Standard AM Transmitter

RF CARRIER OSCILLATO R

BUFFER AMPLIFIER

RF POWER AMPLIFER ANTENNA MATCHING NETWORK

MODULATOR PREAMPLIFIER MODULATIN G SIGNAL DRIVER

MIC

PRE-AMPLIFIER is a typically sensitive, class A linear voltage amplifier with a high input impedance. Its function is to raise the amplitude of the source signal after being subjected to processing and filtering. It improves the Signal to Noise Ratio before mixing. MODULATING SIGNAL DRIVER is a linear amplifier that simply amplifies the information signal to an adequate level to sufficiently drive the modulator. It can be class A, B or AB power amplifier. RF CARRIER OSCILLATOR can be any of the oscillator configurations (Clapp, Hartley, Colpitts). Crystal controlled oscillators are the most common circuit used because it provides a stable carrier frequency. BUFFER AMPLIFIER is a class A, low gain, high input impedance linear amplifier. Its function is to isolate the oscillator from the high power amplifiers. It provides a relatively constant load to the oscillator which helps to reduce the occurrence and magnitude of short term frequency variation. Emitter follower or IC op-amps are often used for a buffer. CARRIER DRIVER a class C amplifier that raises the output power of the buffer to a level sufficient to drive the modulated RF amplifier. MODULATOR AMPLIFIER a class C RF amplifier that supplies the energy which is required to drive the antenna system at the rated RF power. ANTENNA MATCHING NETWORKS matches the output impedance of the final power amplifier to the transmission line and antenna. OSCILLATORS is a circuit that produces a periodic waveform on its output with only the DC supply voltage as an input. OSCILLATORS STABILITY REQUIREMENTS

1. AMPLITUDE STABILITY refers to the ability of the oscillator to maintain constant amplitude in the output waveform. 2. FREQUENCY STABILITY refers to the ability of the oscillator to maintain its operating frequency. FACTORS AFFECTING STABILITY 1. Load 2. Bias 3. Component Characteristics CLASSIFICATION OF A OSCILLATOR 1. SINUSOIDAL OSCILLATORS is a device that produces a sine-wave output signal, the output signal should be constant in amplitude and frequency. 2. NON-SINUSOIDAL OSCILLATORS LC OSCILLATORS LC feedback elements are normally used in oscillator that requires higher frequencies of oscillation. TYPES OF LC OSCILLATORS 1. HARTLEY OSCILLATOR Improvement of Armstrong oscillator Can generate a wide range of frequencies and very easy to tune Is used as a great deal in transistor radios and other entertainment receivers Is an LC electronic oscillator that derives its feedback from a tapped coil in parallel with a capacitor. 2. COLPITTS OSCILLATOR Is similar to Hartley oscillator except that 2 capacitors are used in the tank circuit instead of a tapped coil Has a fairly good frequency stability, easy to tune and can have a wide range of frequencies, widely used in commercial signal generator above 1 MHz

3. CLAPP OSCILLATOR Is a variation of Colpitts oscillator The basic difference is an additional capacitor in series with the inductor in the resonant feedback circuit Produces a more stable frequency than colpitts

CT = C1 series C2 series with C3 If C1 and C2 >> C3 Therefore CT = C3

SERIES FED:

Ca AC bypass capacitor (Open for DC and short for AC)

SHUNT FED:

Where fo oscillating frequency/resonant frequency FUNCTION OF EACH COMPONENT: R1 and R2 provides the base bias Re emitter stabilizing resistor Ce emitter bypass capacitor Ca coupling capacitor (couples the feedback signal to the base) RFC (Radio Frequency Choke) provides path for the DC current and acts an open circuit for AC signal Q transistor amplifier L1, L2 and C frequency determining component Cb coupling capacitor (couples the signal to the tank circuit or output) Example: Given: C1 = 100 pF C2 = 200 pF

C3 = 1 pF L = 1 mH Required: fo Solution: C1 and C2 >> C3

)(

STANDARD AM RECEIVERS I. TUNED RADIO FREQUENCY RECEIVER (TRF) One of the earliest type of AM receivers Patented in 1916 by Ernst Alexanderson Have several shortcomings that limit their use to special applications Simple and relatively high sensitivity Single station receiver and for low frequency application ANTENNA

SPEAKER AM DETECTOR AF AMPLIFIER

RF AMPLIFIER

RF AMPLIFIER it amplifies the weak RF signal. It has a variable resistor that controls the RF gain and sensitivity AM DETECTOR it makes use of regenerative detector that provides rectification and detection for modulated signals when not oscillating and autodyne detection for CW or FSK signals when in oscillation. AF AMPLIFIER a volume-controlled amplifier that raises the power level of the audio (AF) signal to a value sufficient to drive the loudspeaker of the receiver. DISADVANTAGES OF THE TRF RECEIVER - Inconsistent bandwidth that varies with center frequency when tuned over a wide range of input frequencies - Instability due to the large number of RF amplifiers all tuned to the same center frequency

Non-uniform gain over a very wide frequency range

II. SUPERHETERODYNE RECEIVER The non-uniform selectivity of the TRF led to the development of the superheterodyne receiver near the end of the world war I Invented by Major Edward Armstrong Has remained in use because its gain, selectivity, and sensitivity characteristics are superior to those of other receiver configuration

ANTENNA

RF AMPLIFIER

MIXER

1st and 2nd IF AMPLIFIER AGC

AUDIO DETECTO R

AUDIO AMPLIFIER SPEAKER

LOCAL OSCILLATOR

RF AMPLIFER it amplifies the weak RF signal received from the antenna LOCAL OSCILLATOR a stable crystal oscillator whose frequency beats with the incoming signal to produce the correct IF MIXER it combines the incoming RF signal and the signal from the oscillator and produces in its output the two original frequencies, and various harmonic frequencies. It is the 1st detector which operates in a non-linear fashion and provides the action which produces the desired IF. 1st IF AMPLIFIER it is tuned in most cases to 455 KHz output of the mixer and rejects the remaining output frequencies. The selectivity characteristics of the IF amplifier determine the selectivity of the receiver. 2nd IF AMPLIFIER it provides further amplification and selectivity for the 455 KHz IF signal and presents it to the 2nd detector AUDIO DETECTOR it demodulates the 455 KHz IF signal and receives or extracts the original modulating signal or audio signal AUDIO AMPLIFIER it raises the power level of the audio signal to a value sufficient to drive the loud speaker

ADVANTAGES OF INCLUDING RF AMPLIFIER IN A RECEIVER 1. Greater gain thus better sensitivity 2. Improved image frequency rejection 3. Better signal to noise ratio 4. Better selectivity IMAGE FREQUECNY (IM) any frequency other than the selected radio frequency carrier that if allowed to enter a receiver will produce a cross-product frequency that is equal to the intermediate frequency (IF). HIGH SIDE INJECTION IF RF LO IF IM

LOW SIDE INJECTION IF IM LO IF

RF

IMAGE FREQUENCY REJECTION RATIO (IFRR) Where:

Example: Calculate the image frequency for a high side injection receiver tuned to 630 KHz. Also determine the IFRR in dB, assuming that the input filter consists of one tuned circuit with Q = 60. Given: fRF = 630 KHz high injection Q= 60 Reqd: fimage, IFRR(dB) Solution: fimage(IM)= RF + 2(455 KHz) = 1540 KHz

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BASIC RECEIVER CHARACTERISTIC 1. SENSITIVITY the ability of the receiver to reproduce weak signal and expressed in V 2. SELECTIVITY the degree of distinction made by the receiver between the desired signal and unwanted signal. It is the measure of the ability of a receiver to accept a given band of frequencies and rejects all others. 3. FIDELITY the ability of a communication system to produce an exact replica of the original source information 4. DYNAMIC RANGE (DR) the input power ranges over which the receiver is useful ( ( ) )

( ) Example: A receiver has a dynamic range of 85 dB. It has 1.5 mW sensitivity (threshold). Determine the maximum allowable input signal. RESONANCE: A circuit phenomena or circuit condition wherein: a. The current is in phase with the voltage b. The inductive reactance is equal to the capacitive reactance c. The circuit power factor becomes unity SERIES RESONANCE:

RESONANCE GRAPHS