Introduction and Descriptive Statistics (i.e.

easy stuff)

Chapter 1

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1 Introduction and Descriptive Statistics

Using Statistics Percentiles and Quartiles Measures of Central Tendency Measures of Variability Grouped Data and the Histogram Skewness and Kurtosis Relations between the Mean and Standard Deviation Methods of Displaying Data Exploratory Data Analysis Using the Computer

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1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After studying this chapter, you should be able to: Distinguish between qualitative data and quantitative data. Describe nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio scales of measurements. Describe the difference between population and sample. Calculate and interpret percentiles and quartiles. Explain measures of central tendency and how to compute them. Create different types of charts that describe data sets. Use Excel templates to compute various measures and create charts.

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WHAT IS BIOSTATISTICS?

BioStatistics teaches us how to summarize, analyze, and draw meaningful inferences from data that then lead to confirmations of hypotheses that relates to biological problems.

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1-1. Using Statistics (Two Categories)

Descriptive Statistics
Collect Organize Summarize Display Analyze

Inferential Statistics
Predict and forecast values of population parameters Test hypotheses about values of population parameters

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Types of Data - Two Types

Qualitative Categorical or Nominal: Examples are Color Gender Nationality

Quantitative Measurable or Countable: Examples are Temperatures Salaries Number

of points scored on a 100 point exam

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Scales of Measurement

Nominal Scale - groups or classes

Gender,

color, professional classification, etc.

Ordinal Scale - order matters

Ranks

(top ten videos, products, etc.)

Interval Scale - difference or distance matters has arbitrary zero value.

Temperatures (0F, 0C)

Ratio Scale - Ratio matters has a natural zero value.

Salaries,

weight, volume, area, length, etc.

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Samples and Populations

A population consists of the set of all measurements for which the investigator is interested. A sample is a subset of the measurements selected from the population. A census is a complete enumeration of every item in a population.

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Simple Random Sample

Sampling from the population is often done randomly, such that every possible sample of equal size (n) will have an equal chance of being selected. A sample selected in this way is called a simple random sample or just a random sample. A random sample allows chance to determine its elements.

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Samples and Populations

Population (N)

Sample (n)

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Why Sample?
Census of a population may be: Impossible Impractical Too costly

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1-2 Percentiles and Quartiles

Given any set of numerical observations, order them according to magnitude. th percentile in the ordered set is that value The P below which lie P% (P percent) of the observations in the set. th percentile is given by The position of the P (n + 1)P/100, where n is the number of observations in the set.

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Example 1-2
The a scientist investigates the weight of the fish in a same pond every year. In 2007, the net weight of the 20 heaviest individuals, in grams, is as follows: (data is given on the next slide). Also, the data has been sorted in magnitude.

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Example 1-2 (Continued) fish weights

Grams Sorted grams
33 26 24 21 19 20 18 18 52 56 27 22 18 49 22 20 23 32 20 18 18 18 18 18 19 20 20 20 21 22 22 23 24 26 27 32 33 49 52 56

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Example 1-2 (Continued) Percentiles

Find the 50th, 80th and the 90th percentiles of this data set. To find the 50th percentile, determine the data point in position (n + 1)P/100 = (20 + 1)(50/100) = 10.5. Thus, the percentile is located at the 10.5th position. The 10th observation in the ordered set is 22, and the 11th observation is also 22.

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Example 1-2 (Continued) Percentiles

The 50th percentile will lie halfway between the 10th and 11th values (which are both 22 in this case) and is thus 22.

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Example 1-2 (Continued) Percentiles

To find the 80th percentile, determine the data point in position (n + 1)P/100 = (20 + 1)(80/100) = 16.8. Thus, the percentile is located at the 16.8th position. The 16th observation is 32, and the 17th observation is also 33. The 80th percentile is a point lying 0.8 of the way from 32 to 33 and is thus 32.8.

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Example 1-2 (Continued) Percentiles

To find the 90th percentile, determine the data point in position (n + 1)P/100 = (20 + 1)(90/100) = 18.9. Thus, the percentile is located at the 18.9th position. The 18th observation is 49, and the 19th observation is also 52. The 90th percentile is a point lying 0.9 of the way from 49 to 52 and is thus 49 + 0.9(52 49) = 49 + 0.93 = 49 + 2.7 = 51.7.

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Quartiles Special Percentiles

Quartiles are the percentage points that break down the ordered data set into quarters. The first quartile is the 25th percentile. It is the point below which lie 1/4 of the data. The second quartile is the 50th percentile. It is the point below which lie 1/2 of the data. This is also called the median. The third quartile is the 75th percentile. It is the point below which lie 3/4 of the data.

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Quartiles and Interquartile Range

The first quartile, Q1, (25th percentile) is often called the lower quartile. The second quartile, Q2, (50th percentile) is often called the median or the middle quartile. The third quartile, Q3, (75th percentile) is often called the upper quartile. The interquartile range is the difference between the first and the third quartiles.

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Example 1-3: Finding Quartiles

grams 33 26 24 21 19 20 18 18 52 56 27 22 18 49 22 20 23 32 20 18 Sorted grams 18 18 18 18 19 20 20 20 21 22 22 23 24 26 27 32 33 49 52 56

(n+1)P/100 Position

Quartiles

First Quartile

(20+1)25/100=5.25

19 + (.25)(1) = 19.25

Median

(20+1)50/100=10.5

22 + (.5)(0) = 22

Third Quartile

(20+1)75/100=15.75

27+ (.75)(5) = 30.75

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Summary Measures: Population Parameters Sample Statistics

Measures of Central Tendency

Median Mode Mean

Measures of Variability

Range Interquartile range Variance Standard Deviation

Other summary measures: Skewness Kurtosis

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1-3 Measures of Central Tendency or Location

Median Middle value when sorted in order of magnitude 50th percentile Most frequentlyoccurring value Average

Mode Mean

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Example Median (Data is used from Example 1-2)

Grams
33 26 24 21 19 20 18 18 52 56 27 22 18 49 22 20 23 32 20 18

Sorted grams
18 18 18 18 19 20 20 20 21 22 22 23 24 26 27 32 33 49 52 56

Median 50th Percentile

(20+1)50/100=10.5 Median 22 + (.5)(0) = 22

The median is the middle value of data sorted in order of magnitude. It is the 50th percentile.

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Arithmetic Mean or Average

The mean of a set of observations is their average the sum of the observed values divided by the number of observations. Population Mean Sample Mean

= xi
i =1

x = xi
i =1

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Example Mean (Data is used from

Example 1-2)
Grams 33
26 24 21 19 20 18 18 52 56 27 22 18 49 22 20 23 32 20 18 Sum = 538

Sorted grams 18
18 18 18 19 20 20 20 21 22 22 23 24 26 27 32 33 49 52 56

538 = 26.9 x = xi = 20 i =1

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1-4 Measures of Variability or Dispersion

Range
Difference

between maximum and minimum values between third and first quartile (Q3 - Q1) the squared deviations from the mean

Interquartile Range
Difference

Variance
Average*of

Standard Deviation
Square

root of the variance

Definitions of population variance and sample variance differ slightly.

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Example 1-3: Finding Quartiles

Grams 33 26 24 21 19 20 18 18 52 56 27 22 18 49 22 20 23 32 20 18 Sorted grams Ranks 18 1 18 2 18 3 18 4 19 5 20 6 20 7 20 8 21 9 22 10 22 11 23 12 24 13 26 14 27 15 32 16 33 17 49 18 52 19 20 56 Range = Maximum Minimum = 56 18 = 38

First Quartile

(20+1)25/100=5.25

19 + (.25)(1) = 19.25

Median

(20+1)50/100=10.5

22 + (.5)(0) = 22

Third Quartile

(20+1)75/100=15.75

27+ (.75)(5) = 30.75

Interquartile Range = Q3 Q1 = 30.75 19.25 = 11.5

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Variance and Standard Deviation

Population Variance
2 ( x ) N

Sample Variance

2 = i=1
N

s =
2

(x x)
n i =1

(n 1)
2

2 x i=1

( x)
N i =1

N
2

( ) x
n

n x i =1

i =1

(n 1)
2

s= s

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Calculation of Sample Variance

x
18 18 18 18 19 20 20 20 21 22 22 23 24 26 27 32 33 49 52 56 538

xx
-8.9 -8.9 -8.9 -8.9 -7.9 -6.9 -6.9 -6.9 -5.9 -4.9 -4.9 -3.9 -2.9 -0.9 0.1 5.1 6.1 22.1 25.1 29.1 0

(x x) 2
79.21 79.21 79.21 79.21 62.41 47.61 47.61 47.61 34.81 24.01 24.01 15.21 8.41 0.81 0.01 26.01 37.21 488.41 630.01 846.81 2657.8

x2
324 324 324 324 361 400 400 400 441 484 484 529 576 676 729 1024 1089 2401 2704 3136 17130
s2 = =

(x x)
i =1

(n 1)

2657.8 ( 20 1)

2657.8 = 139.88421 19
2

n x n =1 x2 i n = i =1 (n 1)
2

289444 17130 538 17130 20 = 20 = (20 1) 19 17130 14472.2 2657.8 = = = 139.88421 19 19 s=

= 139.88421 = 11.82

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1-5 Group Data and the Histogram

Dividing data into groups or classes or intervals Groups should be:

Mutually exclusive Not overlapping - every observation is assigned to only one group Exhaustive Every observation is assigned to a group Equal-width (if possible) First or last group may be open-ended

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Frequency Distribution

Table with two columns listing:

Each and every group or class or interval of values Associated frequency of each group Number of observations assigned to each group Sum of frequencies is number of observations

N for population n for sample

Class midpoint is the middle value of a group or class or interval Relative frequency is the percentage of total observations in each class

Sum of relative frequencies = 1

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Example 1-7: Frequency Distribution

x Spending Class ($) 0 to less than 100 100 to less than 200 200 to less than 300 300 to less than 400 400 to less than 500 500 to less than 600 f(x) Frequency (number of customers) 30 38 50 31 22 13 184 f(x)/n Relative Frequency 0.163 0.207 0.272 0.168 0.120 0.070 1.000

Example of relative frequency: 30/184 = 0.163 Sum of relative frequencies = 1

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Cumulative Frequency Distribution

x Spending Class ($) 0 to less than 100 100 to less than 200 200 to less than 300 300 to less than 400 400 to less than 500 500 to less than 600 F(x) Cumulative Frequency 30 68 118 149 171 184 F(x)/n Cumulative Relative Frequency 0.163 0.370 0.641 0.810 0.929 1.000

The cumulative frequency of each group is the sum of the frequencies of that and all preceding groups.

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Histogram

A histogram is a chart made of bars of different heights.

Widths and locations of bars correspond to widths and locations of data groupings Heights of bars correspond to frequencies or relative frequencies of data groupings

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Histogram for Example 1-7

Frequency Histogram
Histogram of Dollars Histogram of weights
50
50

40
30

38

Frequency

31

30

22

20
13

10

100

200

300 Dollars grams

400

500

600

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Relative Frequency Histogram Example 1-7

Relative Frequency Histogram
Histogramof of weights Dollars Histogram

NOTE: The relative frequencies are expressed as percentages.

Percent

30
27.1739

25
20.6522

20
16.3043 16.8478

15
11.9565

10
7.06522

5 0

100

200

grams

300 Dollars

400

500

600

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1-6 Skewness and Kurtosis

Skewness

Measure of the degree of asymmetry of a frequency distribution

Skewed to left Symmetric or unskewed Skewed to right

Kurtosis

Measure of flatness or peakedness of a frequency distribution

Platykurtic (relatively flat) Mesokurtic (normal) Leptokurtic (relatively peaked)

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Skewness
Skewed to left

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Skewness
Symmetric

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Skewness
Skewed to right

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Symmetric Bimodal Distribution

Symmetric distribution with two Modes
Mean = Median
40
35 35

30 Frequency

20
15 10

20 15 10

10

100

200

300

400 X

500

600

700

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Kurtosis
Platykurtic - flat distribution

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Kurtosis
Mesokurtic - not too flat and not too peaked

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Kurtosis
Leptokurtic - peaked distribution

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1-7 Relations between the Mean and Standard Deviation

Chebyshevs Theorem

Applies to any distribution, regardless of shape Places lower limits on the percentages of observations within a given number of standard deviations from the mean Applies only to roughly mound-shaped and symmetric distributions Specifies approximate percentages of observations within a given number of standard deviations from the mean

Empirical Rule

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Chebyshevs Theorem

At least of the elements of any distribution lie k2 within k standard deviations of the mean
1 3 1 1 = = = 75% 2 4 4 2

2 Lie within 3 4 Standard deviations of the mean

At least

1 8 1 1 2 = 1 = = 89% 9 9 3 1 15 1 1 2 = 1 = = 94% 16 16 4

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Empirical Rule

For roughly mound-shaped and symmetric distributions, approximately:

68% 1 standard deviation of the mean Lie within 2 standard deviations of the mean 3 standard deviations of the mean

95%

All

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1-8 Methods of Displaying Data

Pie Charts

Categories represented as percentages of total Heights of rectangles represent group frequencies Height of line represents frequency Height of line represents cumulative frequency Represents values over time

Bar Graphs

Frequency Polygons

Ogives

Time Plots

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Pie Chart (Figure 1-8) Investment Portfolio

The Portfolio
Foreign 20, 20.0%
Category Foreign Bonds Small Cap/Mid Cap Large Cap Value Large Cap Blend

Large Cap Blend 30, 30.0%

Bonds 20, 20.0% Large Cap Value 10, 10.0% Small Cap/Mid Cap 20, 20.0%

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Bar Chart (Figure 1-9) The Web Takes Off

Chartin ofthe Registration (Millions) CO2 level atmosphere in Ottawa
125

100

CO2 level (ppm)

Registration (Millions)

75

50

25

2000

2001

2002

2003 Year

2004

2005

2006

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Relative Frequency Polygon (Figure 1-10)

Frequency is Located in the middle of the interval.
0.30 0.25

Relative Frequency

0.20 0.15 0.10 0.05 0.00 0 8 16 32 40 Sales Length of trout fish in cm 24 48 56 0

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Ogive (Figure 1-12)

1.0 Cumulative Relative Frequency

0.8

0.6

0.4

The point with height corresponding to the cumulative relative frequency is located at the right endpoint of each interval.

0.2

0.0 0 10 20 30 Sales 40 50 60

Length of trout fish in cm

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Scatter Plots
Scatter Plots are used to identify and report

any underlying relationships among pairs of data sets. The plot consists of a scatter of points, each point representing an observation.

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Scatter Plots
Scatter plot with trend line. This type of relationship is known as a positive correlation. Correlation will be discussed in later chapters.