(Level 3) Schema Theory with reference to research studies

Schema: A mental representation that simplifies the world and allows us to better organize and interpret our experiences, often related to stereotyping and generalizing Purpose of a schema: Simplify our world Assist with memory Organize knowledge Allow us to predict

Rumblehart & Norman Systems link together to form one large concept map Contains both complex and simple ideas Knowledge can be semantic or procedural There are fixed, default or optional values

Piaget stated that our knowledge develops by either accommodating or assimilating experiences Strengths Substantial evidence to support the theory Aids in our understanding or stereotyping, learning and memory Limitations Focuses on inaccuracy of memory which is not always the case Very basic manner of explaining memory and is very vague

Studies to use: Bartlett (1932), Martin & Halvorson (1983), Brewer & Treyens (1981), French & Richards (1933), Darley & Gross (1983)

(Level 3) two models or theories of one cognitive process with reference to research studies
Cognitive process: Schema Theory: Memory (see previous page)

Multi-Store Model of Memory: Proposed by Atkinson & Schiffrin Claims that information processing is sequential How it works: o Sensory memory processes surroundings which are sorted as important or not. Memory is then moved to short-term memory store. If rehearsed, it is moved to long-term memory store and can be moved back and forth between short-term and long-term stores.

Sections Sensory memory (filters information) o Iconic memory Visual memory that captures still images in rapid succession Allows us to see the world as it flows o Echoic memory Auditory, unprocessed memory Necessary to hear a chain of sounds to make sense of them Short-term memory o Decay begins after 12 seconds o Miller stated that we could only store 7 pieces of information, but this value can be increased by chunking Long-term memory o If you understand something, it can be stored here permanently

Rehearsal Allows us to retain information for longer Moves information from short to long-term stores

Serial position effect Primacy effect o Easier to recall information at the beginning Recency effect o Easier to recall information at the end Strengths Sees humans as information processors Predictions can be made based off of the model, allowing supporting research Limitations Does not account for interaction between stores It is now accepted that LTM has more stores

Studies to use: Glanzer & Cunitz (1966), Sperling (??), Peterson & Peterson (??), HM (1957)

(Level 2) how biological factors may affect one cognitive process

Biological factor: Cognitive process: Amnesia: Caused by damage to the brain Anterograde o Inability to store memories after trauma Retrograde o Inability to recall memories from before trauma o Less research The extent of memory affected is dependent on the extent of injury Brain damage Memory

Causes of amnesia: Brain trauma Infection Alcohol abuse Stroke Herpes Simplex Encephalitis Anoxia

Studies to use: Reed & Squire (1998), HM (1957), Clive Wearing (2007)

(Level 3) how social or cultural factors affect one cognitive process

Cultural factors Cognitive process: Culture: Culture works as both a system of rites and norms and as a process of rituals and worship Can shape how an individual thinks Affects encoding and retrieval Memory

Memory: Peoples cultural backgrounds may cause them to give significance to something allowing them to better recall it. What we commit to memory and how much of it we remember is heavily dependent in context

Culture and memory are linked skills

Studies to use: Bartlett (1932), Wang & Ross (2007), Misty & Rogoff (1994), Cole & Scribner (1974)

With reference to relevant research studies, (Level 3) is one cognitive process reliable?
Cognitive process: Reliable: Reliability of memory: Memory is not very reliable Memories can be implanted or altered as time passes Memories can be affected by schemas Some memories that are stressful or significant may be remembered better flashbulb Information is often reconstructed Memory Trustworthy, infallible

Theory of reconstructive memory: Bartlett (1932) Assumes that humans are active information processors that use schemas to make sense of the world Strengths Clearly explains memory distortions Substantial supporting research Limitations Mainly focuses on the inaccuracy of memory Schemas are not fully understood

Eye witness testimony: Many people have been wrongfully convicted due to faulty eye witness testimony e.g. Ronald Cotton There are often external factors that cause people to falsely accuse somebody o Reinforcement when making an incorrect identification Not as reliable as people would think it to be, though cases can be make or break because of this testimony

Studies to use: Loftus & Pickrell (1995), Bartlett (1932), Brown & Kulik (??), Loftus & Palmer (1974), Martin & Holvorson

(Level 3) the use of technology in investigating cognitive processes

Technology MRI scanning PET scanning

Studies to use: Montague & Kilts (2003), HM (1957), Mosconi (2005), Maguire (2000)

(Level 3) do cognitive and biological factors interact in emotion

Emotion: A state of mind based on the circumstances and mood of an individual Components: o Physiological changes o Behaviour o Internal emotion Activates cortisol and adrenaline as survival mechanisms Phobias and panic disorders indicate that the bodys mechanism for controlling fear is affected The amygdala may be able to regulate memory encoding and place emphasis on emotional

Cognitive Appraisal Theory Lazarus (1975) Our interpretation of our surroundings affects our emotions Our appraisal of a situation prompts us to feel the appropriate emotions Appraisal o An evaluation of the situation and its possible consequences to the individuals well-being Stress o Appraisal of threat as well as own capabilities when dealing with it o Motivation, beliefs and environmental variables play a role o Problem-focused coping: try to eliminate the stress-causing factor o Emotion-focused coping: try to handle the emotions cause by factor Speisman et al (1964)

Studies to use: Two-factor Theory -

Schacter & Singer Factors: o Physiological arousal o Cognitive appraisal of that arousal When people feel a physiological reaction, the seek an environmental cause The label people give to their physiological reaction is based on their situation Schacter & Singer (1962), Dutton & Aron (1974)

Studies to use:

(Level 3) one theory of how emotion may affect one cognitive process
Cognitive process: Emotion: A state of mind based on the circumstances and mood of an individual Theory of flashbulb memory: Brown & Kulik (1977) A shockingly vivid memory of a moment in time, like a photograph Difficult to forget the details of an event Caused by emotional arousal at a point in time Memory is more accessible due to its emotional relevance Details most easily recalled of a flashbulb memory: o Place o Current activity o Informant o Own emotion o Others emotion o Consequences of the event Strengths Can explain why some memories are more vividly remembered than others Many research studies based off it that have resulted in the change of the theory Limitations Not well named Confabulation may affect flashbulb memories, as well as false memories Memory

Theory of Flashbulb Memory has received A LOT of criticism due to its inability to factor in the fact that although people may think they remember something vividly, they remember it inaccurately. Studies to use: Brown & Kulik (1977), Neisser and Harsch (1992)