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Jupiter
Venus
As te ro
id
Be
lt
OTHER GALAXIES
Saturn
Mars
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Temperature & Colour of Stars Brightness & Distance Inverse Square Law
Radioactivity
Alpha
Beta
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Historical Summary
up until about 1700 AD
Aristotle
Thought that:
~330 BC
Geocentric Theory
The Sun, Moon, planets & stars are carried on invisible crystal spheres rotating around the Earth. This basic concept was believed for about 2,000 years.
Aristarchus
Thought that:
~240BC
Heliocentric Theory
Sun
The Sun is in the centre with everything orbiting around it. The Earth must rotate on its axis, so it appears that everything moves around us.
Earth
Moon
This idea was not accepted because "parallax" could not be detected at this time.
Geocentric models easily explain why the Sun, Moon, planets and stars all appear to move across the sky. Common sense suggests that everything revolves around the Earth once per day. Also, we cannot feel that the Earth is spinning, so this model makes common sense, even though it is wrong!
Heliocentric Models correctly place the Sun at the centre of the Solar System. ("Helios" = Sun)
Moon
Based on the best (naked eye) measurements of the time, Ptolemy developed a model which could predict the motion of planets & the times of eclipses. Although we now know it was wrong, it was a practical, working model used for 1,400 years. The "epicycles" were needed to explain the "retrograde" motion of the planets.
Earth
Sun
See Further Explanations at the end of this section Ptolemys model was accepted for such a long time that it became part of the belief system of the Middle Ages, and was even adopted as the official religious explanation of the Universe. So, when new ideas and new discoveries emerged around 1500 AD, they were seen as dangerous and heretical, and were punishable by torture and death.
Heliocentric models require that the Earth rotates on its axis so that everything in the sky appears to go around us. However, we can't feel that the Earth is spinning, so this idea is harder to accept on the basis of common sense, even though it is correct. Only the Moon truly orbits the Earth.
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Nicholas Copernicus
Galileo Galilei
As measurements improved, Ptolemy's model needed more & more adjustments and epicycles to stay accurate in its description of the heavens. It got so complicated that Copernicus decided there must be a simpler explanation. He decided that perhaps Aristarchus had been correct after all, and the Sun was in the centre. Copericuss new model still relied on crystal spheres to carry planets and stars in circular orbits, but it was Heliocentric... Sun centred. The accuracy of predicted motions remained much the same as Ptolemys, but this model was much simpler in its explanations. This model was NOT immediately accepted at the time.
1564-1642 Telescope Observations Galileo was the first to use a TELESCOPE to view the heavens. His observations conflicted with the model of Ptolemy, and supported the Heliocentric idea of Copernicus. He observed that the planet Jupiter has moons orbiting around it. (Only the Earth was supposed to have things go around it!) He saw that the planet Venus showed phases like the Moon. (This was only explainable if Venus orbited the Sun, not Earth!)
1642-1727 Mathematical Theory of Gravity Newtons Theory of Universal Gravitation provided the explanation for things to be in orbit, and did away with the clumsy crystal spheres of previous models.
Tycho Brahe
Tycho used the most advanced observatory of that time to gather outstandingly accurate data (accurate for naked eye measurement) of planetary movements. He favoured the geocentric model and hoped his observations would prove Copernicus wrong. He jealously guarded his data from others, but when he died it went to his student Kepler.
From his equation for Gravity, Newton could prove Kepler's Laws mathematically... this proved that the Heliocentric Model was correct. Since the time of Newton, the Heliocentric model has been accepted as the scientifically correct description of the Universe, but it took another 200 years to discover the full story of stars, galaxies and distances.
Johannes Kepler
1571-1630
Heliocentric Model, with elliptical orbits Kepler tried to fit Brahe's extremely accurate data to the Copernicus model. Finally, he found it only fitted if the orbits were ellipses, not circles. Eventually he proposed 3 "Laws of Planetary Motion" , but could give no explanation of how or why the Earth and planets could orbit around the Sun. The Heliocentric idea was still NOT accepted widely.
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Further Explanations The following may help your understanding. It is NOT a syllabus requirement to learn it. Parallax Parallax is the apparent movement of an object against a more distant background, when viewed from a different angle. A Simple Example of Parallax:
Hold up one finger and view it with one eye against a distant tree or post. Hold the finger still while switching to view it with your other eye. Your finger appears to move relative to the distant "landmark". This apparent movement is called "PARALLAX"
Retrograde Motion & Epicycles Epicycles were a device invented by Ptolemy to explain the "retrograde" motion of the planets. Firstly you must know that, while the stars always appear in exactly the same relative positions every night, the planets do not. ("Planet" means "wanderer" in Greek.) If you observe a planet night after night, it seems to move slowly eastward compared to the background of stars. However, sometimes the planet moves westward for a while. This was called "retrograde" (backwards) motion.
Normal planetary wanderings
Fixed Stars
Retrograde motion
Opponents of any Heliocentric model throughout history could argue (correctly) that if Earth was orbiting the Sun, then the stars should show some parallax movements relative to other stars, when viewed from one part of our orbit compared to another.
Earth
line of observ
To explain it, Ptolemy proposed that the planets were carried on smaller crystal spheres (the epicycles) which rotated on the rim of the main spheres ("deferents") surrounding the Earth.
ation
Sun
Planet
Epicycle
Earth
The planet is carried on a smaller sphere, the epicycle, which rotates on the deferent.
Deferent
The position of the star should change against the background stars. Parallax!
Each planets main orbit is a rotating glass sphere, called the deferent. It revolves around the Earth.
This parallax motion could not be detected by naked eye observations, even with the most accurate instruments invented right up until the 17th century, so heliocentric theories tended to be rejected. In fact, nearby stars DO show parallax movement, but you need a telescope to detect it, because even the nearest stars are billions of kilometres away.
This "wheels-on-wheels" idea was able to explain retrograde motion adequately, if rather clumsily. The real explanation for retrograde motion is that we view the moving planets from a moving Earth. At certain parts of our orbit, we "overtake" other planets and so they appear to move "backwards" for a while. Retrograde motion is easily explained by a Heliocentric model, with the Earth and other planets all orbiting the Sun.
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Worksheet 1 Fill in the Blanks. Check your answers at the back. A a)................................................. model of the Universe places the Earth at the centre, with everything revolving around us. The other main model is called b)......................................................, which places the c)................................... at the centre. Aristotle proposed a d).............................................. model. This basic concept was accepted for almost e)............................ years. f).................................................. was the first person to propose a g)............................................ model. His idea was not accepted because parallax could not be observed in the stars, which were thought to be quite close to the Earth. Claudius h)........................................ developed a mathematically accurate model which could predict i)......................................... and the motions of the planets. His model was j)....................................... and imagined all the heavenly bodies to be carried around the k)............................................ by crystal spheres. He had to add smaller spheres, called l)............................................, in order to explain the m)........................................................ motion of the planets. This model was accurate (for the time) and so was accepted for about 1400 years. Nicholas n)................................................ was the first in (relatively) modern times to propose a o)................................................ model. Tycho Brahes contribution was the gathering of p)................................................................................... He hoped it would prove Copernicus to be q)................................... Brahes student r)....................................................... got access to the data after Brahe died, and used it to develop a Heliocentric model in which the planetary orbits were s)....................................... instead of circles. Galileo was the first to make observations with a t).................................. He saw that the planet Jupiter has u)................................................... ................................................... and that Venus went through v)........................................ like the Moon. These observations conflicted with the w)....................................................... model, and supported the x)....................................................... model. It was Sir y)............................................................. who finally proved that the z)...................................................... model is correct. His mathematical theory of aa)........................................... explained how things could be in ab)............................. without needing crystal spheres. More importantly, he could prove mathematically that ac)............................................s Laws of Planetary Motion were in agreement with gravity. All the models developed before the time of Galileo were limited by the available technology. Without ad)...................................., all observations were by ae)................................................... and of limited af).................................................... For example, it is impossible to measure any ag)............................................ even in nearby stars, without a telescope. Since ag)................................... could not be observed, it was logical to accept the ah).......................................................... models of Aristotle and Ptolemy.
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Note: You must NOT think of this as if the matter exploded outwards into the space surrounding it. The explosion and expansion was of space itself. Before the explosion there was no space or time.
This expansion is still occurring today. Galaxies are moving further apart as the space between them expands. Within a galaxy, gravity attracts matter and holds stars and planets together in their orbits around each other, so there is no apparent expansion noticeable in the "local" area of space. This theory seems strange and unbelievable when described in simple outline, so why is it accepted as being correct? Simple! ...because the theory explains many observed facts about the universe:-
However, when the object is moving, the waves in front get bunched up and their wavelength is shortened. The waves behind get stretched and the wavelength is lengthened.
Light Waves Spreading Out From a Moving Galaxy
The Red-Shift in the light from distant galaxies seems to be caused by them moving away from us as the universe expands. The wavelength of light gets longer (redder). If they were approaching, we would see a blue shift in the light. 7
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E=mc
The equation predicts that matter and energy are equivalent and inter-changeable. Because the c term in the equation is a very large number, it follows that a very small amount of matter is equivalent to a large amount of energy For example, during a nuclear explosion a small amount of matter "disappears". It has been converted into the energy of the explosion. In the Sun, as in all stars, energy is constantly being released from the conversion of matter to energy. The reverse happened during the Big Bang. Originally there was only energy. The matter and mass of the universe was formed from this energy, according to Einstein's equation. Obviously it must have taken large amounts of energy to form each tiny particle of matter. In the first split second of the Big Bang explosion, all the "substance" of the universe was radiation energy. It was too hot for matter to form, or rather, any matter that formed was instantly torn apart again. As the fireball expanded, however, it cooled rapidly until particles of matter (protons, electrons & neutrons) were "condensed" from the energy according to E=mc. After further cooling, some protons & neutrons were able to combine into simple atomic nuclei.
H The atoms formed were nearly all hydrogen, with a small amount of helium and a trace of lithium
He
Li
Roughly 13 billion years later, here we are on a planet, in a solar system, orbiting a star. our star is one of billions, orbiting around our galaxy. our galaxy is one of billions, all flying apart from each other as space itself continues to expand. 8
After approximately 300,000 years it became cool enough for electrons to combine with nuclei to form atoms of (mainly) hydrogen and helium, with a trace of lithium.
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Worksheet 2 Fill in the blank spaces The accepted theory for the origin of the Universe is the a)......................................................... Theory. According to this theory: The universe began about b).................................. years ago. At the beginning, all the c)................................... and ........................ was concentrated in a single point, or d)............................................. This e).................................... outwards, eventually forming the universe we see today, which is still f).................................................. The Big Bang Theory is accepted because it explains: the g)............................................... of light from distant galaxies the h)......................................................................... radiation the observed i)................................... composition of the universe, which is about 99% j).......................................... and ............................ atoms. The idea of an expanding universe was first proposed by Alexander k)......................................... in 1922. This was based on his analysis of the equations of Einsteins General Theory of l)........................................... It was Edwin m)............................ who actually discovered evidence of expansion. He analysed the n).................................. lines of light from distant galaxies and found they were o)................................................................................... This p).....................-Shift is thought to be due to the q)................................................. Effect... the phenomenon in which the r).......................................... of waves being emitted by a s)................................... object get bunchedup in front of the object, and t)............................................. behind. If a galaxy is moving fast enough, its light emitted in front of it will appear to be u)....................................... than normal, while light behind it will appear v)...........................................
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Einsteins famous equation, E= w).......................... predicts that x)............................... and ....................................... are equivalent and interchangeable. For example, in a nuclear reaction a small amount of y)............................... will disappear because it has been converted into a large amount of z).......................................... In the early stages of the Big Bang, we believe the opposite occurred. Initially, the entire universe was composed of aa).............................................. As the fire-ball expanded and cooled, some of the aa)................................. converted into ab)........................................, in the form of the sub-atomic particles ac)..................................., .................................... and .......................................... After futher expansion and cooling some of these particles were able to combine to form ad)...................................... of the elements ae)............................... and ..................................., with a trace of af)................................. As the universe continued to expand, it also ag)..............................., which means that the atoms lost some of their ah).......................... energy. Eventually, they lost enough K.E. for the force of ai).......................................... to cause local concentrations of matter to clump together. Each clump was caused to collapse in on itself, eventually forming aj)................................ and ......................................... So, although the universe as a whole is ak)........................................., at the local level al)............................................ is able to hold matter together in galaxies containing stars and solar systems.
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For stars, this means there is a relationship between their TEMPERATURE and their COLOUR.
Relatively cool stars (surface temp 3,000C or less) emit radiation which peaks at longer wavelengths in the infrared and red light part of the spectrum. COOL STARS ARE RED
Hotter stars (our Sun's surface temp is about 6,000C) also emit a lot of infra-red and the whole range of visible light, but the peak is yellow light rather than red. (shorter wavelength) Very hot stars (30,000C and more) have a peak emission at the shorter wavelengths of blue light. HOT STARS ARE BLUE Some bright stars can be seen to be reddish or blue-ish to the naked eye, but generally the "peak" colour of a star can only be determined by using a Spectroscope to analyse the wavelengths of light gathered via a telescope. The spectrum of light from a star gives us a lot of information, but the "peak" wavelength (i.e. the dominant colour) tells astronomers the star's surface temperature. This turns out to be vitally connected to the star's life and ultimate death.
white light is a mixture of wavelengths different wavelengths spread out to form a spectrum Red Orange Yellow Green Blue Violet
peak wavelength
hot object
longer
At (relatively) low temperature, there is less energy being emitted, and the peak wavelength is longer. At higher temperatures, there is more energy emitted and the peak wavelength gets shorter. Measuring the peak wavelength of the spectrum of light from a star allows astronomers to determine the stars surface temperature. There are also fine dark lines present in the spectrum which reveal the chemical composition of the star. Basically, everything we know about stars comes from studying the radiation they emit!
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You are familiar with the way that a prism can break white light up into the colours of the rainbow by refracting each wavelength so that they separate.
A spectroscope is simply a more sophisticated version of the prism, and allows the intensity of each wavelength to be measured. 10 www.keepitsimplescience.com.au
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a dist
nce
2d
Obviously, how bright a star appears depends on how luminous it is, AND how far away it is. Example: a really luminous star (i.e. emitting a lot of light) could look quite dull (low brightness) if viewed from a huge distance. A less luminous star could appear very bright if viewed from close up. Mathematically, the relationship is that the apparent brightness or intensity (I) is inversely proportional to the SQUARE of the distance (d) from which it is viewed.
x
dista nce d
Square Area x2
Square with sides twice as long. 2x Area = 4x2 Same amount of light falls on 4 times the area
Luminous Star
I.d2 = constant,
this means that no matter how far you are from a star the product (brightness x distance squared) has the same value. Therefore, at position A, and at position B,
I 1 d2
or
I.d2 = constant
therefore,
The symbol means proportional to This relationship was previously studied in an earlier topic (Revise Topic 1 The World Communicates) TRY THE WORKSHEET at the end of this section.
The Hertzsprung-Russell (H-R) diagram is a graphical plot of the Luminosity of stars against Temperature. It is named after the 2 astronomers who independently discovered the relationship. To calculate a star's luminosity, astronomers must measure the apparent brightness as seen from Earth, and measure (or estimate) the star's distance from us. The luminosity can then be calculated using IAdA2 = IBdB2 Luminosity is often expressed on a numerical scale of "magnitudes" as shown on the graph. Our Sun has a magnitude of +3 on this scale.
Hertzsprung and Russel found that when they graphed luminosity against surface temperature like this, the vast majority of stars plotted in this shaded zone.
-5
our Sun
cool, dull, red stars
+15
O
Blue 30,000+
A
White 10,000
G
Yellow 5,000
M
Red 2,500
To an astronomer, the Sun is a pretty average Main Sequence star, classified G3 on the H-R diagram.
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The temperature scale is often described by "spectral class". This uses letters to classify stars according to the peak wavelength, and colour, being emitted. For example, our star (the Sun) is classified as spectral class "G". This translates to a peak wavelength of yellow light and a surface temperature about 5,700C. 11 www.keepitsimplescience.com.au
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Luminosity
"Red Giants" are very large (and therefore luminosity is quite high) but relatively cool (therefore red in colour). "White Dwarfs" are very small (therefore luminosity is low) but relatively hot. Astronomers have figured out that stars go through a series of changes during their life. Most stars spend most of their life on the Main Sequence, but later they will rapidly change to become Red Giants, and end their life as a White Dwarf. The H-R diagram shows what our Sun is likely to do in the future, while below is a rough guide to the relative sizes of these star types.
M a in
Seq
uen c
Wh ite Dw arfs
30,000 blue
SUN
3,000 red
So, what causes a star to change from one type to another during its life? To answer that, you must understand where the energy of a star comes from, and that different types of star (at different phases of their life) are powered by different energy sources.
The SUN as it is now this dot shows the size of a White Dwarf
Nuclear Fusion
If small atomic nuclei are slammed together hard enough, they may join together ("fusion") to form one larger nucleus. When this occurs, the final nucleus is found to have slightly less mass than the original, separate nuclei a little bit of mass has "gone missing". E = mc is at work. The missing mass has converted into energy. This is the process that powers a star.
START WITH 4 Hydrogen nuclei (protons) Emission of particles & energy Energy
+
Reaction 1
+n
heavy hydrogen (deuterium) nuclei
+ n
+n
Energy
2 more protons
+ n
+ +
Reaction 3
Reaction 2
n + +
Helium-3 nuclei
4 Hydrogen 4 1H1
2 protons re-released
+ +
+ n
Energy
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Luminosity
M a in
Seq
uen c
Wh ite Dw arfs
30,000 blue
SUN
3,000 red
3 helium nuclei
fusion
star death
energy release
Helium burning has begun. 3 Helium Carbon + energy 12C 3 4He2 6 + energy Although the star expands due to extra heat within, conversely its outer layers become cooler and so its "peak" emitted wavelength is typically red light. So it is much bigger, and is red: a RED GIANT. Despite being cooler, its total luminosity increases due to its immense size. On the H-R diagram it moves off the main sequence upwards to the right.
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This "supernova" explosion has several interesting consequences: The star briefly flares as bright as a million stars combined. The explosion creates all the larger atoms (by nuclear reactions) and then sprays them outwards to form a dust cloud in space. Billions of years later, this cloud may condense to form a new star, and the heavier elements may collect to form planets like Earth, rich in iron, silicon, oxygen and carbon, and perhaps capable of supporting life. Our Solar System is 2nd generation. The Earth is rich in iron, silicon, oxygen, etc. and has heavy elements like lead, gold and uranium. These can only have been made by fusion in a star which went supernova. The core of the exploding star, collapsing under gravity and further compressed by the explosion, may become either a "neutron star" and "pulsar", or even (if the core was large enough) a "black hole". A Neutron Star is so dense that electrons get rammed into the protons forming a single "nucleus" of neutrons about 20km across. This far too small to be seen at cosmic distances, but we know they're out there:The neutron star rotates and emits high frequency radiations in a tight beam. We detect "pulses" of radiation as the beam sweeps past us. These "Pulsars" were discovered by early radio telescopes and, for a while, thought to be possible communications from ET's. If the core of the exploding star exceeds a certain size, the collapse inwards goes way beyond neutron star stage. Matter collapses into itself forming a "singularity" with a density approaching infinity. The gravity field becomes so strong that even a beam of light cannot escape the singularity. Thus it cannot be seen and any light or matter which goes near it will disappear into it. (Hence "Black Hole") Within the black hole time stops and all the laws of physics cease to operate. We think that our galaxy (and probably most others) has one or more massive black holes near the centre.
Luminosity
M a in
Red Giants
Seq
uen c
Wh ite Dw arfs
Because they are so hot and dense in the core, they burn their fuel very quickly and so have a relatively short life span. When the core runs out of fuel and fusion ceases, gravity causes a collapse that is truly cataclysmic! The core collapses and shrinks rapidly, and when the outer layers fall in onto this dense core, they rebound in a hugely energetic explosion...
a Supernova!
Photo Laurence Diver laurence.diver@gmail.com Preliminary Physics Topic 4 copyright 2005-2007 keep it simple science
The Energy Sources and Life Cycles of Stars can be studied further in the HSC Option Topic Astrophysics
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Part B Practice Problems Inverse Square Law Note: Many problems involving the brightness-distance relationship do not need the full calculation treatment. They can be solved using the inverse square idea as a ratio. The basic idea is this: If distance is doubled, brightness will DECREASE by 2 (ie decrease by a factor of 4) to of original. If distance is tripled, brightness will decrease by a factor of 3 (ie 9 times) to one-ninth of original. If distance is HALVED (decreased by a factor of 2) then brightness must INCREASE by 2 = 4 times brighter. If you went 10 times closer, brightness must increase by 10 i.e. 100 times brighter.
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1. By what factor would the apparent brightness of a star change when viewed from a point 5 times further away? 2. When viewed from Earth, a star has a brightness of 10 units. Where would you have to be for it's brightness to be 40 units? 3. At distance D, a star's brightness is 32 units. What would the brightness be when viewed from distance 4D? 4. At distance "d" from a star, its brightness is 8 units. What would be its brightness at distance d/5 ? 5. Two stars have the same apparent brightness when viewed from Earth. However, star "X" is known to be 3 times further away than star "Y". How do their luminosities compare? Check your answers at the back.
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Worksheet 3 (continued) Part C Inverse Square Law More Difficult Problems Note on Units of Measurement: The "brightness" or intensity of light can be measured in a variety of units such as watts per square metre (Wm-2). However, to keep this worksheet as simple as possible, brightness values are expressed as just "units". In keeping with the astronomical context, distances are in "Light Years (LY)" the distance that light can travel in one year. (1LY is about 10 billion billion kilometres) These problems require the use of IAdA2 = IBdB2 Example problem: When viewed from a distance of 6.00 light years, a star has a brightness of 22.5 units. How bright will it appear from a distance of 10.0 light years? Solution: IAdA2 = IBdB2 IA x 102 = 22.5 x 62 IA = (22.5 x 36) / 100 = 8.10 units 7. The same star as in Q6 is viewed from planet C which is 80 light years from the star. How bright will it appear to be? (hint: let IA=20, dA= 10, dC=80, solve equation to find IC ) 8. When viewed from 3.25 light years away, a star's brightness is 5.77 units. How bright will it be when viewed from 1.40 light years? 9. A star has a measured brightness of 15 units when viewed from a distance of 5.5 light years. How far from the star does an observer need to be for the apparent brightness to be 6.2 units? 10. The "Andromeda Nebula" is a faint cloud-like object just visible to the naked eye. With a good telescope, it turns out to be a whole galaxy about 200 million LY (2.0 x 108LY) away. Its brightness as seen from Earth is only 0.0045 (4.5 x 10-3) units. What would it's brightness be if you could approach to only 1 million LY from it? 11. The apparent brightness of a star is I units. You now move to a point half the original distance away. While your spaceship was travelling, the stars luminosity increased by a factor of 3. In terms of I, what is the brightness of the star at your new position? 12. Two stars A and B are 12.0 LY apart. From the exact mid-point between them the brightness of star A is 9,000 units and star B is 1,000 units. Staying on the line between them, where must you move to so that the 2 stars have the same brightness?
Try These: 6. When viewed from planet A, a star's apparent brightness is 20 units. When viewed from planet B the same star has an apparent brightness of only 5 units.. If planet A is 10 light years from the star, how far is planet B from the star? (hint: let IA=20, IB=5, dA=10, solve equation to find dB)
Remember that for full marks in calculations, you need to show FORMULA, NUMERICAL SUBSTITUTION, APPROPRIATE PRECISION and UNITS
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Nuclear Fusion is when 2 small nuclei are slammed together hard enough so that they join and become one. A small amount of mass goes missing... it has converted to energy according to E = mc2. This is the process which powers the stars.
Nuclear Fission is the opposite of fusion. Under certain conditions, a very large nucleus (e.g. uranium or plutonium) can break apart forming 2 smaller nuclei and often several individual neutrons. Once again, if the masses before and after are compared it seems a small amount of matter has disappeared... E = mc2 is at work again! This is the process occurring in a nuclear reactor used to generate electricity in many countries. It is also the energy source in an atomic bomb.
Radioactivity Some atoms have an unstable nucleus and can spontaneously re-adjust themselves to a more stable form. When they do so, excess energy and matter is emitted in any of 3 different ways:
BETA RADIATION () also involves emission of a particle... this time an electron, ejected at high speed.
ALPHA RADIATION () is a particle ejected from a nucleus which is simply too big. The alpha particle is made up of 2 protons and 2 neutrons and is the same as the nucleus of a helium atom.
e-
+ n +
GAMMA RADIATION involves the emission of a high frequency wave of the electromagnetic (EMR) type.
()
He
Gamma rays often accompany Alpha or Beta emission.
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Effects of Electric & Magnetic Fields Alpha and Beta radiations are particles and both carry electric charges... Alpha is positive (+ve), Beta negative(-ve). This means that both Alpha and Beta can be deflected by an electric field and by a magnetic field. The deflection of alpha compared to beta will be opposite in either type of field. Deflection of Radiations by Electric Field
Alpha (+ve) small deflection due to large mass Gamma. (no charge) no deflection Beta (-ve) larger deflection due to small mass.
+
Atom becomes ionized
Electric Field between charged plates
This is why radiation is dangerous to living things. Ionization of atoms in a living cell can disrupt membranes, cause genetic mutations or alter the cells DNA so that it becomes cancerous. The massive ALPHA particle has the highest ionization ability, BETA is much less ionizing and GAMMA less again.
Note that Gamma rays are NOT deflected by either field, because they have no electric charge. Deflection of Radiations by Magnetic Field
Alpha (+ve) small deflection Gamma. (no charge) no deflection Magnetic Field (into page) between mag. poles
Penetrating Ability Alpha, Beta and Gamma radiation are quite different in their abilty to penetrate through different substances.
What You Might Have Discovered & Explanations ALPHA particles have low penetrating ability. They are so likely to collide and interact with atoms in their path, that they usally do not penetrate far. A few centimetres in air is as far as theyll get, and a piece of paper You may have done Practical Work in class to investigate this. will stop 99% of them. BETA particles are more penetrating than alpha. They are less likely to interact, and so penetrate further, but rarely go more than 10-20cm in air and most can be stopped by thin metal sheets such as aluminium foil.
Alpha Beta Gamma Paper Aluminium foil Lead
FIRST-HAND INVESTIGATION, that you may have done in class to test the penetration of radiation through different materials.
Data sent to electronic counting device to measure the radiation levels
Different materials placed here (e.g. paper, lead, aluminium) to see what can block the radiation.
GAMMA rays are highly penetrating. They are like X-rays, only more so. Gamma can travel many metres through air and other substances. To absorb gamma rays, several centimetres of lead or a metre of concrete are a good start. 18 www.keepitsimplescience.com.au
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Sunspots & the Solar Wind The flow of charged particles that make up the solar wind is not a constant stream. It fluctuates with changes in the Suns magnetic field, which scientists monitor by studying the sunspots. Galileo was the first to see sunspots with his telescope... dark spots on the Suns bright surface. More evidence against Ptolemys geocentric model: Sunspots were obvious blemishes on one of the heavenly bodies which were believed to be perfect! We now know that sunspots appear dark because they are regions that are cooler (only 4,500oC). They are associated with regions where the Suns magnetic field is stronger, and this causes more particles to be ejected in the solar wind. AND, the Suns magnetic field undergoes cyclic changes over an 11 year period. Every 11 years there are more sunspots and more intensity in the solar wind, sometimes to the extent that it can affect our power supplies and communications.
The Solar Wind The Suns corona is an atmosphere of hot gas extending millions of kilometres into space. It is only visible during a solar eclipse when the brighter face of the Sun is blotted out by the Moon. Every second from the corona, trillions of charged particles (electrons and ionized atoms, especially ionized hydrogen = protons) with enough energy to escape the Suns gravity, stream outwards into space. They exert enough force to push comet tails outwards, and affect the orbits of the smaller members of the Solar System such as asteroids. This Solar Wind would be very dangerous to life, but the Earths magnetic field deflects, traps and channels the particles, so very few get through to the surface.
Earth The particles spiralling down into the poles also cause the beautiful aurora displays of the Northern Lights & Southern Lights.
solar wind
magnetic field distorted by solar wind
When sunspot activity peaks, our magnetic field can be overwhelmed by the solar wind. Charged particles penetrate the field and are sent into spiralling paths towards the Earths poles. Intense pulses of EMR at radio frequencies can result, which can cause static, jamming our communications, especially satellite telephone links which use radio and microwaves. Extreme pulses can causes surges in electric power lines and damage electronic equipment. In one event some 25 years ago, the EMR pulse set off a surge in the power grid of the eastern USA & Canada which was so severe that the entire system shut down. Millions of people were left without power for several days in mid-winter!
Earth
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Nuclear a)........................................... occurs when 2 small nuclei are slammed together so hard that they b)....................................... In the process, a small amount of c)............................ is converted into d).................................... Fission is when a e)....................... nucleus (such as f).........................) splits into fragments. Once again, there is a conversion of g).............................. into ............................... according to E= h).................... Another way that energy is released from an atomic i)................................. is known as j)............................................ This occurs because some nuclei are unstable, and can spontaneously re-adjust themselves to a more k)................................... form by emitting particles and/or EMR. The 3 forms of radioactive radiation are: l)........................................................., symbol = m)........................... This involves emission of a particle consisting of n)................................................................................... This is equivalent to the nucleus of a o).................................... atom Beta radiation, symbol = p)........................... This involves the emission of an q)...................................... r)............ ......................., symbol = s).................... This is the emission of a t)............................. frequency EMR wave. All 3 types of radioactive emissions can cause ionization, by knocking u)................................... out of their orbits in an atom. v)............................................... radiation has the highest ionization ability, then w)................................... less so, and x).............................. least of all. It is this ionization which makes radioactivity dangerous to life: living cells can be killed because their y)........................................ are disrupted, or their DNA can be damaged, resulting in genetic z)...................................... or the cell becoming aa)....................................................
COMPLETED WORKSHEETS BECOME SECTION SUMMARIES
Each radiation is different in its penetrating ability: ab)..................................... is least penetrating, and most can be stopped by a sheet of ac).............................................. Beta has ad)....................................... penetration. It can usually be stopped by a thin sheet of ae)............................................... The most penetrating radiation is af)......................................... which can penetrate many metres of air and needs ag)........................... or ............................................. to stop it. Each radiation is also affected differently by ah).............................. or ............................................ fields. Because ai)........................ and........................ are particles carrying aj)......................................, both will be ak).......................................... by a field. They will deflect in al).................................. directions because alpha carries a am)............................... charge, while beta is an).................................. Also, ao)............................... will deflect through a greater angle than ap).................................. because aq)........................ ....................................................................................... ar)............................................. radiation is NOT affected by either type of field. The Sun emits a range of EM waves, some of which could be dangerous to life on Earth. Luckily, most of the dangerous as)................................ waves are absorbed by the at)......................... layer in the upper atmosphere. As well as EMR, the Sun emits streams of au)................................................... known as the av)................................................................................. This could be very dangerous too, but very little gets to the Earths surface because of the Earths aw)......................................................which ax)........................................... most of it. Sunspots are darker spots on the Suns surface which are ay).............................................. (cooler/hotter) and are areas where the Suns az).................................................... is more intense. The presence of sunspots results in the solar wind becoming more ba)........................................... Sunspot activity goes up and down in a cycle over bb)................. years. When sunspots are at a maximum, the solar wind can overwhelm the Earths bc)............................................... When this happens, charged particles can give off bursts of bd)............................................. which can interfer with be)............................................. and damage bf).................................................. equipment. In extreme cases, disruption has occurred to bg)................................. supplies.
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Practice Questions
These are not intended to be "HSC style" questions, but to challenge your basic knowledge and understanding of the topic, and remind you of what you NEED to know at the K.I.S.S. principle level. When you have confidently mastered this level, it is strongly recommended you work on questions from past exam papers. Part A Multiple Choice 1. The astronomer who supported a heliocentric model of the universe was:A. Aristotle B. Ptolemy C. Copernicus D. Tycho Brahe 2. The use of "epicycles" in the geocentric model of the universe was to explain:A. the retrograde motion of the planets. B. the lack of observable parallax motion of stars. C. the elliptical shape of planetary orbits. D. the occurrence of eclipses and how to predict them. 3. One reason why early heliocentric theories of the universe were rejected was:A. heliocentric models cannot explain retrograde motion of the planets. B. heliocentric models predict parallax movement of stars, and none could be seen. C. geocentric models were a simpler way to explain the motion of the planets. D. geocentric models could be proven correct, once the telescope was invented. 4. Which of the following is the correct sequence of scientific events? A. Einstein's theories, then Hubble's observations, which prompted Friedmann's prediction. B. Hubble's observations, followed by Friedmann's prediction, led to Einstein's theory. C. Einstein's theory led to Friedmann's prediction, which was confirmed by Hubble's observations. D. Friedmann's prediction was confirmed by Hubble's observations, which led Einstein to his theory. 5. Einstein's famous equation, E=mc, means:A. a small amount of energy is equivalent to a large amount of mass. B. an expanding universe must cool down. C. the speed of light is constant and cannot be exceeded. D. a small amount of matter can be made from a large quantity of energy.
Preliminary Physics Topic 4 copyright 2005-2007 keep it simple science
6. Observational evidence supporting the idea of an expanding universe comes mainly from:A. the red-shift of spectral lines. B. the "Big-Bang" theory. C. the equations in Einstein's General Theory of Relativity. D. observed motions of stars moving apart in the galaxy. 7. The characteristic of the early universe which allowed galaxies to form was:A. its chemical composition being mostly hydrogen and helium. B. the cosmic background radiation forming. C. "lumpiness" or uneven distribution of matter. D. gravity acting equally in all directions. 8. Which of the following statements about radiation from a hot object is correct? A. Hotter objects emit redder light at a longer wavelength. B. The cooler the object the shorter the wavelength of the "peak" emission. C. The "peak" emission from a very hot star would be infra-red. D. The hotter the object the shorter and "bluer" the "peak" emission. 9. A light is viewed from 1 metre distance, and again from a 5 metre distance. At 5 metres, its apparent brightness would be: A. 1/5 B. 5 times C. 1/25 D. 25 times This is a simplified version of the Hetzsprung-Russell (H-R) diagram. It is used for questions 10-12
P
Q R
10. The vertical scale on this graph measures: A. Luminosity B. Colour C. Surface Temperature D. Diameter 11. At which position would a star classified as a "white dwarf" be located on the H-R diagram? A. P B. Q C. R D. S 22
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12. Our Sun is expected to "evolve" and undergo changes in the future. Which of the following shows the expected changes as our aging Sun moves around the H-R diagram? A. P>Q>R B. Q>P>S C. R>Q>S D. P>S>R 13. A "Red Giant" star is characterized by having: A. high luminosity and low temperature. B. low luminosity and low temperature. C. low luminosity and high temperature. D. high luminosity and high temperature. 14. The "proton-proton" fusion reaction: A. produces hydrogen from helium in supergiant stars. B. heats a star up so it expands to become a Red Giant. C. produces large atomic nuclei during a supernova explosion. D. produces helium from hydrogen in a Main Sequence star. 15. The main energy source in a White Dwarf star is from: A. "helium burning" fusion reactions. B. degenerate matter reactions. C. residual heat following gravitational collapse. D. nuclear fission of large nuclei. 16. Which combination of radiations would show LEAST total deflection if passed through a strong magnetic field? A. Alpha and beta. B. Alpha and gamma. C. Beta and gamma. D. Alpha, beta and gamma. 17. Gamma radiation exhibits properties of: A. low penetration and low ionization. B. low penetration and high ionization. C. high penetration and low ionization. D. high penetration and high ionization. 18. The diagrams show an experiment in which a single type of radiation was passed between electrically charged plates in a vacuum. Later, the experiment was repeated with a thin piece of paper in the path of the radiation.
Electrically charged plates radiation radiation detected here Detector screen
18. (cont) Which line of this table correctly identifies the type of radiation, and the electric charge on the TOP plate? RADIATION A. B. C. D. Beta Gamma Alpha Beta CHARGE ON TOP PLATE +ve -ve +ve -ve
19. The "Solar Wind" is best described as: A. electromagnetic radiation emitted by the Sun. B. a stream of air blowing from the Sun. C. the outer "atmosphere" or corona of the Earth. D. stream of charged particles ejected from Sun. 20. The "Ozone Layer" of the Earth is very effective in blocking which radiation from the Sun? A. Radio waves B. Ultra-violet waves C. Solar Wind D. Light waves
Part B
Mark values given are suggestions only, and give you an idea of how detailed an answer is appropriate. 21. (2 marks) Contrast a geocentric model of the universe with a heliocentric model. 22. (3 marks) Discuss how the historical development of models of the universe was limited by the technology available. In your answer, refer to one specific model, naming the person responsible for it. 23. (5 marks) Place the following men in chronological order, and state whether each supported a heliocentric or geocentric model of the universe. Kepler, Ptolemy, Aristotle, Copernicus, Aristarchus 24. (3 marks) About 1930, Edwin Hubble used a new, large telescope to discover the "Red-Shift". a) What is the "red-shift"? b) Explain how the red-shift gives evidence of an expanding universe. c) How is expansion of the universe explained by the "BigBang" theory?
Later,
radiation
NO RADIATION DETECTED
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25. (5 marks) At the instant of the Big Bang all the substance of the universe is thought to have been in the form of radiant energy. a) Where did all the matter (e.g. atoms) come from? Explain with reference to Einstein's equation. b) Which 2 types of atoms are thought to have been mainly formed in the early universe? c) The "Big Bang" is all about expansion. How then did matter get together to form galaxies and stars? Explain. 26. (2 marks) This graph shows the distribution of radiation emitted by an object at 5,000oC.
Amount of Energy
29. (2 mks) Write a simple equation to describe the reaction that produces energy in a typical main sequence star. 30. (5 marks) Complete the table to describe the properties of alpha, beta and gamma radiation.
RADIATION TYPE WHAT IT IS IONIZATION ABILITY PENETRATION ABILITY
31. (7 marks) Using a "geiger counter" a scientist detected a source of radioactivity coming from a mineral sample. When placed 2 mm in air from the sample the counter registered 1,687 ionization events in 1 minute. Next she placed a piece of aluminum foil in the 2 mm space between sample and Geiger tube. The counter registered 802 events/min. When the aluminium foil was replaced with a piece of paper the count was 1,538 ionizations/min. With a piece of lead foil in the gap, the result was 366 ionizations/min. From these results she was able to deduce what type(s) of radio-active emissions were coming from the sample. a) State what type(s) of radiation(s) were coming from the sample. b) Explain your reasoning. c) Account for the result obtained with a piece of paper shielding the sample. d) Account for the result obtained with the lead foil. e) Why was it important to keep the Geiger tube always 2 mm from the sample? 32. (3 marks) Radiation from the Sun includes high energy charged particles, radio waves and ultra violet waves. Each of these is partially or totally absorbed, blocked or deflected before it reaches the Earth's surface. By what? State specifically what EACH of these radiations is blocked or deflected by.
Wavelength of Radiation
On the graph sketch clearly the curve you would expect if the object was at 2,000oC. 27. (3 marks) If a star has an apparent brightness of 37.5 units when viewed from a distance of 22 LY, at what distance would an observer see its brightness to be 16.3 units? 28. (7 marks) Use the graph provided to sketch the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram, showing clearly: a) what property is measured on each axis. b) the approximate positions of main sequence, red giant, white dwarf and blue supergiant stars. (label clearly) c) the approximate position of our Sun.
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