DATA COMMUNICATIONS

This section covers some introductory information on the following:

What a protocol is What a packet is What a gateway ( or router ) and routing are The concept of a layered protocol architecture Layer services Data encapsulation Data fragmentation and reassembly Why standards are needed The concept of an open system Overview of the OSI 7-layer model and the TCP/IP model What Is a Communication Protocol?

Communication protocols define the manner in which peer processes communicate between computer hardware devices. The protocols give the rules for such things as the passing of messages, the exact formats of the messages and how to handle error conditions. If two computers are communicating and they both follow the protocol(s) properly, the exchange is successful, regardless of what types of machines they are and what operating systems are running on the machines. As long as the machines have software that can manage the protocol, communication is possible. Essentially, therefore, a computer protocol is a set of rules that coordinates the exchange of information. What Is a Packet? The term packet is used often in data communications, sometimes incorrectly. To transfer data effectively, it is usually better to transfer uniform chunks of data than to send characters singly or in widely varying sized groups. Usually these chunks of data have some information ahead of them ( called the header ) and sometimes an indicator at the end (called the trailer). These chunks of data are loosely called packets. In some data communications systems, "packets" refer to the units of data passed between two specific layers in a protocol hierarchy e.g. the Data Link Layer and the Network Layer of the OSI 7 layer model.

The amount of data in a packet and the composition of the header or trailer may vary depending on the communications protocol as well as some system parameters, but the concept of a packet always refers to the entire chunk of data (including header and trailer). What Is a Host? A host typically refers to a computer providing an information or communications service. What Are a Gateway, a Router, and Routing? A gateway or router is a computer that interconnects two or more networks and passes packets from one to the other. The gateway has an interface to each of the networks to which it is connected. Generally, congestion on connected networks is avoided by keeping local traffic confined to the network on which it originates, except when the packets are destined for another network. The gateway has the responsibility of acting as the switch that allows such packets to go from one network to another. The process by which the paths that packets travel across a network or internetwork are chosen is known as routing. Protocol Layering A wide range of problems may arise in packet-based data communication. These include the following.

Host failure: A host or gateway may fail due to a hardware or software crash. Link failure: A transmission link may be damaged or disconnected. Network congestion: Networks have finite capacity which cannot be exceeded. Packet delay or loss: Packets are sometimes lost during transmission or may experience excessive delays. Data corruption: Transmission errors can corrupt the data being transmitted. Data duplication or packets out-of-sequence: Where more than one route exists in a network connection, it is possible for transmitted packets to arrive out of sequence. Also, packets that traverse a long route may be retransmitted, having been presumed lost. This results in the presence of duplicate frames if the original and retransmitted packets arrive at the destination.

It is impractical to write a single protocol to handle all of these issues. The early methods were often based on a single protocol with many interacting components. The resulting software was difficult to test, debug and modify. Complex data communication schemes therefore require a family of co-operative protocols to handle all transmission tasks ( Ref. 1 ). The modules of protocol software on each machine can be organised into what may be thought of as layers. Each layer handles a communication sub-problem. This is illustrated in Figure 1.

. Layer Services Connection-Oriented and Connectionless Services The services that layers provide to the layers above them may be classified into two types : connection-oriented and connectionless. In a connection-oriented service, the sender of data first establishes a logical connection with the ( prospective ) receiver of the data, uses the connection ( sends the data ), and then terminates the connection ( Ref. 2). During the establishment of the connection, a fixed route that all packets will take is defined, and information necessary to match packets to their session and defined route is stored in memory tables in the gateways ( Ref. 3 ). Connectionoriented protocols provide in-sequence delivery; that is, the service user receives packets in the order they were sent. Packet re-sequencing may have to be

implemented internal to the protocol in order to achieve this, but the service user only receives correctly sequenced packets ( Ref. 4 ). In a connectionless ( or datagram ) service there is no initial end-to-end setup for a session; each packet is independently routed to its destination. When a packet is ready, the host computer sends it on to a gateway. The gateway examines the destination address of the packet and passes the packet along to another gateway, chosen by a route-finding algorithm. A packet may go through many gateways in its travels from one host computer to another. The fact that routes are dynamically chosen means that it is possible for different packets from a single session to take different routes to the destination ( Ref. 3 ). It is also possible for packets, having traversed different routes to the destination, to arrive out of order and be passed on as such to the layer above. Thus, connectionless networks economise on gateway memory and connection set-up time, while connection-oriented networks economise on routing decisions (which have to be redone for every packet in a connectionless network) ( Ref. 3 ). Reliable and Unreliable Services Services can also be classified according to the quality of service that they provide to the layers above. There are two types of service quality : reliable and unreliable. A reliable service is one that endeavours never to lose data during a transfer and to provide the data error-free to the service user. In such a scheme the receiver is required to acknowledge the receipt of each item of data, to ensure that no data is lost in transit. In addition to this, the receiver checks each data item received for errors, informing the source if an error is detected and that another copy of the affected data should be sent. The acknowledgement process required for reliable service introduces delays and overhead. There are some cases when it is more important for the service to be free of delays than for it to be one hundred percent reliable. In such situations an unreliable service may be used. An unreliable service is implemented by omitting the requirement for acknowledgements for the data received. Error checking may be done by the receiver on each block of data, and when one is detected ( even when it is only a single unknown bit ) the complete data block discarded. When an unreliable service is implemented in a given layer, reliability is typically implemented by some higher layer. Data Encapsulation, Segmentation ( Fragmentation ) and Reassembly

Encapsulation is the technique used by layered protocols in which a protocol accepts a message from a protocol above it and places it in the data portion of the lower level protocols message unit ( Ref. 1 ). As data move down the layers, additional information will be appended to it, and it may be segmented into smaller pieces. The encapsulation process is illustrated for the TCP/IP model in Figure 2.

Say an application process on one host has some data it wishes to send. It passes the data to the transport layer, which ( possibly ) modifies the data then attaches the transport header, T, to it and passes the resulting item to the Internet layer. The Internet layer treats the entire message received as data, may make some modifications, and attaches its own header, I, to the message. This message is then passed to the network access layer and the process is repeated. Here, the message from the Internet layer is enclosed in a physical network frame, the header from this layer being represented as N. The data are then transmitted over the medium. Note that, in each layer (below the application layer), depending on the protocol, a trailer may be appended to the message in addition to the header as is mentioned here. On the receiving end the various headers are successively stripped off as the message moves up the layers until it reaches the receiving process. Data are reassembled ( i.e. the segmentation sub-process is reversed ) if they had been fragmented during their downward path in the transmitting system. At each layer the data at the receiving end ( after reassembly, if performed ) match data at the sending end ( before segmentation, if performed ) ( Ref. 4 ). Data segmentation and reassembly are illustrated in Figure 3.

Why Are Data Communication Standards Needed? Standards prevent a situation arising where two seemingly compatible systems really are not. Data communication standards are created to ensure that individual products ( possibly from two independent sources ) designed to perform data communications tasks will actually be able to work together to perform these tasks. Once the standards are adhered to, the respective designers should not need to collaborate in order to achieve compatibility. What Is an Open System? Many definitions for the term open system exist. Perhaps the best definition that can be offered here is that an open system is one for which the architecture is not a secret. The description of the architecture has been published or is readily available to anyone who wants to build products for a hardware or software platform. This definition of an open system may be applied to both hardware and software. Open systems are in contrast to vendor-owned or proprietary systems. In such systems the vendor developes an architecture which he keeps a secret from the general population. Consequently, only persons the vendor authorizes can build products that will work with the vendor's products. Years ago, open systems were virtually nonexistent. It was customary for hardware manufacturers to have product lines which bound clients to that manufacturer for all software and hardware needs. Some companies took advantage of the captive market, charging outrageous prices or forcing unwanted configurations on their customers. The equipment from one manufacturer that adheres to an open system standard can be used interchangeably with the equipment from any other manufacturer that adheres to that particular standard. This is so regardless of the other specifics of the vendors' respective equipment ( e.g. operating system, if this is not itself a part of the protocol ). The customer therefore has choices.

Established Data Communication Standards Some vendors have established data communication models based on the layered approach previously described. The vendors base their systems or products ( such as network operating systems ) on their own model. An example of this is Novells IPX/SPX protocol architecture, upon which Novell Netware, a popular network operating system, is based. As stated before, in such cases, to develop applications for a particular vendors products, one must adhere to that vendors model. This tends to lead to considerable complication when products or systems from a number of different vendors are to be integrated in some way. To address this problem, two groups concerned with the interconnection of independent systems, the ISO and DARPA, have defined commonly-used models for systems interconnection. The International Standards Organization ( ISO ) developed a model for the connection of open systems ( systems that are open for communication with other systems ) known as the Open Systems Interconnection ( OSI ) reference model. The OSI model has seven layers : Physical, Data Link, Network, Transport, Session, Presentation, Application. The OSI model is not a network architecture in that it does not specify the actual protocols to be used in each layer ( Ref. 2 ). Rather, the model clearly defines the functions to be performed by each layer and the boundaries between each layer. The OSI model is illustrated in Figure 4.

Prior to, and concurrently with the development of the ISOs OSI model, the US Department of Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) was heavily involved in internetworking activity. It was such activity that resulted in the creation of the Internet. As a result of this activity, DARPA created a four layered model of data communication known as the TCP/IP suite, which has become the de facto

standard for interconnection, despite the official status of the OSI model. The TCP/IP model is illustrated in Figure 5.

MIL-HDBK-419A d. Should the tape channels receive data in parallel with other single-ended channels (such as arise in A/D systems), take special care to minimize the effects of inherent loops. The optimum method of recording with two single-ended devices in parallel from the same data channel is to use an amplifier with isolated outputs. (In this way, the inherent loop is broken and noise is minimized.) 3.5.2.3.2 Strip Chart Recorders. Strip chart recorders are mostly single-ended and should be grounded as described in Section a. 3.5.2.3.1 for magnetic tape devices. Since the strip chart recorder is a nulling device, its input impedance will change as it deflects from b. one position to another. This impedance change and the accompanying voltage feedback can be coupled directly from the strip chart input over to the input of a paralleled device such as an A/D converter. Gross error can result in the A/D channel. This difficulty can be resolved by using resistive isolation as shown in Figure 3-32 or

by employing dual amplifier outputs, one for each channel, as described in Section 3.5.2.3.1 for analog tape systems.

Cost Classification and Analysis

Elements of Cost 1. Direct Cost It is that element of cost in which we can include the cost of direct material and direct labour. If we take its total, it will be prime cost. a) Direct Material Cost Direct material is that material which we find in finished product and easily measures its cost. For example, for making furniture, woods are direct material and its cost will be the part of direct cost. b) Direct Labour Cost Direct labour is used for producing the product. We pay wages for making product to labourers and this cost will be the direct labour cost. c) Direct expenses cost Except direct material and direct labour, all direct expenses will be direct expenses cost.

2. Indirect Cost c) Overheads When we can not charge an expense directly on the product, we can say it is indirect expense or overhead. In overhead, we can include indirect material cost, indirect labour cost and other following indirect expenses. i) manufacturing overheads ii) administrative overheads

iii) selling overheads iv) research and development cost Interest. PNR/100 P=principal N=time R = rate

Time Value of Money - TVM'

The idea that money available at the present time is worth more than the same amount in the future due to its potential earning capacity. This core principle of finance holds that, provided money can earn interest, any amount of money is worth more the sooner it is received. Also referred to as "present discounted value". (Aaja paisa kharcha garera certain barsa pachi kati hunaaucha.)

Demand analysis forecasting

Demand analysis forecasting is the process estimation of quantity of a product or service that will be demanded by the customer in the future. Demand forecasting is carried out using both, informal methods, like educated guesses or quantitative methods that involve the use of historical data or existing data from the test markets. Demand forecasting helps in the formulation of pricing strategies, estimation of future product capacity and making crucial decisions relating to the entry or exit from new markets. Methods of Demand forecasting: Qualitative Methods: 1. Jury of expert opinion method

2. Delphi Method: *Developed by RAND Corp *Individuals are asked to answer questionnaires in a total of 2 to 3 rounds *The persons involved often maintain anonymity even after the test has been completed. Quantitative Methods: 1. Time series projection methods: *Trend projection method *Exponential smoothing method *Moving average method Casual methods: 1. Chain ratio method 2. Consumption level method 3 End use method 4.Leading indicator method
Definition of 'Payback Period'

The length of time required to recover the cost of an investment. The payback period of a given investment or project is an important determinant of whether to undertake the position or project, as longer payback periods are typically not desirable for investment positions. Calculated as: Payback Period = Cost of Project / Annual Cash Inflows

investment decision
A determination made by directors and/or management as to how, when, where and how much capital will be spent on investment opportunities. The decision often follows research to determine costs and returns for each option. Investment decisions are made by investors and investment managers.

Cost-Benefit Analysis (CBA)

estimates the net present value (NPV) of the decision by discounting the investment and returns.

estimates and totals up the equivalent money value of the benefits and costs to the community of projects to establish whether they are worthwhile. These projects may be dams and highways or can be training programs and health care systems.
What is Risk Analysis?
Risk Analysis helps you identify and manage potential problems that could undermine key business initiatives or projects. Risk is made up of two things: the probability of something going wrong, and the negative consequences that will happen if it does.

How to Use Risk Analysis

To carry out a risk analysis, follow these steps:

1. Identify Threats
The first step in Risk Analysis is to identify the existing and possible threats that you might face. These can come from many different sources. For instance:

Human - from illness, death, injury, or other loss of a key individual. Operational - from disruption to supplies and operations, loss of access to essential assets, or failures in distribution. Reputational - from loss of customer or employee confidence, or damage to market reputation. Procedural - from failures of accountability, internal systems and controls; or from fraud. Project - from going over budget, taking too long on key tasks, or experiencing issues with product or service quality. Financial - from business failure, stock market fluctuations, interest rate changes, or nonavailability of funding. Technical - from advances in technology, or from technical failure. Natural - from weather, natural disasters, or disease. Political - from changes in tax, public opinion, government policy, or foreign influence. Structural - from dangerous chemicals, poor lighting, falling boxes, or any situation where staff, products, or technology can be harme

Risk Value = Probability of Event x Cost of Event

Net Present Value (NPV)

Net present value is the present value of net cash inflows generated by a project including salvage value,

HYDROPOWER IN NEPAL PRESENT PROJECTS

Major Projects Only

Due to a large number of major and micro-hydropower projects, we are unable to list all. Please see resources for handpicked websites for your research.

Hydropower Stations - Working

Hydropower Project Name Panauti Trishuli Sunkoshi Gandaki Kulekhani Devighat Kulekhani Marsyangdi Aandhikola Sector District Capacity kilowatts Project Owner

1 Kavre 1 Nuwakot 1 Sindhupalchok 1 Nawalparasi 1 Makawanpur 1 Nuwakot 2 Makawanpur 1 Tanahu 1 Syangja

2400 Nepal Electricity Authority 24000 Nepal Electricity Authority 10050 Nepal Electricity Authority 15000 Nepal Electricity Authority 60000 Nepal Electricity Authority 14000 Nepal Electricity Authority 32000 Nepal Electricity Authority 69000 Nepal Electricity Authority 5100 Butwal Power Company

Jhimruk Chatara Puwakhola Khimti Modikhola Bhotekoshi Indrawati Kali Gandaki Chilime Upper Modi Middle Marsyangdi

1 Puythan 1 Sunsari 1 Ilam 1 Dolakha 1 Prabat 1 Sindhupalchok 3 Sindhupalchok A Syangja 1 Rasuwa 1 Parbat 1 Lamjung

12300 Butwal Power Company 3200 Nepal Electricity Authority 6200 Nepal Electricity Authority 60000 Himal Power Limited 14000 Nepal Electricity Authority 36000 Bhote Koshi Power Company 7500 National Hydropower Company 144000 Nepal Electricity Authority 20000 Chilime Hydropower Company 14000 GITEC Nepal Private Limited 70000 Nepal Electricity Authority

The first hydro power station in Nepal was installed in 1911 AD. It had a capacity of 500 kW and was called the Pharping Hydropower Plant. Ever since, the country has established numerous hydropower plant to meet the never-ending demands of the citizens. Some of the major hydropower plants in Nepal are given below Kaligandaki Hydropower Plant, Syangja Capacity: 144,000 kW Project Owner: Nepal Electricity Authority

Middle Marsyangdi Hydropower Project, Rasuwa Capacity: 70,000 kW Project Owner: Nepal Electricity Authority

Marshyangdi Hydropower Plant, Tanahun Capacity: 69,000 kW Project Owner: Nepal Electricity Authority

Khimti Hydropower Plant, Dolakha Capacity: 60,000 kW Project Owner: Himal Power Limited

Kulekhani I Hydropower Plant, Makawanpur Capacity: 60,000 kW Project Owner: Nepal Electricity Authority

Bhotekoshi Hydropower Project, Sindhupalchok Capacity: 36,000 kW Project Owner: Bhote Koshi Power Company

Kulekhani II Hydropower Plant, Makawanpur Capacity: 32,000 kW Project Owner: Nepal Electricity Authority

Trishuli Hydropower Plant, Nuwakot Capacity: 24,000 kW

Project Owner: Nepal Electricity Authority

Chilime Hydropower Project, Rasuwa Capacity: 20,000 kW Project Owner: Chilime Hydropower Company

Gandaki Hydropower Plant, Nawalparasi Capacity: 15,000 kW Project Owner: Nepal Electricity Authority

Devighat Hydropower Plant, Nuwakot Capacity: 14,000 kW Project Owner: Nepal Electricity Authority

Modi Hydropower Plant, Parbat Capacity: 14,000 kW Project Owner: Nepal Electricity Authority

Upper Modi Hydropower Project, Parbat Capacity: 14,000 kW Project Owner: GITEC Nepal Private Limited Jhimruk Hydropower Plant, Pyuthan Capacity: 12,300 kW

Project Owner: Butwal Power Company

Sunkoshi Hydropower Plant, Sindhupalchok Capacity: 10,050 kW Project Owner: Nepal Electricity Authority

Indrawati Hydropower Project, Sindhupalchok Capacity: 7,500 kW Project Owner: National Hydropower Company

Puwa Hydropower Plant, Ilam Capacity: 6,200 kW Project Owner: Nepal Electricity Authority

Andhikhola Hydropower Plant, Syangja Capacity: 5,100 kW Project Owner: Butwal Power Company

Chatara Hydropower Project, Sunsari Capacity: 3,200 kW Project Owner: Nepal Electricity Authority

Panauti Hydropower Project, Kavre

Capacity: 2,400 kW Project Owner: Nepal Electricity Authority