FINANCIAL ACCOUNTING LEARNING OBJCTIVES BASIC CONCEPTS IN ACCOUNTING JOURNAL LEDGER CASH BOOKS TRIAL BALANCE PREPERATION OF FINAN

FINAN ACCOUNTS

ACCOUNTING Accounting is concerned with the process of recording, classifying and summarising data resulting form business operations and events. According to American Accounting Association accounting is the process of identifying, measuring and communicating economic information to permit informed judgements and decision by users of the information. The definition given by the (AICPA) American institute of Certified Public Accountants clearly brings out the meaning and functions of accounting. According to it accounting is the art of recording, classifying and summarising in a significant manner and in terms of money, Transactions and events which are in part, at least, of a finance character and interpreting the results thereof. The General Equation of Accounting Assets = Liabilities + Owners Equity GAAP Generally Accepted Accounting principles, A widely accepted set of rules, conventions, standards, and procedures for reporting financial information, as established by the Financial Accounting standards Board (FASB). GAAP PRINCIPLES: The common set of principles, standards and procedures that companies use to compile their financial statement. GAAP are a combination of authoritative standards (set by policy boards) and simply the commonly accepted ways of recording and reporting accounting information Advantages of Accounting: The present Global economic world the Accounting process has the following advantages. 1. Provides information for Systematic records: Since all the financial transactions are recorded in the books, one need not rely on memory. Any information required is readily available from these records. 2. Facilitates the preparation for financial statements: Profit and loss account and balance sheet can be easily prepared with the help of the information in the records. This enables the trader to know the net result of business operations. ( i.e profit / loss) during the accounting period and the financial position of the business at the end of the accounting period. 3. Provides the control over Assets: Book keeping provides the information regarding cash in hand, cash at bank, stock of goods, accounts receivable from various parties and the accounts invested in various other assets. As the trader knows the values of the assets he will have control overt them. 4. Provides the required information: Interested parties such as owners. Lenders, creditors etc... Get necessary information at frequent intervals. 5. Comparative Study: One can compare the present performance of the organisation with that of its past. This enables the managers to draw useful conclusions and make proper decisions. 6. Tax matters: Properly maintained book-keeping records will help in the settlement of all tax matters with the tax authorities. 7. Helpful to management: Accounting is useful to the management in many ways. It enables the management to assess the achievement of its performance.

The weaknesses of the business can be identified and corrective measurements can be applied to remove them with the help of accounting. TYPES OF ACCOUNTS: An account is a summary of the relevant transactions at one place relating to a particular head. Based on accounting principles accounts are divided into three types. They are as follows. 1. Personal Accounts: These accounts are relates to natural persons, artificial persons and representative persons. For examples, Ram account, Ram & company Account. 2. Real Accounts: These accounts relate to assets. For examples, Plant and Machinery Account, Land and Buildings Account, Furniture Account etc. 3. Nominal Accounts: These accounts relate to expenses, losses and incomes and profits. For example, Salary expenditure, Rent paid, Rent received, Commission received etc... Rules of Accounting:
ACCOUNTING TYPE PERSONAL ACCOUNTS REAL ACCOUNTS NOMINAL ACCOUNTS DEBIT Receiver What comes in Expenses and losses CREDIT Giver What goes out Incomes and gains

Note: Real and Nominal Accounts are called Impersonal Accounts. BRANCHES OF ACCOUNTING Accounting Branches can be classified into the following categories: 1. Financial Accounting: The main purpose of this type of accounting is to record business transactions in the books of accounts in such a way that operating results for a particular period and financial condition on a particular date can be known for the information of the various groups of persons. 2. Cost Accounting: It relates to the collection, classification, ascertainment of cost and its accounting and cost control relating the various elements of cost, i.e. materials and Labour. 3. Management Accounting: It relates to the use of accounting data collected with the help of financial accounting and cost accounting for the purpose of policy formation, planning control and decision making by the management.

OBJECTIVES OF ACCOUNTANCY: 1. To provide knowledge of transactions... 2. To provide knowledge about creditors, debtors and overall financial positions. 3. To find our total purchases, total sales and closing stock etc. 4. To find out net profit or loss made during a particular financial period. 5. To provide knowledge about capital assets and liabilities of the firm at any particular time. 6. To provide ready information to all interested parties. Limitations of Accounting: The following are the limitations of accounting. 1. Does not record the all events.

2. Does not reflect the current values 3. Estimates based on personal judgement 4. Inadequate information on costs and profits. Accounting Principles The term Principle refers to fundamental belief or a general truth which once established does not change. Accounting principles or standards are general rules adopted in accounting. These principles enable standardization in recording and reporting of financial information. They are developing for common usage to ensure uniformity and understandability. Accounting Principles can be classified into two categories. 1. Accounting concepts and 2. Accounting conventions The concepts and convention can be put in the form of a chart as given below Accounting principles

Accounting concepts 1. Business entity 2. Money Measurement 3. Going concern 4. Cost 5. Dual Aspect Accounting period 6. Matching 7. Realisation 8. Objective Evidence 9. Accrual

Accounting Conventions 1. Full Disclosure 2. Conservatism 3. Materiality 4. Materiality

Accounting concepts Accounting concepts may be considered as postulates i.e., basic assumptions or conditions upon which the science of accounting is based. There is no authoritative list of these concepts but most of the following concepts have fairly general support. Business entity concept: According to this concept, a business unit is regarded as a separate and distinct accounting entity. All the transactions are recorded in the books of accounts as an entity. As an entity, it is apart from its owners, creditors and others. The proprietor is regarded as a creditor to the extent of his capital. Money measurement concepts: The money measurement concept signifies that in accounting a record is made only of those transactions or events which can be expressed in terms of money. Any happening or fact which can not be expressed in terms of money can not be recorded in accounting books. Going concern Concept: Accounting is done on the assumption that the business shall have a long life and it will continue to exist until it is dissolved. It is for this reason that fixed assets are recorded at original cost and are depreciated on the basis of their expected life rather than on the basis or market value. Cost concept: According to this concept, an asset is recorded in the books at the price paid to acquire it and this cost is the basis for all subsequent accounting for the asset.

Assets are not recorded at market value because these values keep on changing with changes in price level from time to time. According to this concept asset values are estimated based on depreciation with respect to its life period. Dual aspect concept: According to this concept, every transaction has two fold effect i.e. Debit and Credit. It means the contribution made by the proprietor and contribution made by the outsider must be equal to the total assets. Under these circumstances Assets are equals to the Equities. This can be explained with the help of an accounting equation. Assets = Liabilities + Capital A = L + C Matching concept: The concept is based on the accounting period concept. The most important objective of running a business is to ascertain profit periodically. The determination of profit of a particular accounting period is essential a process of matching the revenue recognized during the period and the costs to be allocated to the period to obtain the revenue. Realisation / Revenue Realisation concept: According to this concept, revenue is realised when actual sale took place. It provides that revenues which are recognized only when the goods are delivered to the customers and he becomes legally bound to pay. Objective evidence Concept: According to this concept, all the transactions which are recorded in the books of account must be supported by business documents for reliability, trustworthiness and verifiability. These supporting documents are vouchers, invoices etc. The objective or every business is to keep the supporting documents for auditing purpose. Evidences should free form individual biasness or fraud, all the evidences of the business transaction should be objective evidences i.e. without personal biasness either side. Accrual Concept: The essence of accrual concept is that revenue id recognized when it id realised, that is when sale is complete or services are given and it is immaterial whether cash is received or not. Similarly, according to this concept, expenses are recognized in the accounting period in which they help in earning the revenue whether cash is paid or not. Accounting Conventions Accounting conventions refer to customs, traditions, usages or practices followed by accountants as guide in preparation of financial statements. They are followed to make the financial statements clear and meaningful. Convention of consistency: The convention of consistency signifies that the accounting practices and methods should remain consistent (unchanged) from one accounting year to another. In other words, accounting practices should remain the same from one period to another is possible only when same accounting rules are followed. Convention of Disclosure: The convention of disclosure means that all the material facts must be disclosed in the financial statements. According to Indian Companies act 1956; financial statements are to be prepared with ample provisions for the disclosure of essential information so that there will no chance of any materials information being left out. Convention of Conservatism or Prudence: This convention is based on the policy of playing safe According to this convention all possible or expected losses should be provided for but unearned or unrealized profit should be left out.

Convention of Materiality: According to this convention, financial statements should include all material facts. Whether information is material or immaterial depends upon the circumstances of individual case of business. An item may be material for one person and immaterial for another person. Materiality depends on the amount involved in the transaction. Book keeping: Book Keeping is the science and art of correctly recording in the books of accounts all those transactions that result in the transfer of money or moneys worth. Book - keeping includes recording in journal posing to ledger and balancing of accounts. All the records before the preparation of the trial balance is called book - keeping. Those persons who record the transactions in the book keeping are called Book-Keepers. ADVANTAGES OF BOOK KEEPING: 1. It provides a specific means of dealing with opening and closing balances (at the start and end of the year) 2. It provides an arithmetic check on your bookkeeping, since the total amount of debit entries must equal the total amount of credit entries. (Theres something fundamentally wrong if this isnt the case) 3. Using a Sales Ledger and Purchase Ledger means you can track who owes the business money and who the business owes money to much more easily. (However, it is possible to operate a simple sales ledger and purchase ledger using single entry) 4. You can see the financial position of the business much more clearly, at any given time, using double entry. 5. Done properly, it can help detect and reduce accounting errors. 6. Double Entry bookkeeping makes producing the year end accounts easier. If you use an accountant to produce your year-end accounts, having good double-entry records may lower your accountancy fees. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BOOK- KEEPING AND ACCOUNTING Book - Keeping 1. The main object is prepare original books of accounts 2. The persons involved in bookkeeping work are called Book keepers. 3. Only insiders are interested in Book keeping. 4. It has Limited Scope 5. It does not show the net results of the firm. Accounting 1. Its main object is to record, classify, summarise, analyse and interpret the business transactions. 2. The persons involved in accounting work are called accountants. 3. Insiders and Outsiders interested in Accountants 4. It has wider scope 5. It show the net results of the firm are

ACCOUNTING SYSTEMS: Based on the accounting principles accounting systems are divided into following two types 1. Single Entry Book Keeping 2. Double Entry Book Keeping SINGLE ENTRY BOOK KEEPING A single entry system is similar to a check book register and is characterized by the fact there is only a single line entered in the journal for each transaction. In simple check book, each transaction is recorded in one column of an account as either a positive or a negative amount in order to represent the receipt or disbursement of cash. This system is demonstrated in the following example for a repair shop business. SINGLE COLUMN SYSTEM DATE JAN 1 JAN 2 JAN 3 PARTICULAR AMOUNT IN Rs BEGINNING BALANCE 1000 PURCHASED SHOP 2000 SUPPLIES PERFORMED SEVICES REPAIR 3000

Disadvantages of Single Entry System. 1. Since every debit does not have a corresponding credit, a Trial Balance can Not be extracted to test the arithmetical accuracy of the entries. 2. In absence of proper records of any assets and of any allowances for depreciation or other losses of value, it is not possible to prepare a Balance Sheet 3. It is too easy to perpetrate the errors and frauds and too difficult to detect them. DOUBLE ENTRY BOOK KEEPING: SINGLE ENTRY BOOK KEEPING A single entry system is similar to a check book register and is characterized by the fact there is only a single line entered in the journal for each transaction. In simple check book, each transaction is recorded in one column of an account as either a positive or a negative amount in order to represent the receipt or disbursement of cash. This system is demonstrated in the following example for a repair shop business. To describe the transactions in double entry system we use T accounts concept The T Account Concept Think of the letter T representing an account. 7

Example for T account DEBIT CREDIT

An account is really just a bucket where we keep all transactions of a similar nature. So a T account records the in (received) and out (given over) activities of all transactions of the same nature. To the left of the vertical line of the T are the debits; to the right of the T are the credits. Debit: A debit is an asset, cash in hand, or an amount owed to you. Credit: A credit is an amount you owe, cash paid out by you, or money invested in your business (capital). ADVANTAGE OF DOUBLE ENTRY SYSTEM:1. It is possible to keep a full record of dual aspect of each transaction. 2. Transactions are recorded in a scientific and systematic manner and thus the books of accounts provide the most reliable information for controlling the Organization efficiently and effectively. 3. Since the total debit under this system be equal to total Credit, arithmetical accuracy of the books can be tested by means of a trial balance. 4. An income and expenditure accounts can be prepared to know the excess income/ expenditure during a particular period and to know how such excess income/ expenditure has arisen 5. The financial position of the Organization can be readily ascertained by preparing a Balance Sheet. 6. Frauds are prevented, because alteration in accounts becomes difficult and discovery of irregularities is facilitated

Abbreviations used in bookkeeping a/c account B/S Balance Sheet c/d carried down b/d brought down b/f brought forward Dr Debit record Cr Credit record G/L General Ledger: (or N/L Nominal Ledger) P&L Profit & Loss TB Trial Balance Points to remember

 The amount which the proprietor has invested in the business is Capital Book-keeping is an art of recording Business transactions in the book of accounts. Voucher is a written document in support of a transaction. Accounting begins where Book- keeping ends. Liabilities refer to the financial obligations of a business. Owner of the business is called Proprietor An account is a Summary of relevant business transactions at one place relating to a person, assets, expense or revenue named in the heading. Receipt is an acknowledgement for Cash received. Income is the difference between revenue and expense The debts owing to others by the business is known as Liabilities Assets minus liabilities is Capital A written document in support of a transaction is called Voucher Business transactions may be classified into two types Purchases return means goods returned to the supplier due to Defective quality Amount spent in order to produce and sell the goods and services is called Expense Stock in trades are to be recorded at cost or market price whichever is less is based on Prudence principle. The assets are recorded in books of accounts in the cost of Acquisition is based on Historical cost concept. The benefits to be derived from the accounting information should exceed its cost is based on Cost benefit principle. Transactions between owner and business are recorded separately due to Business assumption. Business concern must prepare financial statements at least once in a year is based on Accounting period assumption. Consistency principles require that the same accounting methods should be followed from one accounting period to the next. As per the business entity assumption, the business is different from the owner Going concern assumption tell us the life of the business is Very long Cost incurred should be matched with the revenues of the particular period is based on Matching concept As per dual aspect concept, every business transaction has Two concepts Accounting may be considered as Basic conditions upon which the science of accounting is based. The term Conventions denotes customs or traditions which guide the accountant while preparing the accounting statements. The incoming aspect of a transaction is called Debit and the outgoing aspect of a transaction is called Credit The business entity concept implies that a business unit is separate from the person who supplies capital to it. Traditional approach of accounting is also called as British approach.

The American approach is otherwise known as Accounting Equation approach. Impersonal accounts are classified into two types. Plant and machinery is an example of Real account. Capital account is an example of Personal account. Commission received will be classified under Nominal account. Discount allowed related to Nominal account The receiving aspect in a transaction is called as Debit aspect The giving aspect in a transaction is called as Credit aspect Murali account is an example for Persona A/c Capital account is classified under Personal A/c A principle is objective to the extent that the accounting information is not influenced by the personal bias of those who furnish the information. A principle is feasible to the extent that it can be applied without undue complexity or cost Goodwill is an example of Intangible real Commission received is an example of Nominal Outstanding rent A/c is an example for Representative personal A/c Nominal Account is classified under Impersonal A/c Drawings account is classified under Personal A/c The Father of Accounts is Luca pacioli

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JOURNALS Definition of Journal: A journal is a record that keeps accounting transactions in chronological order i.e. as they occur. All accounting transactions are recorded through journal entries that show account names, amounts, and whether those accounts are recorded in debit or credit side of accounts. A journal entry is called balanced when the sum of debit side amounts equals to the sum of credit side amounts. OR An accounting record where all business transactions are originally entered, a journal details which transactions occurred and what accounts were affected. Journal entries are usually recorded in chronological order, and using the double-entry method of bookkeeping. A journal is called Original or Prime entry books of Accounts. Characteristics of Journal: Journal has the following characteristics: 1. Journal is the first successful step of the double entry system. A transaction is recorded first of all in the journal. So the journal is called the book of original entry. 2. A transaction is recorded on the same day it takes place. So, journal is called Day Book. 3. Transactions are recorded chronologically, So, journal is called chronological book 4. For each transaction the names of the two concerned accounts indicating which is debited and which is credited, are clearly written in two consecutive lines. This makes ledger-posting easy. That is why journal is called "Assistant to Ledger" or "subsidiary book" 5. Narration is written below each entry. 6. The amount is written in the last two columns - debit amount in debit column and credit amount in credit column. Advantages of Journal: The following arte the advantages of journal: 1. Each transaction is recorded as soon as it takes place. So there is no possibility of any transaction being omitted from the books of account. 2. Since the transactions are kept recorded in journal, chronologically with narration, it can be easily ascertained when and why a transaction has taken place. 3. For each and every transaction which of the two concerned accounts will be debited and which account credited, are clearly written in journal. So, there is no possibility of committing any mistake in writing the ledger.

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4. Since all the debits of transaction are recorded in journal, it is not necessary to repeat them in ledger. As a result ledger is kept tidy and brief. 5. Journal shows the complete story of a transaction in one entry. 6. Any mistake in ledger can be easily detected with the help of journal.

Form of Journal:

Date Particulars

L.F. Dr. Amount

Cr. Amount

L.F stands for Ledger Folio number. This represents the Page number of the Ledger. Steps for posting Journalising For Journalising a transaction, i.e. for passing an entry in the Journal the following steps required to be taken. 1. First ascertain the two accounts involved the transaction. Consider the transactions which are dealing the firm. 2. Analyse the nature of account. 3. Then apply the corresponding or relevant rules for debit and credit and find out which accounts is to be debited and which account is to be credited. EXAMPLES ON JOURNAL ENTRIES: 1.EXERCISE: Journalise the following transactions and give the nature of account (whether personal, real or nominal) in each case. 1996 Jan 1 Mr. mohan started business with 1000 cash. He bought furniture for Rs. 1500 And goods for 1000 Jan 2 Purchased goods on credit form Sohan Lal for Rs. 500. Jan 3 Paid for carriage Rs. 50 Jan 6 Purchased goods on cash payment for Rs. 2600 Jan 7 Sold goods to Krishnan Lal on cash for Rs. 1500 Jan 8 Sold goods to Anil on credit for Rs. 1000 Jan 10 Deposited cash in bank Rs. 800 Jan 12 Paid rent Rs. 500

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SOLUTION: JOURNAL ENTRY Date 1996 Jan 1 Particulars Cash A/c Dr To Mohans capital A/c (started business with cash) Furniture A/c Dr To cash A/c (bought furniture for cash) Purchase A/c Dr To cash A/c (bought goods for cash Purchase A/c Dr To sohan lal A/c (purchased goods on credit) Carriage A/c To cash A/c carriage in cash) Dr (Paid l.F Debit Amt In Rs 10000 10000 1500 1500 1000 1000 Credit Amt Nature of In Rs account Real Personal Real Personal Real Personal

Jan 2

500 500

Real Personal

Jan 3

50 50 2600 2600 1500 1500 1000 1000 800 800

Nominal Real Real Real Personal Real Personal Real Personal Real

Jan 6

Purchase A/c Dr To cash A/c (Purchased goods in cash ) Cash A/c Dr To sales (sold goods on cash) Anils A/c Dr To sales ( sold goods on credit) Bank A/c Dr To cash (deposited cash in bank) Rent A/c Dr To cash (By rent Paid) TOTAL

Jan 7

Jan 8

Jan 10

Jan 12

500 500 19450 19450

Nominal Real

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2.Exercise: Journalise the following transactions in the books of M/s Prem Medical Hall. 1996 April 1 M/s Prem Medical Hall starts business with Rs. 20000. The firm opens an Account with bank and deposits Rs. 18000 in the bank. April 2 The firm purchased furniture for Rs 850 and telephone for Rs.2500. The The payment was made by cheque. April 3 Medicines were purchased from Ramesh Medical Hall for Rs. 5800 on credit April 4 Medicines were sold on credit to Garg sons for Rs 1200 April 6 .Medicines were skid ib credit to M/s Paul Medical Hall for Rs 3000 April 7 Paid for office stationary Rs 100 April 8 Paid advance rent for April Rs 500 April 9 Received cash payment form M/s paul Medical Hall for Rs 2500 April 10 Depostied Rs 2000 in bank April 12 Paid for electric bill Rs 480 April 15 Received cash from Garg Sons Rs 1000 SOLUTION: Journal entry of M/S prem Medical Hall . Date 1996 April 1 1 Particulars Cash A/C Dr To capital account (started business with Rs 2000) Bank A/C Dr. To cash account (cash deposited in bank) Furniture A/C Dr To bank account ( furniture purchased for Rs. 850 against cheque) Telephone A/c Dr To bank account (telephone purchased for Rs. 2500 against cheque) Purchase A/c Dr To ramesh Medical Hall account (Purchased medicines from Ramesh Medical Hall on credit) Garg Sons A/c Dr To sales account (sold L.F Dr 20000 20000 18000 18000 Cr.

April 2

850 850 2500 2500

April 3

5800 5800

April 4

1200 1200 14

medicines to Garg Sons on credit vide invoice No. ..) April 6 Paul Medical Hall A/c Dr To sales account (sold medicines to M/s paul Medical hall vide invoice No) Stationery A/c Dr To cash account (paid stationery vide cash memo No) Rent A/c Dr To cash account (paid advance rent for April vide landlords receipt No) Cash A/c Dr To M/s Paul Medical Halls account (received cash from M/s Paul medical hall vide receipt No..) Bank A/c Dr To cash account (deposited cash in bank) Electricity A/c Dr. To cash account (paid electric bill vide receipt No..) Cash A/c Dr To Garg sons account (received cash from Garg Sons vide receipt No.. ) TOTAL 3000 3000

April 7

100 100

April 8

500 500

April 9

2500 2500

April 10

2000 2000 480 480 1000 1000

April 12

April 15

57930

57930

Points to Remember: The source document gives information about the nature of the Transactions The accounting equation is a statement of Equality between the debits and credits. In double entry book-keeping, every transaction affects at least two Accounts. Assets are always equal to liabilities plus Capital A transaction which increases the capital is called Revenue or Income The journal is a book of original entry or prime Recording of transaction in the journal is called Journalising

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 The L.F column of journal represents the place of posting of an entry in the ledger account. Closing credit balance of a creditor will be written on the debit side of the Creditors Account. Bad debts account is debited for the amount not recovered from the customer. The origin of a transaction is derived from the Source document Amount owned by the proprietor is called Capital The Accounting Equation is connected with Assets, Liabilities and capital Withdrawals of cash from bank by the proprietor for office use should be credited to Bank A/c Building Account indicate a debit balance. An entry is passed in the beginning of each current year is called Opening Entry Goods distributed as free samples should be debited to Advertisement Account. LEDGERS DEFINITION OF LEDGER A ledger is a book containing accounts of various aspects. These aspects relate to personal, real and nominal accounts. OR Collection of an entire group of similar accounts in double-entry bookkeeping, Also called book of final entry, a ledger records classified and summarized financial information from journals (the 'books of first entry') as debits and credits, and shows their current balances. In manual accounting systems, a ledger is usually a loose leaf binder with a separate page for each ledger account. In computerized systems, it consists of interlinked digital files, but follows the same accounting principles as the manual system. ADVANTAGES OF LEDGER 1. All the transactions of the business are recorded in the journal as per their date of occurrence. Hence, it is difficult to get full information about a particular account. Since, a separate account is opened in the ledger for every business transaction; accounting information is made available from time to time to the managers and proprietors. 2. Information related to expenditure is present in the expenditure account in the ledger. Hence, it is possible to control the business expenditure with the information available from the account. 3. Profit and loss account is prepared at the end of the accounting year to find out profit and losses of business. All the information related to these accounts i.e. sales, purchases, different types of expenditure, incomes etc. , would available in the ledger. 4. Information related to financial status (Assets account, Liabilities account) of the company is available from the ledger etc.. Proforma of Ledger Dr Date Particulars F Amount Date Particulars F Cr Amount

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F stands for folio which represents the page no of ledger TYPES OF LEDGER In case of a small business concern with a limited number of transactions, the ledger is made to contain all the personal, real and nominal accounts. However, where the transactions are voluminous, it becomes necessary to maintain a number of ledgers. In case of a large concern, the following types of ledger may be found. 1. Sales Ledger or Debtor ledger for accounts of debtors. 2. Bought ledger or Creditor ledger for accounts of creditors. 3. Investment ledger for investments of various types. 4. General ledger for real and nominal accounts.

DIFFERENCE BETWENN JOURNAL AND LEDGER JOURNAL 1.This is a book of original entry. 2. Transactions are first recorded in this book 3. The process of recording a transaction is called journalisation. LEDGER 1. This is a book of final entry. 2. Journal entries are later posted into the ledger 3. The process of entering the journal entries in ledger account is called ledger posting.

4. This does not help in assessing the summary 4. This helps in providing the summary of transactions and in Of transactions are results thereof. preparing final accounts to know the financial results and financial Position. Point to be noted while preparing ledger accounts 1. In the ledger, a separate account should be opened for each account appearing in journal. 2. For all the transactions relating to any particular account, only one account should be opened. 3. The journal entries should be posted to the ledger accounts in the order of their dates. 4. While making posing in any ledger account, the name of that account should not appear either on the debit side or on the credit side of the account. For example in Rent account, we can not have To Rent account or by rent account. POINTS TO REMEMBER Ledger is the Principal or final book of account. The process of transferring entries from Journal to the Ledger is called Posting.

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c/d means Carried down and b/d means Brought down. c/f means Carried forward and b/f means brought forward. Debiting an account signifies recording the transactions on the Debit side. The left hand side of an account is known as Debit and the right hand side as Credit side. Credit Balance means Credit total is heavier than Debit total. Real accounts cannot have credit balance. Account having debit balance is closed by writing by balance c/d. L.F. column in the journal is filled at the time of Posting. The technique of finding g the net balance of an account after considering the totals of both debits and credits appearing in the account is known as Balancing of accounts Ledger is a book of Final Entry Personal and real accounts are Balanced The column of ledger which links the entry with journal is J.F (Journal Folio) Posting on the credit side of an account is written as By Nominal account having credit balance represents Income and gain Nominal account having debit balance represents Expenses and Losses Real accounts always show Debit balances When the total of debits and credits are equal, it represents Nil balance The balances of personal and real accounts are shown in the Balance sheet

SUBSIDIARY BOOKS: Subsidiary books are Special or supporting ledger (such as cost ledger, purchases ledger, sales ledger) that provides more detailed information about individual accounts than a general ledger. Used by firms with larger number of customers (or creditors), these ledgers divide masses of financial data into more manageable parts. Total of all individual accounts in a subsidiary ledger equals the balance of the corresponding summary account (called control account) in the general ledger. Subsidiary books are of eight types. 1. Cash book: to record receipts and payment of cash including deposits and payments of cash including deposits and payments out of bank. 2. Purchase book: to record credit purchases of goods. 3. Sales book: to record all credit sales of goods. 4. Purchase returns book: to record all purchases returns i.e. all goods returned by the trader to his suppliers. 5. Sales returns book: to record all sales returns i.e. all goods returned by the trader to his suppliers. 6. Bills receivables: it records all receipts which the company is receiving from customers or outsiders in future. 7. Bill payables: it records all payments which the company has to pay to customers or outsiders in future. 8. Journal proper: It records all those transactions that can not be recorded in any of the above books. Example opening entries and closing entries and adjustments. Subsidiary book 18

 Sub division of the journals into various books for recording Transactions of similar nature are called Subsidiary books. The total of the Purchases book is posted to the debit of purchases account. The person who prepares a bill is called the Drawer. Days of grace are three in number. Purchases book is kept to record Only cash purchase Credit sales are recorded in Sales book Goods returned by customers are recorded in Sales return book On 1st January 2003, Chandran draws a bill on Sundar for 3 months, its due date is 4th April

CASH BOOK DEFINITION OF CASH BOOK The cash book is a book of original entry for cash transactions. It is used to record cash receipts and cash payments side by side. As such, the book is ruled like a ledger account, with the debit and credit sides, and the balance represents cash on hand at the end of the accounting period. Besides being a book of original entry, the cash book also serves as a ledger account. The cash book is divided into four types. 1. Simple cash book 2. Two- column cash book 3. Three column cash book 4. Petty cash book. SIMPLE CASH BOOK A simple cash book is prepared like any ordinary account. The receipts are Recorded in the Dr Side and the payments are recorded in the Cr side of the Cash book. The specimen Performa of a simple cash book is given as follows: Dr Receipts Date Particulars Amount Payments Date Particulars Cr Amount

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Two column cash book A two column cash back records discount allowed and discount received Along with the cash payments and cash receipts PROFORMA OF TWO COLUMN CASH BOOK Dr Receipts Payments Cr Date Particulars Amt Amt Date Particulars Amt Amt Discount Cash Discount Cash

Note: Discount columns are not balanced they are merely totalled. Three column cash book A three column cash Book is a cash book which contains bank column along with cash and discount columns. Contra entry: Contra entry is a transaction which affects both the debit and credit sides of the cash book. Contra entry is related to bank transactions. It can be recorded in two situations 1. When cash deposited in bank 2. When cash withdrawn from bank Contra entries are represented with C in Ledger folio column.
Format of Three Column Cash book Dr Receipts Payments Cr Date Particulars Amt Amt Amt Date Particulars Amt Amt Amt Disc Cash Bank Disc Cash Bank

Rolls for posting three column Cash book

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 Cash Paid into bank: It is the contra entry, for cash it become Payment and for bank it become receipt. Debit the bank account To cash in bank column, and Credit the Cash account By bank in Cash column. Cash withdrawn from bank: It is the Contra entry, for cash it become Receipt and for bank it become Payment. Debit the Cash account To bank in Cash column, and Credit the bank account By cash in bank column. Receipt of Cheque: If a Cheque is received and kept in the cash box (i.e. not sent to the bank for collection), it should be debited in the cash column, but if it is immediately sent to the bank for collection, the debit should be given in the bank column. Later on when Cheque kept in the cash box is sent to the bank for collection, Contra entry will be recorded in the cash book by giving debit to bank column recording the fact of Cheque coming to the bank and credit to cash column indicating that Cheque is gone out of the office. Payment by Cheque: Such payment should be credited in the bank column of the cash book. Dishonoured Cheque: If a Cheque sent to the bank for collection is dishonoured, it should be credited in the bank column of the cash book to cancel the previous debit given to the bank column when the Cheque was deposited in the bank. Bank charges and Payments made by the bank on behalf of the customer: These entries should be entered in the bank column on the credit side of the cash book as they reduce the balance at bank. Cheque is drawn for personal use: It has to be entered in the bank column on the credit side as By drawing account in such case no contra entry is involved. Interest or dividend on securities is collected by the bank: It has to be entered in the bank column on the debit side as To interest/dividend on securities. Petty Cash book: A business house makes a number of small payments like telegram, textiles, cartage etc. If all these transactions are recorded in cash book the cash bank may become bulky and the main cashiers work will also increase therefore usually firms appoint a petty cashier who makes these small payments and keep record of these payments in a separate cash book which is called Petty Cash book.
Proforma or Format of petty cash book
Receipts Date Voucher No Particula r Total Conveyance Cartage Postage And Telegram Stationery Sundries

Points to Remember: Discount allowed column appears in Debit side of the cash book.

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 In the triple column cash book, when a cheque is received the amount is entered in the Cash column. Discount received column appears in Credit side of the cash book. A cheque received and paid into the bank on the same day is recorded in the Bank column of the three column cash book. When a cheque received from a customer is dishonoured, his Account is debited. Cash Book is one of the Subsidiary books. The cash book records all cash receipts & payments When goods are purchased for cash, the entry will be recorded in the cash book The balance of cash book indicates cash in hand In triple column cash book, cash withdrawn from bank for office use will appear in both sides of the cash book. If a cheque sent for collection is dishonoured, the debit is given to customers A/c If a cheque issued by us is dishonoured the credit is given to suppliers A/c The book that records all small payments is called Petty Cash book. The person who maintains petty cash book is known as Petty Cashier Analytical petty cash book is just like the Cash Book. The periodic total of each column in the analytical petty cash Book is posted to the concerned Nominal accounts. The balance in the petty cash book is an asset TRIAL BALANCE Definition of Trial balance It is a statement prepared at the end of the financial year or at any other time with the net balances of various accounts shown in the ledger or with the totals of various accounts on both the sides before finding the net balances or casting. This statement helps in testing the arithmetic accuracy or accounts and locating errors, if any, committed. This statement provides the net balances of several accounts thereby simplify the job of preparing final statements i.e., Trading and Profit & Loss Account and Balance sheet. The Trial Balance is a statement containing the balances of all ledger accounts, as at any given date, arranged in the form of debit and credit columns placed side by side and prepared with the object of checking the arithmetical accuracy of the ledger postings. - M. S. Gousav ADVANTAGES OF TRIAL BALANCES 1. To test the arithmetical accuracy of the books 2. To provide a basis, subject to adjustments for the preparation of final accounts or financial statements the profit and loss account and the balance sheet. 3. To summarize the effects of all transactions of an accounting period so that the management can have comparative figures for arriving at useful conclusions. 4. To locate the errors of commission etc.. Rules of Trial Balance Particulars Rules In Trial 22

Capital Opening stock Sales Return Inwards Return outwards Wages Freight Transport Expense Purchase Royalties Gas & Fuel bad debts bad debts reserves Repairs Rent Salaries Loan taken Interest Received Interest allowed Insurance Carriage Outwards Advertisements Petty Expenses Trade Expenses Debtors Creditors Bills Payable Bills Receivable Depreciation Prepaid Insurance Investments Prepaid rent (Received) Out standing rent General Reserve Land & Building Furniture Cash in hand Cash at bank

balance Credit Debit Credit Debit Credit Debit Debit Debit Debit Debit Debit Debit Credit Debit Debit Debit Credit Credit Debit Debit Debit Debit Debit Debit Debit Credit Debit Credit Debit Debit Debit Credit Credit Credit Debit Debit Debit Debit

Suspense Account: A suspense Account is an account in the general ledger that is used to temporarily store any transactions for which there is some uncertainty about the account. An entry into suspense account may be a Debit or Credit. OR

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A suspense account is an account used temporarily to carry doubtful receipts and disbursements or discrepancies pending their analysis and permanent classification. Points to Remember Trial Balance should be tallied by following the rules of Double entry system. If the total debit exceeds the total credits of trial balance, suspense account will show Credit balance. Suspense account having debit balance will be shown on the Asset side of balance sheet. If the total debit balance of the trial balance exceeds the total credit balances, the difference is transferred to the Credit side of the suspense account. Suspense account having credit balance will be shown on the Liabilities side of the balance sheet. Short credit of an account decreases the Credit column of the trial balance. When errors are located and rectified, Suspense account automatically gets closed. Journal entries passed to correct the errors are called rectifying entries... Excess debit of an account can be rectified by Credit (the excess amount in) the same account. If the two sides of the trial balance tally, it is an indication of the fact that the books of accounts are arithmetically accurate Short debit of an account can be rectified by further debit of the same account. Trial balance is prepared to find out the Arithmetical accuracy of the accounts Suspense account in the trial balance is entered in the Balance sheet Suspense account having credit balance will be shown on the Liabilities side of Balance sheet Errors which affect one side of an account are called Single sided errors If the two sides of the trial balance tally, it is an indication of the fact that the books of accounts are arithmetically accurate Goods taken by the proprietor for domestic use should be credited To purchase Account Cash received from Mani whose account was previously written off as a Bad Debt should be credited to: Bad debt account Accounting Cycle: Accounting cycle is a system of collection, storage and processing of financial and accounting data that is used by decision makers (the persons who prepares accounts in a firm). The following diagram depicts the account cycle in a business organization.

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Journalisation Final Accounts Ledger posting

Trial Balance

FINAL ACCOUNTS Final Accounts: The financial statements of an organization made up at the end of an accounting period, usually the fiscal year are called final accounts. One of the main object of the maintaining the final accounts is to find out the profit or loss made by the business during a period and to ascertain the financial position of the business as on a given date. Final accounts includes the following three factors 1. Trading Account 2. Profit and loss account 3. Balance sheet To know the Profit and loss made by the business, Trading and profit and loss account is prepared. The position of the business on the last date of the financial year will be revealed by the Balance sheet. The above three factors are called final account due to following reasons. 1. They are prepared finally, after all the books of accounts are closed and trial balance is extracted. 2. They are prepared at the end of the Trading Period.

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3. They show the final results of a business. Before discussing the preparation of final accounts, it is necessary to know the distinction between capital and revenue items. This distinction is necessary because revenue items are shown in the trading and profit and loss account and capital items are shown in the balance sheet. Capital expenditure: Capital expenditure is that expenditure which result in the acquisition of an asset or which results in an increase in the earning capacity or which affords some other advantage to the firm. Examples of capital expenditure are for the acquisition of land, building, machinery etc. Revenue expenditure: Any item of expenditure whose benefit expires within the year or expenditure which merely seeks to maintain the business or to keep assets in good working condition is revenue expenditure. Examples are, expenses incurred in the normal course of business such as expenses of administration, expenditure incurred in manufacturing and all selling goods etc. Capital and revenue receipts: Amount realized by way of loan, sale of permanent or fixed assets etc in capital receipt. Amount realized on the sale of goods in which the proprietor deals, interest on investments etc. are revenue receipts.

TRADING ACCOUNT: A trading account is an account which contains, in summarized form, all the transactions, occurring, throughout the trading period, in commodities in which he deals and which gives the gross trading result. In short, trading account is the account which is prepared to determine the gross profit or the gross loss of a trader. In trading accounting we considered all direct expenditure to estimate the value of gross profit. ITEMS OF TRADING ACCOUNT The following are the items usually appear in the debit and credit sides of the trading account. Debit Side Items: 1. The value of opening stocks of goods (i.e., the stock of goods with which the business was started). 2. Net Purchase made during the year (i.e., Purchases less returns). 3. Debit expenses, if any. Credit Side Items:

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1. Total sale made during the period less the value of returns, i.e., net sales. 2. The value of closing stock of goods. Trading Account Proforma Particulars Amount Particulars To Opening stock xxxx To Purchases xxxx By sales xxxx Less: Purchase returns xxxx xxxx Less: Sales Returns xxxx To Direct expenses By closing stock To Carriage inward xxxx By Gross Loss c/d ,, Wages xxxx ,, Fuel and Power xxxx Manufacturing Or Production Expenses To Coal, water and Gas xxxx ,, Motive power xxxx ,, Factory Lighting xxxx ,, Octroi xxxx ,, Import duty xxxx ,, Custom duty xxxx ,, Excise duty xxxx ,, Consumable stores xxxx ,, Factory rent, rates and taxes xxxx ,, Foreman/ works Managers salary xxxx ,, Royalty on Manufactured Goods xxxx ,, Other direct charges xxxx To Gross profit c/d xxxx

Amount xxxx xxxx xxxx

Total

xxxx

Total

xxxx

ADVANTAGES OF TRADING ACCOUNT 1. Trading account shows the relationship between gross profit and sales that helps to measure profitability position. 2. Trading account shows the ratio between cost of good sold and gross profit 3. Trading account gives the information about efficiency of trading activities 4. Trading account helps to compare between cost of good sold and gross profit 5. Trading account provides information regarding stock and cost of good sold. PROFIT AND LOSS ACCOUNT: An account in the books of an organization to which incomes and gains are credited and expenses and losses debited, so as to show the net profit or loss over a given period.(OR) A financial statement showing a company's net profit or loss in a given period (OR) An account made up of revenue and expense accounts which shows the current profit or loss of a business (i.e. whether a business has earned more than it has spent in the current year). Often referred to as a P&L.

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In profit and loss account we considered all indirect expenses to estimate the value of Net profit. ADVANTAGES OF PROFIT AND LOSS ACCOUNT 1. Profit and loss account gives the actual information abut net profit or net loss of the business for an accounting period. 2. Profit and loss account gives the actual information abut indirect expenses. 3. Profit and loss account serves to determine the ratio between net profits to sales. 4. Profit and loss account helps to determining the ratio between net profits to operating expenses. 5. Profit and loss account helps in controlling indirect expenses.

PROFORMA FOR P/L ACCOUNT PARTICULARS To Gross Loss b/d To selling and Distribution expenses: Advertisement Travellers Salaries, Expenses & commission Bad Debts Godown Rent Export Expenses Carriage Outwards AMOUNT PARTICULARS xxxx xxxx xxxx xxxx xxxx xxxx xxxx xxxx By Gross profit b/d .. Interest Received .. Discount Received .. commission Received .. Rent from Tenants .. Income from Investments .. Apprenticeship premium .. Interest on Debentures .. Income from any other Source AMOUNT xxxx xxxx xxxx xxxx xxxx xxxx xxxx xxxx xxxx

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Bank charges Agents commission Upkeep of Motor lorries To Management Expenses: Rent, Rates and taxes Heating and Lighting Office salaries Printing & stationery Postage &Telegrams Telephone charges Legal charges Audit charges Audit fees Insurance General expenses Depreciation and Maintenance Depreciation Repairs & Maintenance To Financial Expenses: Discount Allowed Interest on Capital Interest on Loans Discount on Bills To Extraordinary Expenses Loss by fire (not covered by insurance) Cash defalcations To Net profit transferred to capital A/C Total

xxxx xxxx xxxx xxxx xxxx xxxx xxxx xxxx xxxx xxxx xxxx xxxx xxxx xxxx xxxx xxxx xxxx xxxx xxxx xxxx xxxx xxxx xxxx xxxx xxxx xxxx

.. Miscellaneous Revenue Receipts .. By Net loss Transferred to Capital A/C

xxxx xxxx xxxx xxxx

Total

xxxx

BALANCE SHEET: A balance sheet is a statement of the total assets and liabilities of an organisation at a particular date - usually the last date of an accounting period.

A properly drawn up balance sheet gives information relating to 1. Nature and value of assets. 2. The nature and extent of liabilities 3. Whether the firm is solvent 4. Whether the firm is over trading Advantages of balance sheet 1. By comparing past balance sheets with the present balance sheet, the growth or decline of the business assets, loans and net worth can be determined.

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2. The balance sheet is used to calculate ratios, such as the current ratio, acid test ratio, and leverage ratio. These ratios are used to evaluate the financial performance of the business. DISADVANTAGES: I. Does not give accurate picture on real time basis since outdated valued of assets are used

THE PROFORMA OF BALANCE SHEET LIABILITIES AMOUNT Current Liabilities: Bills Payable Sundry creditors Bank overdraft Out standing expenses Income Received in advance Long term Liabilities: Loans from Bank Debentures Any other loan

ASSET

AMOUNT

Liquid Assets: Cash in hand Cash in bank Floating Assets: Sundry Debtors Investments Bills Receivable Stock in Trade Prepaid Expenses Accrued Income Fixed Assets: Machinery Building

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Fixed Liabilities: Capital Add: Net profit Less: Drawings

Furniture & Fixtures Motor Car Fictitious Assets: Advertisement Miscellaneous Expenses Profit & Loss A/c Intangible Assets: Goodwill Patents Copyright Licenses XXXX TOTAL XXXX

TOTAL

Adjustments: Adjustments are transactions relating to business which have not been journalized by the end of the accounting period. Adjustments shown affect on Balance sheet and Trading/Profit loss account. The following are the important adjustments in final accounting 1. Closing stock: The unsold stock of goods remaining at the end of the accounting period is termed as Closing stock. The two fold effect of the adjustment entry is 1) It will be appeared in trading account on the credit side and 2) It will appeared in assets side of balance sheet. 2. Outstanding expenses: Expenses which have become due but not paid at the end of the financial year are called outstanding expenses. The two fold effect of adjustment is 1) it will be added to the concerned expense account and 2) Out standing expenses will be shown on the liabilities side of balance sheet. 3. Unexpired and prepaid expenses: Expenses which have been paid in advance i.e. whose benefit will be available in future are called unexpired or prepaid expenses. The two fold effect of the adjustment is 1). it will be deducted from the concerned expense account in profit and loss account and 2) shown on the asset side of balance sheet as prepaid expenses. 4. Accrued Income: The Income which is earned but not received during the accounting year is called accrued income. The two fold adjustment entry is 1) it will be added to the concerned income account in profit and loss account on the credit side and 2) shown in the balance sheet on the assets side. 5. Income received in Advance: Income received in advance but not earned during the accounting period is called income received in advance. The two fold adjustment entry is 1) it is deducted in profit and loss account on the credit side from the concerned income account and 2) shown in balance sheet on the liabilities side as income received in advance. 6. Depreciation: Depreciation is the reduction in the value of an asset due to wear and tear, lapse of time etc. The two fold adjustment entry is 1) depreciation is shown on the debit side of profit and loss account and 2) it is shown as a deduction fro the concerned asset account in balance sheet. 7. Interest on capital: Some times interest is provided on the capital invested by the proprietor in the business. It is treated as business expense. The two fold adjustment entry is 1) Shown on debit side of profit and loss account 2) The amount of interest on capital is added to the capital on the liabilities side.

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8. Interest on drawings: If interest on capital is charged, it is but natural that interest on drawings should be charged to the proprietor. Interest on drawings is an income of the business. The two fold effect adjustment entry is 1) shown on credit side of the profit and loss account and 2) the amount of interest on drawings is added to drawings, which is ultimately deducted from capital. 9. Bad debts: debts are irrecoverable are called bad debts. The two fold adjustment entry is 1) It shown on debit side profit and loss account 2) shown on the asset side of the balance sheet by way of deduction from sundry debtors. 10. Provision for discount on debtors: It is a normal practice to allow discount to customers for prompt payment. The two fold adjustment entry is 1) is shown on debit side of the profit and loss account and 2) it is deducted from sundry debtors on the assets side of the balance sheet. 11. Reserve for discount on creditors: If the business is run on the sound basis then it will make payments to its creditors as early as possible. The practice earns both goodwill and discount for the business. The two fold adjustment entry is 1) is shown on credit side of profit and loss account and 2) shown on the liabilities side of the balance sheet by way of deduction from sundry creditors. 12. Accidental losses: Some business assets lost due to fire, theft or other reasons. If the assets are destroyed by the fire the two fold adjustment entry is 1) loss by fire is debited to profit and loss account 2) The amount is deducted from the particular asset account on the asset side of balance sheet. 13. Goods withdrawn for personal use: If the goods are withdrawn by the proprietor for personal use the two fold entry for this adjustment is 1) value of good withdrawn by the proprietor should be deducted from purchase account on the debit side and 2) deducted from the capital on the liabilities side. 14. Reserve fund: Reserve fund is an appropriation of net profit for strengthening the financial position of the business. The two fold entry for this adjustment is 1) it shown debit side of the profit and loss account and 2) shown on the liabilities side of the balance sheet.

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