Some Soil Basics

Soil The Oldest and A Complex Engineering Material.

Basic Soil Characteristics

Soil - a combination of solid mineral particles water air

Solid Water Air

Particle Size Distribution

Australian Standard AS 1289
(mm) Gravel 2.0 Sand 0.06 Silt 0.002 Clay ~0.001 Colloidal sized particles ~0.08 Limit to visibility naked eye

There are many factors affecting the behaviour of a soil how dense is the soil? how wet is the soil? how big are the particles? rounded or angular? what are the relative proportions of each component? .

SUCTION IN SOIL (CAPILLARY EFFECT)

Phenomenon of Capillary Tube (due to surface tension of water)

Hc

Hc =

2T w g r

Where: T (surface tension) = 72.75 mN/m at 20oC w (density of water) = 1,000 kg/m3 g (acceleration of gravity) = 9.8 m2/s r (radius of tube)

Phenomenon of Capillary Tube (due to surface tension of water)

Hc

Hc =

2T w g r

r (mm) 10 1 0.1 0.01

Hc (mm) 1.48 14.8 148 1480

Capillary Effect in Coarse Soil

Water Table

Low suction in soil Saturated

Coarse Soil (e.g. gravel)

Water

Capillary Effect in Fine Soil

Saturated

Water Table

High suction in soil

Fine Soil (e.g. clay)

Water

Typical Capillary Rise in Various Soil Types

Soil type Coarse Sand Fine Sand Silty Soil Clayey Soil

Typical Capillary Rise 0m approx. 2m approx. 10m approx. 50m approx.

Measuring Soil Suction

Using laboratory samples Based on pressure (suction) equilibrium between porous plate and soil sample Use a range of suction to determine suction-moisture characteristic curve

Suction Plate

Suction vs. Moisture Content

(Different soils have different characteristic curves)
Soil Type

Suction (pF unit)

1. Sand 2. Sandy Clay

Finer

3. Clay A 4. Clay B 5. Clay C

Water Content (%)

MOISTURE FLOW IN UNSATURATED SOIL

Example - determine direction of moisture flow

Unsaturated soils
m.c. = 15% Sand Clay m.c. = 28%

sand to clay or clay to sand ?

Suction vs. Moisture Content Characteristic Curves

4.0

Suction (pF unit)

Clay

2.5

Sand
15% 28%

Water Content (%)

Example - determine direction of moisture flow

Unsaturated soils
m.c. = 15% Sand pF = 2.5 Clay pF = 4.0 m.c. = 28%

Example - determine direction of moisture flow

Unsaturated soils
m.c. = 15% Sand pF = 2.5 Direction of Moisture Flow Clay pF = 4.0 m.c. = 28%

Note: in this case moisture flow from a drier soil (but lower suction) to a wetter soil (higher suction)

Example - Irrigation

Example - Irrigation

Water spread out from saturated zone to surrounding unsaturated soil due to difference in suction

Suction vs. Moisture Content Characteristic Curves

Suction (pF unit)

3.9

Soil being irrigated

2.5

28%

50%

Water Content (%)

SWELLING & SHRINKAGE OF SOIL

Swelling of Soil A soil may swell (increases in volume) as it gets wetted and absorb water

Sand/Gravel vs. Clay

Coarse Sand or Gravel

Dry

Coarse Sand or Gravel

Adding water

Coarse Sand or Gravel

Adding water

Coarse Sand or Gravel

Volume of soil no change as sand or gravel does not absorb water

Clay

Dry

Clay

Adding water (very slowly !)

Clay

Soil volume increases as it gets wetted

Clay

No further volume increases after clay absorbed all water it can

Adsorbed water molecules

Clay particles (tiny minerals) are capable of attracting and holding water molecules on their surface because of its surface electrical charges

C la y

pa rt ic le

Swelling of Soil can be a Engineering Problem

For example Ground Heave caused by Soil Swelling

 Prior to rainfall season: m.c. of clay = 14%

1.5m

Unstable clay = 2200 kg/m3 Stable Soil

 Prior to rainfall season: m.c. of clay = 14%

1.5m

Unstable clay = 2200 kg/m3 Stable Soil

After rainfall season: m.c. of clay increased to 16% 59mm ground heave

1.5m

Shrinkage of Soil A soil may shrink (decreases in volume) as it dries and loses water

Sand/Gravel vs. Clay

Coarse Sand or Gravel

Evaporation

No soil volume loss only loss in water above soil

Coarse Sand or Gravel

Evaporation

Volume of soil no change as water evaporated directly from soil pores

Coarse Sand or Gravel

Evaporation

Volume of soil no change as water evaporated directly from soil pores

Coarse Sand or Gravel

Evaporation

Volume of soil no change as water evaporated directly from soil pores

Clay

Evaporation

No soil volume loss only loss in water above soil

Clay

Evaporation

Soil volume start to change as all surface water evaporated

Clay

Evaporation

A reduction in soil volume as water evaporated from soil pores

Clay

Evaporation

No further change in soil volume as all water evaporated from soil pores

Soil instability due to Desiccation

Caused by overall volume reduction due to loss of soil water

Desiccation of clay caused by excess drying

Desiccation of clay caused by excess drying

Desiccation of clay liner caused by excess drying

Summary
For the non-clay sized fraction soils an understanding of behaviour can be gained from a knowledge of the physical characteristics of the particles The same cannot be said for clays Clays require a knowledge of formation atomic structure, exchange capacity and the physical/chemical (and biological) environment to adequately explain behavioural changes

STRENGTH OF SOIL

Definition of Strength
The ability of the material to resist imposed forces More specifically - the maximum stress the material can sustained under
Tension, Compression, or Shear

Different Boundary Conditions

(a) Unconfined

(strain 2 = 3 = 0)

(b) Confined

Strength of soil increases with depth as confining pressure increases

Relevance of Strength in Various Engineering Materials

Steel - tensile and compressive strength Concrete (and also rock) - compressive strength Soil - shear strength

Examples of soil failure by shear

Loading
Embankment Load Excavation

Unloading

Foundation Failure

Slope Failure

Note: At failure, maximum shear stress or shear strength develops along entire slip surface

How to Measure Shear Strength of Soil

Direct Shear Test

Loading Plate

Soil Sample

Shear Box

Direct Shear Test

N
L - Displacement

Loading Plate Shear Plane (area A)

T
Shear Box

T
Soil Sample

Note that shear resistance (T) depends on N (confining stress)

How shear strength affected by the presence of water ?

Slope Example

How can a slope fail?

How can a slope fail?

Too steep

How can a slope fail?

Too steep

Too much load

How can a slope fail?

Too steep

Too much load

Too wet

Slip surface

Unsaturated Soil - Stable Slope

N = normal reaction force (inter-granular) T = shear strength (or frictional resistance)

T N
lan P r a e Sh

Unsaturated Soil

Law of Friction
the higher N - the higher T

Note: N is a function of weight of soil above and intergranular suction or pressure (in this case suction since unsaturated)

Saturated Soil - Failed Slope

N = normal reaction force (inter-granular) T = shear strength (or frictional resistance)

Soil pore saturated with water T N

lan P r a e Sh

Saturated - all round pore water pressure (instead of suction) tends to push soil grains apart - N reduced

Law of Friction
Normal force N reduces (from unsaturated to saturated) Shear strength (resisting force) reduces (from unsaturated to saturated)
i.e. in geotechnical engineering terms a reduction in soil strength caused by an increase in pore water pressure