is

The circumference

of an ellipse is:

where again e is the eccentricity and where the function the second kind. The exact infinite series is:

is the complete elliptic integral of

or

For computational purposes a much faster series where the denominators vanish at a rate is given by:[14]

A good approximation is Ramanujan's:

and a better approximation is

For the special case where the minor axis is half the major axis, these become:

or, as an estimate of the better approximation,

More generally, the arc length of a portion of the circumference, as a function of the angle subtended, is given by an incomplete elliptic integral.
See also: Meridian arc#Meridian distance on the ellipsoid

The inverse function, the angle subtended as a function of the arc length, is given by the elliptic functions.[citation needed]

Chords

The midpoints of a set of parallel chords of an ellipse are collinear.[15]:p.147

In projective geometry

In projective geometry, an ellipse can be defined as the set of all points of intersection between corresponding lines of two pencils of lines which are related by a projective map. By projective duality, an ellipse can be defined also as the envelope of all lines that connect corresponding points of two lines which are related by a projective map. This definition also generates hyperbolae and parabolae. However, in projective geometry every conic section is equivalent to an ellipse. A parabola is an ellipse that is tangent to the line at infinity , and the hyperbola is an ellipse that crosses . An ellipse is also the result of projecting a circle, sphere, or ellipse in three dimensions onto a plane, by parallel lines. It is also the result of conical (perspective) projection of any of those geometric objects from a point O onto a plane P, provided that the plane Q that goes through O and is parallel to P does not cut the object. The image of an ellipse by any affine map is an ellipse, and so is the image of an ellipse by any projective map M such that the line M1() does not touch or cross the ellipse.
In analytic geometry General ellipse

In analytic geometry, the ellipse is defined as the set of points that, in non-degenerate cases, satisfy the implicit equation[16][17]

of the Cartesian plane

provided To distinguish the degenerate cases from the non-degenerate case, let be the determinant of the 33 matrix [A, B/2, D/2 ; B/2, C, E/2 ; D/2, E/2, F ]: that is, = (AC - B2/4)F + BED/4 CD2/4 - AE2/4. Then the ellipse is a non-degenerate real ellipse if and only if C<0. If C>0 we have an imaginary ellipse, and if =0 we have a point ellipse.[18]:p.63
Canonical form

Let . By a proper choice of coordinate system, the ellipse can be described by the canonical implicit equation

Here

are the point coordinates in the canonical system, whose origin is the center of the ellipse, whose -axis is the unit vector coinciding with the major

axis, and whose -axis is the perpendicular vector axis. That is, . In this system, the center is the origin and the foci are and

coinciding with the minor

and

Any ellipse can be obtained by rotation and translation of a canonical ellipse with the proper semi-diameters. Translation of an ellipse centered at is expressed as

Moreover, any canonical ellipse can be obtained by scaling the unit circle of the equation

, defined by

by factors a and b along the two axes. For an ellipse in canonical form, we have

The distances from a point , respectively.

In trigonometry General parametric form

on the ellipse to the left and right foci are

and

An ellipse in general position can be expressed parametrically as the path of a point , where

as the parameter t varies from 0 to 2. Here is the center of the ellipse, and angle between the -axis and the major axis of the ellipse.

is the

Parametric form in canonical position

Parametric equation for the ellipse (red) in canonical position. The eccentric anomaly t is the angle of the blue line with the X-axis. Click on image to see animation.

For an ellipse in canonical position (center at origin, major axis along the X-axis), the equation simplifies to

Note that the parameter t (called the eccentric anomaly in astronomy) is not the angle of with the X-axis. Formulae connecting a tangential angle , the angle anchored at the ellipse's center (called also the polar angle from the ellipse center), and the parametric angle t[19] are[20][21][22]:

Polar form relative to center

Polar coordinates centered at the center.

In polar coordinates, with the origin at the center of the ellipse and with the angular coordinate measured from the major axis, the ellipse's equation is

Polar form relative to focus

Polar coordinates centered at focus.

If instead we use polar coordinates with the origin at one focus, with the angular coordinate still measured from the major axis, the ellipse's equation is

where the sign in the denominator is negative if the reference direction points towards the center (as illustrated on the right), and positive if that direction points away from the center. In the slightly more general case of an ellipse with one focus at the origin and the other focus at angular coordinate , the polar form is

The angle in these formulas is called the true anomaly of the point. The numerator of these formulas is the semi-latus rectum of the ellipse, usually denoted . It is the distance from a focus of the ellipse to the ellipse itself, measured along a line perpendicular to the major axis.

Semi-latus rectum. General polar form

The following equation on the polar coordinates (r, ) describes a general ellipse with semidiameters a and b, centered at a point (r0, 0), with the a axis rotated by relative to the polar axis:[citation needed]

where

Angular eccentricity

The angular eccentricity is the angle whose sine is the eccentricity e; that is,

Degrees of freedom

An ellipse in the plane has five degrees of freedom (the same as a general conic section), defining its position, orientation, shape, and scale. In comparison, circles have only three degrees of freedom (position and scale), while parabolae have four. Said another way, the set of all ellipses in the plane, with any natural metric (such as the Hausdorff distance) is a fivedimensional manifold. These degrees can be identified with, for example, the coefficients A,B,C,D,E of the implicit equation, or with the coefficients Xc, Yc, , a, b of the general parametric form.

Ellipses in physics

Elliptical reflectors and acoustics

If the water's surface is disturbed at one focus of an elliptical water tank, the circular waves created by that disturbance, after being reflected by the walls, will converge simultaneously to a single point the second focus. This is a consequence of the total travel length being the same along any wall-bouncing path between the two foci. Similarly, if a light source is placed at one focus of an elliptic mirror, all light rays on the plane of the ellipse are reflected to the second focus. Since no other smooth curve has such a property, it can be used as an alternative definition of an ellipse. (In the special case of a circle with a source at its center all light would be reflected back to the center.) If the ellipse is rotated along its major axis to produce an ellipsoidal mirror (specifically, a prolate spheroid), this property will hold for all rays out of the source. Alternatively, a cylindrical mirror with elliptical cross-section can be used to focus light from a linear fluorescent lamp along a line of the paper; such mirrors are used in some document scanners. Sound waves are reflected in a similar way, so in a large elliptical room a person standing at one focus can hear a person standing at the other focus remarkably well. The effect is even more evident under a vaulted roof shaped as a section of a prolate spheroid. Such a room is called a whisper chamber. The same effect can be demonstrated with two reflectors shaped like the end caps of such a spheroid, placed facing each other at the proper distance. Examples are the National Statuary Hall at the United States Capitol (where John Quincy Adams is said to have used this property for eavesdropping on political matters), at an exhibit on sound at the Museum of Science and Industry in Chicago, in front of the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Foellinger Auditorium, and also at a side chamber of the Palace of Charles V, in the Alhambra.
Planetary orbits Main article: Elliptic orbit

In the 17th century, Johannes Kepler discovered that the orbits along which the planets travel around the Sun are ellipses with the Sun at one focus, in his first law of planetary motion. Later, Isaac Newton explained this as a corollary of his law of universal gravitation. More generally, in the gravitational two-body problem, if the two bodies are bound to each other (i.e., the total energy is negative), their orbits are similar ellipses with the common barycenter being one of the foci of each ellipse. The other focus of either ellipse has no known physical significance. Interestingly, the orbit of either body in the reference frame of the other is also an ellipse, with the other body at one focus. Keplerian elliptical orbits are the result of any radially directed attraction force whose strength is inversely proportional to the square of the distance. Thus, in principle, the motion of two oppositely charged particles in empty space would also be an ellipse. (However, this conclusion ignores losses due to electromagnetic radiation and quantum effects which become significant when the particles are moving at high speed.) For elliptical orbits, useful relations involving the eccentricity are:

where

is the radius at apoapsis (the farthest distance) is the radius at periapsis (the closest distance) is the length of the semi-major axis

Also, in terms of and , the semi-major axis is their arithmetic mean, the semi-minor axis is their geometric mean, and the semi-latus rectum is their harmonic mean. In other words,

.
Harmonic oscillators

The general solution for a harmonic oscillator in two or more dimensions is also an ellipse. Such is the case, for instance, of a long pendulum that is free to move in two dimensions; of a mass attached to a fixed point by a perfectly elastic spring; or of any object that moves under influence of an attractive force that is directly proportional to its distance from a fixed attractor. Unlike Keplerian orbits, however, these "harmonic orbits" have the center of attraction at the geometric center of the ellipse, and have fairly simple equations of motion.
Phase visualization

In electronics, the relative phase of two sinusoidal signals can be compared by feeding them to the vertical and horizontal inputs of an oscilloscope. If the display is an ellipse, rather than a straight line, the two signals are out of phase.
Elliptical gears

Two non-circular gears with the same elliptical outline, each pivoting around one focus and positioned at the proper angle, will turn smoothly while maintaining contact at all times. Alternatively, they can be connected by a link chain or timing belt, or in the case of a bicycle the main chainring may be elliptical, or an ovoid similar to an ellipse in form. Such elliptical gears may be used in mechanical equipment to produce variable angular speed or torque from

a constant rotation of the driving axle, or in the case of a bicycle to allow a varying crank rotation speed with inversely varying mechanical advantage. Elliptical bicycle gears make it easier for the chain to slide off the cog when changing gears.[23] An example gear application would be a device that winds thread onto a conical bobbin on a spinning machine. The bobbin would need to wind faster when the thread is near the apex than when it is near the base.[24]
Optics

In a material that is optically anisotropic (birefringent), the refractive index depends on the direction of the light. The dependency can be described by an index ellipsoid. (If the material is optically isotropic, this ellipsoid is a sphere.)

Ellipses in statistics and finance

In statistics, a bivariate random vector (X, Y) is jointly elliptically distributed if its iso-density contours loci of equal values of the density function are ellipses. The concept extends to an arbitrary number of elements of the random vector, in which case in general the isodensity contours are ellipsoids. A special case is the multivariate normal distribution. The elliptical distributions are important in finance because if rates of return on assets are jointly elliptically distributed then all portfolios can be characterized completely by their mean and variance that is, any two portfolios with identical mean and variance of portfolio return have identical distributions of portfolio return.[25][26]

Ellipses in computer graphics

Drawing an ellipse as a graphics primitive is common in standard display libraries, such as the MacIntosh QuickDraw API, and Direct2D on Windows. Jack Bresenham at IBM is most famous for the invention of 2D drawing primitives, including line and circle drawing, using only fast integer operations such as addition and branch on carry bit. M. L. V. Pitteway extended Bresenham's algorithm for lines to conics in 1967.[27] Another efficient generalization to draw ellipses was invented in 1984 by Jerry Van Aken.[28] In 1970 Danny Cohen presented at the "Computer Graphics 1970" conference in England a linear algorithm for drawing ellipses and circles. In 1971, L. B. Smith published similar algorithms for all conic sections and proved them to have good properties.[29] These algorithms need only a few multiplications and additions to calculate each vector. It is beneficial to use a parametric formulation in computer graphics because the density of points is greatest where there is the most curvature. Thus, the change in slope between each successive point is small, reducing the apparent "jaggedness" of the approximation.
Drawing with Bezier spline paths

Multiple Bezier splines may also be used to draw an ellipse to sufficient accuracy, since any ellipse may be construed as an affine transformation of a circle. The spline methods used to

draw a circle may be used to draw an ellipse, since the constituent Bezier curves will behave appropriately under such transformations.

Line segment as a type of degenerate ellipse

A line segment is a degenerate ellipse with semi-minor axis = 0 and eccentricity = 1, and with the focal points at the ends.[30] Although the eccentricity is 1 this is not a parabola. A radial elliptic trajectory is a non-trivial special case of an elliptic orbit, where the ellipse is a line segment.

Ellipses in optimization theory

It is sometimes useful to find the minimum bounding ellipse on a set of points. The ellipsoid method is quite useful for attacking this problem.

Center A point inside the ellipse which is the midpoint of the line segment linking the two foci. The intersection of the major and minor axes. Major / minor axis The longest and shortest diameters of an ellipse. See Major / Minor Axis of an Ellipse. The length of the major axis is equal to the sum of the two generator lines (a and b in the diagram above). Semi-major / semi-minor axis The distance from the center to the furthest and closest point on the ellipse. Half the major / minor axis. See Semi-major/ Semi-minor axis of an ellipse. Foci (Focus points) The two points that define the ellipse. See Foci of an ellipse. Perimeter (circumference) The perimeter is the distance around the ellipse. Not easy to calculate. See Perimeter of an ellipse. Area The number of square units it takes to fill the region inside an ellipse. See Area enclosed by an ellipse . Chord A line segment linking any two points on an ellipse. Tangent A line passing an ellipse and touching it at just one point. See Tangent to an Ellipse

Secant A line that intersects an ellipse at two points.

 Semicircle
Half a circle. A closed shape consisting of half a circle and a diameter of that circle*.

A semicircle is a half circle, formed by cutting a whole circle along a diameter line, as shown above. Any diameter of a circle cuts it into two equal semicircles. * An alternative definition is that it is an open arc. See note at end of page.

Area of a semicircle

The area of a semicircle is half the area area of the circle from which it is made. Recall that the area of a circle is R2, where R is the radius. (See Area of a circle). So, the formula for the area of a semicircle is: where: R is the radius of the semicircle is Pi, approximately 3.142

Calculator

Perimeter of a semicircle
The perimeter of a semicircle is not half the perimeter of a circle*. From the figure above, you can see that the perimeter is the curved part, which is half the circle, plus the diameter line across the bottom. Recall that the perimeter of a circle is 2R, (See Perimeter of a circle). So the curved part is half that, or R, and the base line is twice the radius or 2R. So, the formula for the perimeter of a semicircle is: where: R is the radius of the semicircle

Calculator

 is Pi, approximately 3.142 By factoring out R, this simplifies slightly to

Angle inscribed in a semicircle

The angle inscribed in a semicircle is always 90. See Angle inscribed in a semicircle.

Alternative definition*

An alternative definition of a semicircle is that it is simply an arc - a curved line that is half the circumference of a circle, without the straight line linking its ends. This means it is not a closed figure, and so: 1. Has no area 2. Has no perimeter. Its length is the length of the arc, or R. To avoid confusion, it is best to refer to this as a "semicircular arc" Uses

A semicircle can be used to construct the arithmetic and geometric means of two lengths using straight-edge and compass. If we make a semicircle with a diameter of a+b, then the length of its radius is the arithmetic mean of a and b (since the radius is half of the diameter). The geometric mean can be found by dividing the diameter into two segments of lengths a and b, and then connecting their common endpoint to the semicircle with a segment perpendicular to the diameter. The length of the resulting segment is the geometric mean,[1] which can be proved using the Pythagorean theorem. This can be used to accomplish quadrature of a rectangle (since a square whose sides are equal to the geometric mean of the sides of a rectangle has the same area as the rectangle), and thus of any figure for which we can construct a rectangle of equal area, such as any polygon (but not a circle).

 Cube
a cube[1] is a three-dimensional solid object bounded by six square faces, facets or sides, with three meeting at each vertex. The cube can also be called a regular hexahedron and is one of the five Platonic solids. It is a special kind of square prism, of rectangular parallelepiped and of trigonal trapezohedron. The cube is dual to the octahedron. It has cubical symmetry (also called octahedral symmetry). It is special by being a cuboid and a rhombohedron.

Orthogonal projections
The cube has four special orthogonal projections, centered, on a vertex, edges, face and normal to its vertex figure. The first and third correspond to the A2 and B2 Coxeter planes.
Orthogonal projections Centered by Face B2 Coxeter planes Vertex A2

Projective symmetry

[4]

[6]

Tilted views

Cartesian coordinates
For a cube centered at the origin, with edges parallel to the axes and with an edge length of 2, the Cartesian coordinates of the vertices are
(1, 1, 1)

while the interior consists of all points (x0, x1, x2) with 1 < xi < 1.

Equation in R3

In analytic geometry, a cube's surface with center (x0, y0, z0) and edge length of 2a is the locus of all points (x, y, z) such that

Formulae
For a cube of edge length ,
surface area volume face diagonal space diagonal radius of circumscribed sphere

radius of sphere tangent to edges

radius of inscribed sphere

angles between faces (in radians)

As the volume of a cube is the third power of its sides cubes, by analogy with squares and second powers.

, third powers are called

A cube has the largest volume among cuboids (rectangular boxes) with a given surface area. Also, a cube has the largest volume among cuboids with the same total linear size (length+width+height).

Uniform colorings and symmetry

The cube has three uniform colorings, named by the colors of the square faces around each vertex: 111, 112, 123. The cube has three classes of symmetry, which can be represented by vertex-transitive coloring the faces. The highest octahedral symmetry Oh has all the faces the same color. The dihedral symmetry D4h comes from the cube being a prism, with all four sides being the same color. The lowest symmetry D2h is also a prismatic symmetry, with sides alternating colors,

so there are three colors, paired by opposite sides. Each symmetry form has a different Wythoff symbol.
Name Coxeter-Dynkin Schlfli symbol Wythoff symbol Symmetry Symmetry order {4,3} 3|42 Oh (*432) 24 {4}{} 42|2 D4h (*422) 16 {}{}{} 222| D2h (*222) 8 D3d (2*3) 12 Regular hexahedron Square prism Cuboid Trigonal trapezohedron

Image (uniform coloring) (111) (112) (123) (111), (112), (122), and (222)

Geometric relations

The 11 nets of the cube.

These familiar six-sided dice are cube-shaped.

A cube has eleven nets (one shown above): that is, there are eleven ways to flatten a hollow cube by cutting seven edges.[2] To color the cube so that no two adjacent faces have the same color, one would need at least three colors. The cube is the cell of the only regular tiling of three-dimensional Euclidean space. It is also unique among the Platonic solids in having faces with an even number of sides and, consequently, it is the only member of that group that is a zonohedron (every face has point symmetry). The cube can be cut into six identical square pyramids. If these square pyramids are then attached to the faces of a second cube, a rhombic dodecahedron is obtained (with pairs of coplanar triangles combined into rhombic faces.)

Other dimensions
The analogue of a cube in four-dimensional Euclidean space has a special namea tesseract or hypercube. More properly, a hypercube (or n-dimensional cube or simply n-cube) is the analogue of the cube in n-dimensional Euclidean space and a tesseract is the order-4 hypercube. A hypercube is also called a measure polytope. There are analogues of the cube in lower dimensions too: a point in dimension 0, a segment in one dimension and a square in two dimensions.

Related polyhedra

The dual of a cube is an octahedron.

The hemicube is the 2-to-1 quotient of the cube.

The quotient of the cube by the antipodal map yields a projective polyhedron, the hemicube. If the original cube has edge length 1, its dual polyhedron (an octahedron) has edge length . The cube is a special case in various classes of general polyhedra:
Name Cube Rhombohedron Cuboid Parallelepiped Equal edge-lengths? Equal angles? Right angles? Yes Yes No No Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes No Yes No No

quadrilaterally faced hexahedron No

The vertices of a cube can be grouped into two groups of four, each forming a regular tetrahedron; more generally this is referred to as a demicube. These two together form a regular compound, the stella octangula. The intersection of the two forms a regular octahedron. The symmetries of a regular tetrahedron correspond to those of a cube which map each tetrahedron to itself; the other symmetries of the cube map the two to each other. One such regular tetrahedron has a volume of 12 of that of the cube. The remaining space consists of four equal irregular tetrahedra with a volume of 16 of that of the cube, each. The rectified cube is the cuboctahedron. If smaller corners are cut off we get a polyhedron with six octagonal faces and eight triangular ones. In particular we can get regular octagons (truncated cube). The rhombicuboctahedron is obtained by cutting off both corners and edges to the correct amount.

A cube can be inscribed in a dodecahedron so that each vertex of the cube is a vertex of the dodecahedron and each edge is a diagonal of one of the dodecahedron's faces; taking all such cubes gives rise to the regular compound of five cubes. If two opposite corners of a cube are truncated at the depth of the three vertices directly connected to them, an irregular octahedron is obtained. Eight of these irregular octahedra can be attached to the triangular faces of a regular octahedron to obtain the cuboctahedron. The cuboctahedron is one of a family of uniform polyhedra related to the cube and regular octahedron.
Uniform octahedral polyhedra Symmetry: [4,3] {4,3} t0,1{4,3} t1{4,3} t1,2{4,3} {3,4} [4,3]+ t0,2{4,3} t0,1,2{4,3} s{4,3} [1+,4,3] [4,3+]

h{4,3} h1,2{4,3}

Duals to uniform polyhedra

All these figures have octahedral symmetry. The cube is a part of a sequence of rhombic polyhedra and tilings with [n,3] Coxeter group symmetry. The cube can be seen as a rhombic hexahedron where the rhombi are squares.
Spherical polyhedra Spherical/pla nar symmetry *332 [3,3] Td *432 [4,3] Oh *532 [5,3] Ih Euclidean tiling *632 [6,3] P6m Hyperbolic tiling *732 [7,3] *832 [8,3]

Rhombic figures

Cube

Rhombic Rhombic dodecahedro triacontahedr n on V3.4.3.4 V3.5.3.5

Rhombille

Face configuration Coxeter diagram

V3.3.3.3

V3.6.3.6

V3.7.3.7

V3.8.3.8

Regular and uniform compounds of cubes

Compound of three cubes Compound of five cubes In uniform honeycombs and polychora

It is an element of 9 of 28 convex uniform honeycombs:

Cubic honeycomb Truncated square prismatic honeycomb Snub square prismatic honeycomb Elongated triangular prismatic honeycomb Gyroelongated triangular prismatic honeycomb

Cantellated cubic honeycomb

Cantitruncated Runcitruncated Runcinated cubic cubic alternated cubic honeycomb honeycomb honeycomb

It is also an element of five four-dimensional uniform polychora:

Tesseract Cantellated 16cell Runcinated tesseract Cantitruncated Runcitruncated 16-cell 16-cell

Combinatorial cubes
A different kind of cube is the cube graph, which is the graph of vertices and edges of the geometrical cube. It is a special case of the hypercube graph. An extension is the three dimensional k-ary Hamming graph, which for k = 2 is the cube graph. Graphs of this sort occur in the theory of parallel processing in computers.

Cylinder
Definition of Cylinder

A Cylinder is a three-dimensional geometric figure that has two congruent and parallel bases.

Cylinder Facts Notice these interesting things: It has a flat base and a flat top The base is the same as the top, and also in-between It has one curved side Because it has a curved surface it is not a polyhedron. And for reference: Surface Area = 2 r (r+h)

Surface Area of One End = r2 Surface Area of Side = 2 r h

Volume = r2 h Instructions: In "spin" mode it freely spins and will respond to your mouse. In "drag" mode it stops spinning and you can use your mouse to move it.

An object shaped like a cylinder is said to be cylindrical

Volume of a Cylinder
Just multiply the area of the circle by the height of the cylinder:

Area of the circle: r2 Height: h Volume = Area Height = r2 h

There is an easy way to remember: Imagine you just cooked a pizza. The radius is "z", and the thickness "a" is the same everywhere ... what is the volume? Answer: pi z z a (we would normally write "pi" as , and z z as z2, but you get the idea!)

It Doesn't Have to Be Circular

Usually when we say Cylinder we mean a Circular Cylinder, but you can also have Elliptical Cylinders, like this one: You can even have stranger cylinders: if the cross-section is curved and is the same from one end to the other, then it will still be a cylinder.

More about Cylinder

Right Cylinder: A right cylinder is a cylinder in which the centers of the bases are aligned directly one above the other. Right Circular Cylinder: When the base of a right cylinder is a circle, it is called a right circular cylinder.

Oblique Cylinder: When the centers of the bases of a cylinder are not aligned directly one above the other, it is called an oblique cylinder.

Solved Example on Cylinder

Which of the following coincides with the axis of rotation of a right cylinder? Choices: A. its altitude B. its base C. its surface area D. none of these Correct Answer: A Solution: Step 1: The altitude of a right cylinder coincides with its axis of rotation.
Related Terms for Cylinder

Circle Base Right Cylinder Right Circular Cylinder Oblique Cylinder Congruent Parallel Three-dimensional Figure

 Pyramid
Pyramid is a structure whose shape is roughly that of a pyramid in the geometric sense; that is, its outer surfaces are triangular and converge to a single point at the top. The base of a pyramid can be trilateral, quadrilateral, or any polygon shape, meaning that a pyramid has at least three outer triangular surfaces (at least four faces including the base). The square pyramid, with square base and four triangular outer surfaces, is a common version. A pyramid's design, with the majority of the weight closer to the ground,[2] and with the pyramidion on top means that less material higher up on the pyramid will be pushing down from above. This distribution of weight allowed early civilizations to create stable monumental structures. Pyramids have been built by civilizations in many parts of the world. For thousands of years, the largest structures on Earth were pyramidsfirst the Red Pyramid in the Dashur Necropolis and then the Great Pyramid of Khufu, both of Egypt, the latter the only one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World still remaining. Khufu's Pyramid is built entirely of limestone, and is considered an architectural masterpiece. It contains around 1,300,000 blocks ranging in weight from 2.5 tonnes (5,500 lb) to 15 tonnes (33,000 lb) and is built on a square base with sides measuring about 230 m (755 ft), covering 13 acres. Its four sides face the four cardinal points precisely and it has an angle of 52 degrees. The original height of the Pyramid was 146.5 m (488 ft), but today it is only 137 m (455 ft) high, the 9 m (33 ft) that is missing is due to the theft of the fine quality limestone covering, or casing stones, for construction in Cairo. It is still the tallest pyramid. The largest pyramid by volume is the Great Pyramid of Cholula, in the Mexican state of Puebla.

Parts of a Pyramid

A pyramid is made by connecting a base to an apex

Types of Pyramids
There are many types of Pyramids, and they are named after the shape of their base. Pyramid Base

Triangular Pyramid:

Square Pyramid:

Pentagonal Pyramid:

... and so on ...

Right vs Oblique Pyramid

This tells you where the top (apex) of the pyramid is. If the apex is directly above the center of the base, then it is a Right Pyramid, otherwise it is an Oblique Pyramid.

Right Pyramid

Oblique Pyramid

Regular vs Irregular Pyramid

This tells us about the shape of the base. If the base is a regular polygon, then it is a Regular Pyramid, otherwise it is an Irregular Pyramid.

Regular Pyramid

Irregular Pyramid

Base is Regular

Base is Irregular

Area and Volume

The Volume of a Pyramid

/3 [Base Area] Height

The Surface Area of a Pyramid

When all side faces are the same:

[Base Area] + 1/2 Perimeter [Slant Length]

When side faces are different:

[Base Area] + [Lateral Area]

Notes On Surface Area

The Surface Area has two parts: the area of the base (the Base Area), and the area of the side faces (the Lateral Area). For Base Area : It depends on the shape, there are different formulas for triangle, square, etc. See Area for formulas, or our Area Calculation Tool For Lateral Area

When all the side faces are the same:

Just multiply the perimeter by the "slant length" and divide by 2. This is because the side faces are always triangles and the triangle formula is "base times height divided by 2"

But if the side faces are different (such as an "irregular" pyramid) then add up the area of each triangular shape to find the total lateral area.

Sphere
A sphere (from Greek sphaira, "globe, ball"[1]) is a perfectly round geometrical object in three-dimensional space, such as the shape of a round ball. Like a circle, which is in two dimensions, a sphere is the set of points which are all the same distance r from a given point in space. This distance r is known as the "radius" of the sphere, and the given point is known as the center of the sphere. The maximum straight distance through the sphere is known as the "diameter". It passes through the center and is thus twice the radius. In mathematics, a careful distinction is made between the sphere (a two-dimensional surface embedded in three-dimensional Euclidean space) and the ball (the interior of the threedimensional sphere).

Hemisphere
Definition of Hemisphere

Hemisphere is the exact half of a sphere.

More about Hemisphere

When a plane cuts across a sphere at its center, it forms two hemispheres. Surface area of a hemisphere of radius r is given by 2r2

Volume of a hemisphere of radius r is given by

Example of Hemisphere

Cone

A cone is an -dimensional geometric shape that tapers smoothly from a base (usually flat and circular) to a point called the apex or vertex. Formally, it is the solid figure formed by the locus of all straight line segments that join the apex to the base. The term "cone" is sometimes used to refer to the surface or the lateral surface of this solid figure (the lateral surface of a cone is equal to the surface minus the base). The axis of a cone is the straight line (if any), passing through the apex, about which the base has a rotational symmetry. In common usage in elementary geometry, cones are assumed to be right circular, where right means that the axis passes through the centre of the base (suitably defined) at right angles to its plane, and circular means that the base is a circle. Contrasted with right cones are oblique cones, in which the axis does not pass perpendicularly through the centre of the base.[1] In general, however, the base may be any shape, and the apex may lie anywhere (though it is often assumed that the base is bounded and therefore has finite area, and that the apex lies outside the plane of the base). For example, a pyramid is technically a cone with a polygonal base.

ENGLISH ASSINGMENT DESCRIBE THE SHAPE

NAME : MUKHAMAD ZOGI NIM : 1211230024

KELAS : IA

Guided by Drs. Achmad Saiullah, M.Pd.