Chapter 3

One-Dimensional Steady-State Conduction

Islamic Azad University

Karaj Branch
Dr. M. Khosravy 1

Chapter 1:

Course Road Map

Conservation of Energy

! +E ! =E ! +E ! E in g out st
! = q E ! in in

When there are no contributions of kinetic, potential, internal energy and work

! = q and E ! out out

Can be written for control volume or control surface !Control volume and control surface: Convenient, but do not give any information on actual temperature distributions

Chapter 2: !Need to obtain detailed temperature profiles: Energy conservation written for a differential volume
Dr. M. Khosravy 2

Chapter 2: Heat Diffusion Equation

Energy Conservation Equation z qz+dz qy
! ' !T $ ! ' !T $ ! ' !T $ ! !T % " k + %k "+ %k " + q = (c p % " !x & !x # !y & !y # !y & !z # !t

! +E ! =E ! +E ! E in g out st

qx qy+dy y

! ,E ! E g st

qx+dx x qz
!Involves conduction within the solid !Convection is taken into account as a boundary condition
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Dr. M. Khosravy

in + E g = E out + E st Energy E Conservation

Problems involving conduction: Chapters 2-3

! ( !T % ! ( !T &k # + &k !x ' !x $ !y & ' !y

% ! ( !T % !T ! = "c p # # + !y & k !z # + q !t ' $ $

Chapter 3: We want to obtain temperature profiles for 1-D, SS conduction, with and without generation Use temperature profiles to obtain expressions for heat transfer rate from Fouriers law For problems without generation, implement the thermal circuit approach to determine the heat transfer rate directly.

Dr. M. Khosravy

Methodology of a Conduction Analysis

Specify appropriate form of the heat equation. Solve for the temperature distribution. Apply Fourier s law to determine the heat flux. Thermal

Simplest Case: One-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction with No Energy Generation. Common Geometries: The Plane Wall: Described in rectangular (x) coordinate. Area

perpendicular to direction of heat transfer is constant (independent of x). The Tube Wall: Radial conduction through tube wall. The Spherical Shell: Radial conduction through shell wall.

One-Dimensional Steady-State Conduction

Conduction problems may involve multiple directions and timedependent conditions Inherently complex Difficult to determine temperature distributions One-dimensional steady-state models can represent accurately numerous engineering systems In this chapter we will ! Learn how to obtain temperature profiles for common geometries with and without heat generation. ! Introduce the concept of thermal resistance and thermal circuits

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The Plane Wall

Consider a simple case of onedimensional conduction in a plane wall, separating two fluids of different temperature, without energy generation Temperature is a function of x Heat is transferred in the xdirection Must consider
Convection from hot fluid to wall Conduction through wall Convection from wall to cold fluid

T! ,1 Ts ,1

Cold fluid

T!,2 , h2

Ts ,2

T! ,1 , h1

qx x=L

T! , 2

! Begin by determining temperature Hot fluid distribution within the wall x=0

x
Dr. M. Khosravy 7

Temperature Distribution
Heat diffusion equation (eq. 2.4) in the x-direction for steady-state conditions, with no energy generation:
d & dT # $k !=0 dx % dx "
Boundary Conditions: " qx is constant

T (0) = Ts,1 , T ( L) = Ts,2

Temperature profile, assuming constant k:

T ( x ) = (Ts,2 ! Ts,1 )

x + Ts ,1 (3.1) L

" Temperature varies linearly with x

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Dr. M. Khosravy

Thermal Resistance
Based on the previous solution, the conduction hear transfer rate can be calculated:

qx = !kA

dT kA (Ts,1 ! Ts,2 ) = (Ts,1 ! Ts,2 ) = dx L L / kA

(3.2a)

Similarly for heat convection, Newton s law of cooling applies:

q x = hA(TS " T! ) =
And for radiation heat transfer:

(TS " T! ) 1 / hA
(Ts ! Tsur ) 1 / hr A

(3.2b)

qrad = hr A(Ts ! Tsur ) =

(3.2c)

! Electric circuit theory - Ohm s law for electrical resistance:

Electric current =
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Potential Differenc e Resistance

Thermal Resistance
We can use this electrical analogy to represent heat transfer problems using the concept of a thermal circuit (equivalent to an electrical circuit).

q=

Overall Driving Force "Toverall = Resistance R

! Compare with equations 3.2a-3.2c ! The temperature difference is the potential or driving force for the heat flow and the combinations of thermal conductivity, convection coefficient, thickness and area of material act as a resistance to this flow:
Rt ,cond =
Dr. M. Khosravy

L 1 1 , Rt ,conv = , Rt ,rad = kA hA hr A
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Thermal Resistance for Plane Wall

T! ,1 Ts ,1 Ts ,2
qx =
Cold fluid

T!,2 , h2
T!,1 " Ts,1 1 / h1 A = Ts,1 " Ts,2 L / kA = Ts,2 " T!,2 1 / h2 A

T! ,1 , h1
Hot fluid

qx x=0 x x=L

T! , 2

In terms of overall temperature difference:

qx =

T",1 ! T",2 Rtot 1 L 1 + + h1 A kA h2 A

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Rtot =

Dr. M. Khosravy

True or False?
The conduction resistance of a solid increases when its conductivity increases. False The convection resistance of a fluid increases when the convection coefficient increases. The radiation resistance increases when the surface emissivity decreases.

False True

For one-dimensional, steady-state conduction in a plane wall with no heat generation, the heat flux is constant, independent of the direction of flow.

True

For the case above, the temperature distribution is parabolic.

False
Dr. M. Khosravy 12

Composite Walls
? Express the following
geometry in terms of an equivalent thermal circuit.

qx =

T!,1 " T!,4 # Rt ! Rt = Rtot = (( 1 " 1 LA LB LC 1 % Rtot + + + '= $ + A # h1 k A k B kC h4 & A

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Dr. M. Khosravy

Composite Walls
qx = qx = T!,1 " T!, 4 $T = #Rt Rtot T!,1 " T!, 4 [(1 / h1 A) + ( LA / kA A) + ( LB / kB A) + ( LC / kC A) + (1 / h4 A)]

! We can also write q in terms of an overall heat transfer coefficient, U

qx = UA!T
where

U=

1 1 = [(1 / h1 ) + (LA / k A ) + (LB / k B ) + (LC / kC ) + (1 / h4 )] Rtot A

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Dr. M. Khosravy

Composite Walls
! For resistances in series: Rtot=R1+R2+!+Rn
q1

! For resistances in parallel: 1/Rtot=1/R1+1/R2+!+1/Rn

q2

T1

q3

T2

Dr. M. Khosravy

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Example: Heat loss from the body

Determine the effect of a layer of fat on the heat loss from the body. Typical values of conductivity and thickness for the various tissues are given in the following table:

Tissue Skin Fat Muscle Bone

Conductivity (W/ m.K) 0.442 0.21 0.42 0.50

Thickness (cm) 0.25 1.0 2.0 0.75

Dr. M. Khosravy

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Example (Problem 3.15 textbook)

Consider a composite wall that includes an 8-mm thick hardwood siding (A), 40-mm by 130-mm hardwood studs (B) on 0.65-m centers with glass fiber insulation (D) (paper faced, 28 kg/m3) and a 12-mm layer of gypsum (vermiculite) wall board (C). The width of each unit is 2.5 m. ! What is the thermal resistance associated with a wall that comprises 10 of these studs stacked one next to each other? (Note: Consider the direction of heat transfer to be downwards, along the xdirection)

W=2.5 m

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Contact Resistance
The temperature drop across the interface between materials may be appreciable, due to surface roughness effects, leading to air pockets. We can define thermal contact resistance:

Rt",c =

TA ! TB q" x

See tables 3.1, 3.2 for typical values of Rt,c

Dr. M. Khosravy 18

Variations in Area
When area varies in the x direction and k is a function of temperature, the previous analysis for plane walls cannot be used ! Fourier s law can be written in its most general form:

qx = !k (T ) A( x )

dT dx

For steady-state conditions, no heat generation, one-dimensional heat transfer, qx is constant.

# qx
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xo

dx =" A( x )

To

k (T )dT
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Example 3.3
Consider a conical section fabricated from pyroceram. It is of circular cross section, with the diameter D=ax, where a=0.25. The small end is at x1=50 mm and the large end at x2=250 mm. The end temperatures are T1=400 K and T2=600 K, while the lateral surface is well insulated. 1. Derive an expression for the temperature distribution T(x) in symbolic form, assuming one-dimensional conditions. Sketch the temperature distribution 2. Calculate the heat rate, qx, through the cone. T2 T1

x2
Dr. M. Khosravy

x1 x
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Radial Systems-Cylindrical Coordinates

Consider a hollow cylinder, whose inner and outer surfaces are exposed to fluids at different temperatures

Temperature distribution

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Temperature Distribution
Heat diffusion equation (eq. 2.5) in the r-direction for steady-state conditions, with no energy generation:
1 d & dT # $ kr !=0 r dr % dr "
Fourier s law:

qr = "kA

dT dT = "k (2!rL ) = const dr dr

Boundary Conditions:

T ( r1 ) = Ts,1 , T ( r2 ) = Ts,2

Temperature profile, assuming constant k:

T (r) =

(Ts,1 ' Ts,2 ) & r # ! ln$ + Ts,2 " Logarithmic temperature distribution $ ! (see previous slide) ln(r1 / r2 ) % r 2 "
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Dr. M. Khosravy

Thermal Resistance
Based on the previous solution, the conduction hear transfer rate can be calculated: Fourier s law:

qr =

2"Lk (Ts,1 ! Ts,2 ) ln(r2 / r1 )

qr = "kA

dT dT = "k (2!rL ) = const dr dr

(Ts,1 ! Ts,2 )

ln(r2 / r1 ) /(2"Lk )

(Ts,1 ! Ts,2 )
Rt ,cond

! In terms of equivalent thermal circuit:

qr =

T#,1 " T#,2 Rtot 1 ln(r2 / r1 ) 1 + + h1 (2!r1L) 2!kL h2 (2!r2 L)

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Rtot =
Dr. M. Khosravy

True or False?
For one-dimensional, steady-state conduction in a cylidrical or spherical shell without heat generation, the radial heat rate is independent of the radial coordinate, r. For the same case as above, the radial heat flux is independent of radius. The thermal conduction resistance as we derived it in class can be applied to a solid cylinder. When adding more insulation in a pipe (i.e. a thicker layer of insulation),
the conduction resistance increases the convection resistance decreases.
Dr. M. Khosravy 24

Critical Radius of Insulation

The rate of heat transfer from an insulated pipe to the surrounding air is
qr = T1 ! T# T1 ! T# = ln(r2 / r1 ) 1 R cond ,ins + Rconv + 2"Lk h( 2"r2L )

T1 ! T# T1 ! T# q= = ln(r2 / r1 ) 1 Rcond ,ins + Rconv + 2"Lk h( 2"r2L )

q
q

rcr ,cylinder =
qmax qbare

k h 2k h
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rcr ,sphere =
Dr. M. Khosravy

Composite Walls
? Express the following
geometry in terms of a an equivalent thermal circuit.

Dr. M. Khosravy

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? What is the heat transfer rate?

qr = T!,1 " T!,4 1 ln(r2 / r1 ) ln(r3 / r2 ) ln(r4 / r3 ) 1 + + + + 2#r1Lh1 2#k A L 2#k B L 2 #k C L 2#r4 Lh4 T!,1 " T!,4

Composite Walls

= UA(T!,1 " T!,4 ) Rtot where U is the overall heat transfer coefficient. If A=A1=2pr1L:

qr =

U1 =

1 1 r1 r2 r1 r3 r1 r4 r1 1 + ln + ln + ln + h1 k A r1 kB r2 kC r3 r4 h4

alternatively we can use A2=2pr2L, A3=2pr3L etc. In all cases: 1 U1 A1 = U 2 A2 = U 3 A3 = U 4 A4 = Rt

Dr. M. Khosravy

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Example (Problem 3.37 textbook)

A thin electrical heater is wrapped around the outer surface of a long cylindrical tube whose inner surface is maintained at a temperature of 5C. The tube wall has inner and outer radii of 25 and 75 mm respectively, and a thermal conductivity of 10 W/m.K. The thermal contact resistance between the heater and the outer surface of the tube (per unit length of the tube) is R t,c=0.01 m.K/W. The outer surface of the heater is exposed to a fluid of temperature 10C and a convection coefficient of h=100 W/m2 .K. ! Determine the heater power per unit length of tube required to maintain the heater at To=25C.

Dr. M. Khosravy

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Spherical Coordinates
Fourier s law:

qr = "kA

dT dr dT dr

= "k (4!r 2 )

Starting from Fourier s law, acknowledging that qr is constant, independent of r, and assuming that k is constant, derive the equation describing the conduction heat transfer rate. What is the thermal resistance?

qr =

4"k (Ts,1 ! Ts,2 ) (1 / r1 ) ! (1 / r2 )

Rt ,cond =

1 &1 1# $ ' ! ! 4(k $ % r1 r2 "

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Dr. M. Khosravy

Example (Problem 3.59 textbook)

A spherical cryosurgical probe may be imbedded in diseased tissue, to freeze and destroy that tissue. Consider a probe of 3-mm diameter, whose surface is maintained at -30C when imbedded in tissue that is at 37C. A spherical layer of frozen tissue forms around the probe, with a temperature of 0C existing at the interphase between the frozen and normal tissue. What is the thickness of the layer of frozen tissue?

Dr. M. Khosravy

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Problem: Thermal Barrier Coating

Problem 3.23: Assessment of thermal barrier coating (TBC) for protection of turbine blades. Determine maximum blade temperature with and without TBC.

Schematic:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) One-dimensional, steady-state conduction in a composite plane wall, (2) Constant properties, (3) Negligible radiation

Problem: Thermal Barrier (Cont.)

ANALYSIS: For a unit area, the total thermal resistance with the TBC is
!1 !1 R "" tot,w = h o + ( L k )Zr + R "" t,c + ( L k )In + h i
"3 "4 "4 "4 "3 m 2 $ K W = 3.69 # 10 "3 m 2 $ K W R !! tot,w = 10 + 3.85#10 +10 + 2#10 + 2#10

With a heat flux of

q !! w = T",o # T",i R !! tot,w = 1300 K 3.69$10#3 m 2 %K W = 3.52 $ 105 W m 2

the inner and outer surface temperatures of the Inconel are

Ts,i(w) = T!,i + q "" w hi

= 400 K + 3.52!105 W m 2 500W m 2 "K/W = 1104 K

Ts,o(w) = T!,i + " 1 h i + L k $ q && # In % w

( )( )

= 400 K + 2!10"3 + 2!10"4 m # K W 3.52!105 W m 2 = 1174 K

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Problem: Thermal Barrier (Cont.) 3

Without the TBC,

"1

Rtot + hi !! ,wo = ho + L k In
qwo !! = T" ,o #T" ,i

"1

= 3.20 # 10

"3

$K

Rtot !! ,wo = 4.06!105 W/m2

The inner and outer surface temperatures of the Inconel are then

T s ,i ( wo ) = T! ,i + qwo "" hi = 1212 K

$ q && = 1293K Ts ,o( wo ) = T! ,i + " 1 hi + L k In % wo #

Use of the TBC facilitates operation of the Inconel below Tmax = 1250 K.

( )( )

COMMENTS: Since the durability of the TBC decreases with increasing temperature, which increases with increasing thickness, limits to its thickness are associated with reliability considerations.

Problem: Radioactive Waste Decay

Problem 3.62: Suitability of a composite spherical shell for storing radioactive wastes in oceanic waters.

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) One-dimensional conduction, (2) Steady-state conditions, (3) Constant properties at 300K, (4) Negligible contact resistance.

PROPERTIES: Table A-1, Lead: k = 35.3 W/m!K, MP = 601K; St.St.: 15.1 W/m!K.

ANALYSIS: From the thermal circuit, it follows that

T !T # 4 3& ! % ! r1 q= 1 " = q ( R tot $3 '

Problem: Radioactive Waste Decay

The thermal resistances are:

# 1 1 % % R Pb = # $1/ 4! ! 35.3 W/m " K & ( 0.25m ' 0.30m ) = 0.00150 K/W $ &

# 1 1 % % R St.St. = # $1/ 4! ! 15.1 W/m " K & ( 0.30m ' 0.31m ) = 0.000567 K/W $ &

# & R conv = %1/ 4! ! 0.312 m 2 ! 500 W/m 2 " K ( = 0.00166 K/W $ '
R tot = 0.00372 K/W.

The heat rate is then

q=5 ! 105 W/m3 4! / 3 0.25m

)(

)3 = 32,725 W
( )
= 405 K < MP = 601K.

and the inner surface temperature is

T1 = T! + R tot q=283K+0.00372K/W 32,725 W

Hence, from the thermal standpoint, the proposal is adequate.

COMMENTS: In fabrication, attention should be given to maintaining a good thermal contact. A protective outer coating should be applied to prevent long term corrosion of the stainless steel.

Summary
We obtained temperature distributions and thermal resistances for problems involving steady-state, onedimensional conduction in orthogonal, cylindrical and spherical coordinates, without energy generation Useful summary of one-dimensional, steady-state solutions to the heat equation with no generation is shown in Table 3.3.

Dr. M. Khosravy

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