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A practical approach
Last revision:
19 July 2006
Copy Right:
Werner Badenhorst
Contact details: Tel: +27 12 420 2587 Fax: +27 12 362 5000 e-mail: werner.badenhorst@eng.up.ac.za
INDEX
1. The Sinusoidal waveform 2. AC Voltage, Current and Power for a resistive load 3. The Root Mean Square (RMS) value 4. Capacitors and Inductors: A practical explanation 4.1 Inductors 12 4.2 Capacitors 13 5. Inductor characteristics in DC and AC circuits 5.1 DC Circuit characteristics 15 5.2 AC Circuit characteristics 17 6. Capacitor characteristics in DC and AC circuits 6.1 DC Circuit characteristics 25 6.2 AC Circuit characteristics 28 7. Resistance, Reactance and Impedance 8. Basic single phase AC circuit analysis 9. Power in AC circuits 9.1 Solving the voltages and current 9.2 Instantaneous and average power 9.3 Complex power 9.4 All is revealed 35 36 38 40
3 6 9 12
15
25
32 34 35
10. Balanced three phase AC circuit analysis and power 42 10.1 What does a balanced 3-phase AC circuit look like 42 10.2 Analysis 42 10.3 Three phase power 45 10.4 Transforming from Delta to Wye 46
47
= radian frequency = 2f
f = frequency in hertz [Hz]= /2
Figure 1.1: Three different sinusoidal waveforms illustrating differences in amplitude, frequency and phase shift.
The basic sinusoidal waveform is represented by f(t) having no phase shift and an amplitude of 2. Besides g(t) having double the amplitude of f(t), it also seems as if g(t) has been shifted 45 to the left of with respect to f(t) due to the 45 phase angle. This can clearly be seen when comparing the positions of the peaks. Thinking in a time frame this makes perfectly sense. 45s equates back to 2.5ms on a 50Hz time scale and hence the added 45 angle causes g(t) to reach its peak 2.5 ms earlier than f(t). It can also be thought of as g(t) having been given a 2.5ms head start to f(t). In terms of an equation we can relate g(t) and f(t) as follows:
g (t ) = 2 f (t + 2.5ms )
A comparison of f(t) and h(t) provides us with a few other interesting observations. First we observe that where f(t) completes only one cycle (period) in 20 ms, h(t) completes two cycles. This is due to the 100Hz frequency of h(t) being double that of f(t)s 50Hz. The second observation is that where f(t) starts out positive, h(t) starts out negative. This is due to the 180 phase shift of h(t). Mathematically f(t) and h(t) has the following relationship:
h(t ) = 1.5 f ( 2t + 180 ) = 1.5 f ( 2t ) = 1.5 f (2t + 10 ms )
As seen in equation above, a 180 phase shift can also be substituted with a negative sign. Hence the following statement will read true:
f (t ) = f (t 180) = f (t 10 ms )
The phase shift angle plays a crucial role in AC circuit analysis since capacitors and inductors causes current waveforms to be out of phase with the voltage waveforms. This will however be discussed in detail later.
each cycle. It is this alternation between a positive and negative value that led to the term Alternating Current.
i(t) v(t) R
Using the same power equation as in DC circuits, the instantaneous power dissipated in and the current flowing through the resistor R is:
p (t ) = v(t )i (t ) =
where i (t ) =
e (t ) =
p(t )dt
[J]
t0
meaning that the energy consumed at a particular point in time (t1) is the area underneath the power waveform up to that particular time (t1) relative to a starting time (t0). The total energy consumption over one period T is calculated by substituting t1 with T:
t 0 +T
t0 +T
v(t )
dt [J]
t0
Dividing the energy consumed during a period by the period results in an average rate of energy consumption, also known as the average power:
E 1 P= = T T
t 0 +T
t0
1 p (t )dt = RT
t 0 +T
v(t )
dt
t0
This can be interpreted as the area underneath v(t)2 over a single period divided by the constant being the resistance R multiplied by the period T.
Figure 2.2: Instantaneous voltage, current, power and energy (divided by factor 10) waveforms.
From figure 2.2 the following graphical observations can be made: i. The voltage and current are positive and negative at the same time, i.e. they are in phase. ii. Multiplying v(t) and i(t) in real time equals p(t) which is observed to be: a. Always positive (since v(t) and i(t) is in phase and v(t)2 is always positive) b. Double the frequency of v(t) and i(t) c. Not constant with time as with a constant DC source Both a and b are confirmed by the trigonometric identity sin( x) 2 = iii. Regarding the instantaneous power and average power: a. The instantaneous power is never negative b. The average powers value equals the amplitude of the instantaneous power. 1 {1 cos(2 x)}. 2
c. The area underneath p(t) equals the area underneath P as illustrated in figure 2.3
Figure 2.3: Graphical illustration of area underneath real time and average power being the same
iv.
The energy consumption does not increase linearly with time as with a constant DC source. Remember that the energy waveform was divided by factor 10 to allow proportional representation on the same vertical axis.
v.
Graphically or Mathematically, calculating instantaneous power and energy for an AC circuit is much more complex than calculating DC power and energy.
Isnt there an easier way?! The last observation calls for a way of simplifying AC circuit analysis such that power and energy can be calculated with the same ease as in DC circuit analysis. In order to achieve this one simply has to transform the AC source into its equivalent DC source. The core behind the transformation lies in the energy consumed by the resistor, which must be the same at any point in time using either the AC instantaneous analysis or the equivalent DC analysis. The equivalent DC value for the AC source that adheres to the above energy requirement is known as the Root Mean Square value of the AC source.
Vdc
When connecting a constant DC voltage source to the resistor, the energy dissipated in the resistor over a period T is given by. V E = dc T R Continuing with the previous example, simply substituting Vdc with the amplitude Vmax of the sinusoidal waveform results in an energy consumption of
E= 10 2 20ms = 400mJ 5
2
This is double the correct amount of energy. So what must Vdc be if not the amplitude Vmax? Surely there must be a simple conversion factor that relates Vdc with Vmax such that: Vdc = kVmax
As mentioned the key lies in the amount of energy consumed by the resistor having to be the same for both circuits in figure 3.1. It has already been shown that the energy in an AC circuit equals E = 1 R
t 0 +T
t0
V dc T. R
V dc 1 T= R R
t 0 +T
v(t )
dt
t0
This leads us to an equation that provides the RMS value for any periodic signal:
Vrms
1 = Vdc = T
t 0 +T
v(t )
dt
t0
In the case of a sinusoidal waveform we can use the existing example to determine the conversion factor k. Substituting the known energy consumption of 200 mJ over a period of 20ms into E = Vdc T , provides us with: R
2
Vdc =
The last result leads us to the conventional RMS equation for a sinusoidal waveform: Vrms = Vmax 2
Using this conversion in our example we find that: Vrms = Hence V 50 0.02 = 0.2 [J] = 200 mJ E = rms T = R 5
2
Vmax 10 = = 50 7.0711 V 2 2
In the same manner the rms current and average power can be calculated as:
I rms =
V rms R
2
and
P = Vrms I rms V V 1 2 2 = rms = I rms R = max = I max R R 2R 2
2
10
A Graphical example Figure 3.2 provides a graphical illustration showing what the equations look like in time in calculating the rms value for the function f (t ) = 2 sin t . Since the amplitude is 2 the
rms value will be
f (t ) dt
2
t0
1 T
t 0 +T
f (t )
dt = 2
t0
Step 4: Finally calculate the root of the mean of the area underneath the square: Frms 1 = T
t 0 +T
f (t ) dt =
2
2=
2 2
t0
Figure 3.2: Graphical illustration of the steps in calculating the rms value for a sinusoidal waveform.
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The objective is not to give a detail mathematical analysis of the transient responses of capacitors and inductors.
In essence inductors and capacitors are energy storage elements. The difference lies in how and the type of energy that is stored by each.
4.1 Inductors
Inductors basically consist of a magnetic metal with a conductor wound around it. When current flows through the coil, a magnetic field is created in and around the coils of the conductor according to Faradays laws.
Figure 4.1: Illustration of magnetic field created by a current in a conducting coil around a magnetic metal
This magnetic field flows through and around the coils and metal as illustrated in figure 4.1. Part of the energy provided by the current source is stored in the magnetic field.
From this it is clear that an inductor stores energy in the form of a magnetic field
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created by current flowing through the inductor coil. The stronger the current or
higher the number of coils (higher inductance), the stronger the magnetic field and the greater the stored amount of energy will be. The inductor does however have a limit as
to the amount of energy it can store and the rate at which it can store the energy, but more about this later.
It is important to realise that it takes energy out of the source to set up the magnetic field in the inductor just as a resistor takes energy out of a source and dissipates it in the form of heat. There is however a crucial difference! The energy is STORED in the magnetic field of an inductor, implying that it can be retrieved. In contrast energy in a resistor is DISSIPATED, implying it cannot be retrieved. This characteristic of an inductor will be put to good and important use in future discussions.
A detailed study of self-inductance falls beyond the scope of this work. For the purposes of this publication suffice to say that Inductance is represented by the letter L and
4.2 Capacitors
A capacitor fundamentally consists of two conductive plates separated by an insulating, dielectric material such as air or Teflon making it impossible for DC current to flow through the circuit shown in figure 4.2. Though current cannot flow, the capacitor plates are charged by the voltage source such that the plate connected to the positive terminal is charged positively and vice versa. Hence an electrical field with a potential difference v is created between the capacitor plates.
+ + +
Figure 4.2: Illustration of the electrical field created by a voltage source between two conductive plates separated by an insulator
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Should the voltage source be disconnected from the capacitor, the energy stored within the electrical field will maintain the potential difference between the two plates for a certain period of time. The time depends on factors such as the dielectric insulation used, distance between the plates, voltage of the voltage source and the area of the capacitor plates. From the above it is clear that a Capacitor stores energy in the form of an
electrical field set-up by potential difference across the capacitor plates. The higher
the voltage or the bigger the capacitor (higher capacitance) the stronger the electrical field and the more energy is stored within the capacitor. Like the inductor, a capacitor has a limit to the amount of energy it can store.
Again it takes energy out of the voltage source to set-up the electrical field. However, as with the inductor this energy is STORED within the electrical field and can hence also be retrieved. Capacitance is represented by the letter C and is measured in Farad [F].
Summary i. Inductors store energy in the form of a magnetic field created by current flowing through a conductive coil wound around a magnetic material. ii. Inductance is represented by the letter L and measured in Henrys [H] iii. Capacitors store energy in the form of an electrical field set-up by the potential difference over the two conductive plates separated by a dielectric insulator. iv. Capacitance is represented by the letter C and is measured in Farad [F].
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Figure 5.1 displays an inductor L and resistor R connected in series to a voltage source v, also referred to as a RL circuit. Assume there is no energy stored in the inductor when the switch is closed.
R + v i L vL
_
As mentioned earlier, the inductor has a limit to the amount of energy it can store and given enough time will reach a maximum. How much time? That depends on the amount of current that is allowed through the circuit, which is in turn governed by
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Ohms law (I = V/R). The larger the current, the faster the inductor will reach its maximum.
As the energy level increases towards its maximum, the inductor consumes less and less energy from the voltage source. This allows for more and more energy from the voltage source to increase the current flow through the circuit. As long as the inductor is consuming energy there is a potential difference, a voltage drop, across the inductor in the direction of the current flow (vL > 0).
The inductor is fully charged Once the inductor is fully charged, meaning the magnetic field / energy level has reached its maximum, all the energy in the voltage source is consumed by the resistor via the flow of current. When fully charged the inductor acts as a short circuit, since it is not consuming any energy from the source, allowing the current to flow freely through it. Since the potential difference across a short circuit is zero, so the potential difference across the inductor is zero (vL = 0) once the energy level and current remains constant, thereby not consuming any energy. This is illustrated in figure 5.2. R
+
R
+
vL=0
_
L vL<0
_
Figure 5.2: RL circuit with inductor fully charged, acting as a short circuit.
Figure 5.3: RL circuit with voltage source switched off, and short-circuited.
The voltage source is switched off and short circuited Next the voltage source is switched off and short-circuited, providing a closed path for the current to continue flowing. With no voltage source to supply energy to the circuit, the magnetic energy stored in the inductor is used to maintain the current flow through the circuit thereby supplying the resistor with energy. As the resistor dissipates the energy stored in the magnetic field, the current flow decreases over time until all the energy in the magnetic field has been dissipated.
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As long as the inductor is supplying the resistor with energy, the inductor is a source of energy instead of a consumer of energy. Again a potential difference appears across the inductor because of the decreasing energy level. This time however, the polarity is opposite to when the energy level increased (vL < 0), even though the direction of the current has not changed. This is depicted in figure 5.3.
What it looks like in real time Figure 5.4 illustrates what the inductor voltage vL and the current i would look like if measured with an oscilloscope.
Figure 5.4: Real time illustration of the circuit current and inductor voltage.
In figure 5.4 the switch was closed at t = 0 and at t = 25 the voltage source was switched off and short-circuited.
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vR
+ vL L = 6.14 mH
_
In other words, because the current changes direction the whole time (alternating current remember!!), the inductor is charged in one direction during the first half cycle and charged in another direction during the second half. BUT THERE IS A CATCH!!
The catch lies in momentum To explain the catch, let us first make use of an analogy, one that hopefully all can relate with: pushing a car that just wont start (for whatever reason). We pick up the action at the time when you are pushing forward at your hardest.
YOU CAR
ROAD
i.
The car is still accelerating, but it is approaching its maximum velocity due the weight of the car, the friction on the road and the fact that you cant push any harder
ii.
You start growing tired and pushing less, but still the car accelerates because the energy you are putting in is still enough to overcome the road friction with extra to put into the momentum of the car.
18
iii.
Your input keeps dropping until you finally stop pushing. At some point however the friction became strong enough to start slowing the car down. But even when you stop pushing the car keeps going forward due to the kinetic energy stored in the momentum of the car.
iv.
While the car is still moving forward you realise you were suppose to go in the opposite direction and so you run to the front of the car and slowly start pushing harder and harder in the opposite direction.
YOU CAR ROAD
v.
Does the car start moving backwards, in the opposite direction, the moment you start pushing in the opposite direction? No way!! The kinetic energy stored in the cars momentum keeps pushing forward even though both you and the roads friction are pushing in the opposite direction. The car does however keep on losing speed and at some point comes to a standstill.
vi.
Since you are still pushing backwards the car now starts accelerating backwards with the roads friction now pushing against you.
CAR YOU
ROAD
vii.
You keep increasing your energy input into pushing until again you are pushing at your hardest in a backward direction. And so the cycle can continue if you decide to push forwards, then backwards, then forwards, etc
How does this translate to and inductor in and AC circuit?? Table 5.1 provides the key to the analogy:
Table 5.1: Key to Car and Inductor analogy You and the car Your effort put into pushing Speed of the car Kinetic energy Momentum Friction of the road Weight of the car The voltage source and the inductor The potential difference of the voltage source Current flowing through the circuit Potential magnetic energy Magnetic field Resistance Inductance
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Again we pick up the action where the voltage is at its maximum: i. The current is still increasing in a positive direction, but it is approaching its peak value due to the inductance, the resistance and the fact the voltage source has reached its maximum potential difference. ii. The voltage starts dropping, but still the current increases because the energy supplied by the voltage source is enough to overcome the resistance with extra to put into the magnetic field of the inductor. iii. The voltage keeps dropping and finally becomes zero. At some point however the resistance became strong enough to start decreasing the current. But even when the voltage becomes zero the current keeps on flowing in the positive direction due to the magnetic energy stored in the magnetic field of the inductor. iv. While the current is still flowing in a positive direction and decreasing, the voltage starts increasing in a negative direction. v. Does the current start flowing in the negative direction the moment the voltage becomes negative? No way!! The magnetic energy stored in the inductors magnetic field keeps the current flowing in a positive direction even though the resistance is consuming the magnetic energy and the voltage source is pushing in the negative direction. The current does however keep on decreasing and at some point becomes zero. vi. Since the voltage is still increasing in the negative direction, the current now starts increasing in the negative direction with the resistance now again consuming energy from the voltage source. vii. The voltage source keeps increasing until it reaches its maximum negative value. And so the cycle will continue between positive and negative as long as the voltage source is on.
The important thing in the analogy you need to remember is this: You cant change the direction of a moving car instantaneously by pushing in the opposite direction due to the kinetic energy stored in the momentum of the car. Just so the voltage source cant change the direction of current flow instantaneously by changing polarity due to the magnetic energy stored in the magnetic field of the inductor.
20
Figure 5.6 provides a graphical illustration of the relationship between the voltage and the current described in the section above.
Figure 5.6: Graphical illustration of the relationship between the voltage source and the current through the inductor in time.
Observe in figure 5.6 that the current waveforms peak comes after the voltage waveforms peak in time, 2ms to be exact. The terminology used for this phenomenon where the current waveform lags behind in time with respect to the voltage waveform is as follows: The current lags the voltage by 36 degrees (2ms).
The full picture in real time Figure 5.7 looks at the entire circuit, including the voltage across the resistor and the inductor. Taking the voltage source as our point of reference it has the phasor equation of:
21
In electrical engineering AC distribution systems the convention is to give voltage and current values in RMS values. Henceforth all values will be given in RMS values and not peak/amplitude values.
The current equals I = 70.71 36 A since it is lagging the voltage by 36 degrees. The voltage across the resistor is still governed by Ohms law and since the resistance is a constant, the angle of the voltage across the resistor is the same as the
Figure 5.7: Instantaneous voltage and current in the AC RL circuit of figure 5.5
The voltage across the inductor deserves some special attention. To understand what happens, we need to go back to the DC circuit and figure 5.4. There it became evident that when the current through the inductor is increasing the voltage drop across the inductor was positive, and when the current was decreasing the voltage drop became negative. The same principle applies in AC circuits.
Looking at figure 5.7 and comparing vL(t) and i(t) you will notice that when i(t) is increasing, it causes vL(t) to be positive and vice versa. It is important to note that it is the current that induces the voltage across the inductor and not the other way around!!
22
This effect causes vL(t) to be leading i(t) by 90, or conventionally stated: The
current flowing through an inductor lags the inductor voltage by 90. Putting the
inductor voltage into phasor format gives:
Inductors and Ohms law The question now arises: Is there a way to calculate the voltage across an inductor using Ohms law like we do for a Resistor? The answer is yes! Assigning the symbol XL to the resistance of the inductor we find XL using Ohms law: VL 136.3354 = = 1.9390 = jX L I 70.71 36 Looking at the answer we notice a 90 angle represented by j in terms of a complex number. This is the same 90 angle we found when we discussed the waveforms in figure 5.7. The next component to explain is the relationship between the magnitude of 1.93 and the inductance L measured in Henry.
X L = kL
Before presenting what k is lets first use another analogy to understand the relationship. The analogy I want to use is that of moving your hand to and fro through water. If you do it slowly, it is easy to move your hand. But the faster you want to go, i.e. the higher your frequency, the more difficult it becomes to move your hand through the water.
The same principle applies to inductors. The higher the frequency of the voltage and current, the more resistance it will have because you want to charge and discharge the inductor a higher rate. So now we have established that one part of k is the frequency f. Given that the inductance used is 6.14 mH we find k to be: k= and since k = k ' f : k' = meaning that XL equals: k = 6.28 2 50 XL 1.928 = = 314.01 L 6.14 10 3
X L = 2fL = L
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XL is called the reactance of the inductor instead of the resistance because inductors consumes/stores energy for half a cycle and delivers that energy during the next half cycle back to the circuit, hence reacting with the circuit. This is unlike resistors that just dissipate energy in the form of heat. Reactance is however only a scalar, a magnitude. We found using Ohms law that: VL = jX L I So the true resistance of an inductor is not only the reactance but also includes the 90 angle. The term assigned to the vector combination of reactance and the angle is called the impedance. Note that the impedance of a resistor is R0 = R .
Having an equation with which to calculate the reactance of the inductor, we are now able to write Ohms law for an inductor:
V L = jLI = jX L I = X L I90
The road we followed to get to these VERY important equations is not exactly acceptable in mathematical terms, but it does show and explain where it comes from in a more practical way.
24
Figure 6.1 displays the RC circuit that will be used in the capacitor discussions to follow. Again assume that there is no energy stored in the capacitor when the switch is closed.
R + C v i vC
_
25
capacitor. Since there is no energy stored in the capacitor it means there is no electrical field and no potential difference across the capacitor, vC = 0 V. So how does the capacitor charge if the current cant flow?? Well
What (kind of) happens is this: The positive charge on the voltage sources positive terminal attracts electrons from the top capacitor plate leaving the top plate with more protons (positively charged) than electrons (negatively charged). Hence the top plate becomes positive. At the same time the negative charge on the voltage sources negative terminal attracts the protons on the bottom plate of the capacitor likewise leaving the bottom plate negatively charged.
Since the definition of current is the flow of positive charge and opposite that of negative charge, this movement of protons and electrons from the capacitor plates to the voltage source actually results in the flow of current through the circuit. It also
creates the illusion of current flowing through the capacitor because of the separation of charge on the capacitor plates leaving the one positive and the other negative.
The energy of the voltage source is therefore used to attract the charges from the capacitor and to move this charge through the resistor. The energy used to move the charge through the resistor is dissipated in the form of heat. However the energy used to separate the charge from the capacitor plates is converted into an electric field, which can again be extracted at a later stage.
The capacitor becomes fully charged Like the inductor, the capacitor has a limit to the amount of energy it can store in the electrical field. Current always flow from a high potential difference to a lower potential difference. Initially the capacitor voltage is 0 V, meaning a big potential difference between the capacitor and source resulting in a big positive current flowing towards the capacitor. As time passes the electric field becomes stronger increasing the voltage across the capacitor plates. This causes the current to decrease as the potential difference between the capacitor and voltage source decreases. Finally the current becomes zero when the voltage across the capacitor equals the voltage across the voltage source.
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Since the current through the circuit is now zero, the capacitor is said to act as an open circuit similarly to the inductor that acted as a short circuit. This state of the RC circuit is depicted in figure 6.2.
R C V i=0 + vC =V
_
R C V i<0 + vC <V
_
Figure 6.2: RC circuit with capacitor fully charged, acting as an open circuit.
Figure 6.3: RC circuit with voltage source switched off, and short-circuited.
The voltage source is switched off and short circuited Again the voltage source is switched off and short-circuited, putting the voltage of the capacitor across the resistor and providing a closed path for the current to flow (negative charge attracts positive charge through the resistor). Because of the potential difference across the capacitor there will be a current flowing through the resistor where the energy stored in the electrical field is dissipated as heat. HOWEVER!!! The polarity of the voltage across the capacitor wont change because the direction of the electrical field doesnt change. Hence the current flowing through the resistor is in a negative direction, opposite to when the capacitor was charging.
As time passes the resistor dissipates more and more of the energy stored in the electrical field causing the potential difference across the capacitor plates to drop. This drop in voltage again causes the current magnitude to drop until finally the voltage and current both become zero.
What it looks like in real time Figure 6.4 illustrates what the capacitor voltage vC and the current i would look like if measured with an oscilloscope.
27
Figure 6.4: Real time illustration of the circuit current and capacitor voltage.
Again switch was closed at t = 0 and at t = 25 the voltage source was switched off and short-circuited.
C = 1.65 mF
vC
_
28
Very important to remember now is that it is the difference between the capacitor and source voltages that causes the flow of current. With the inductor the change in current induced the inductor voltage. Based on this we can again use the car example we used with the inductor but with on VERY important difference:
The speed of the car is now the voltage across the capacitor instead of the current through the circuit.
You can now work through the analogy yourself.
The full picture in real time Figure 6.6 is the equivalent of figure 5.7 showing the real time voltage and current waveforms in the AC RC circuit diagram in figure 6.5.
Figure 6.6: Real time voltage and current waveforms in the AC RC circuit of figure 6.5
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The circuit component values ware again chosen to give a current that equals
I = 70.7136 A
This time however it is leading the voltage by 36 degrees instead of lagging as indicated by the +36. This means that the angle of the voltage across the 2.65 resistor also becomes positive remaining in phase with the current: VR = I R = 187.6336 V . Finally the voltage across the capacitor can be calculated from the above as:
VC = VS VR = 231.930 187.6336 = 136.33 54 V
Regarding the current in the circuit there are three observations I want to highlight: a. The current is positive whenever the voltage across the capacitor is increasing and vice versa. This underlines the fact that the current flows when the voltage across the capacitor changes due the extraction of protons and electrons. b. The current is positive whenever the supply voltage exceeds the capacitor voltage. This underlines the fact that current flows from a high potential difference towards a low potential difference. c. The current through the capacitor lags the voltage across the capacitor by 90.
Capacitors and Ohms law Similarly to finding an equation for an inductors reactance in terms of , it is also possible to find an equation for the impedance of a capacitor. Again we start of with the following: VC 136.33 54 = = 1.93 90 = j1.93 = jX C I 70.7136
The only difference with respect to XL is the angle being -90 instead of +90. If we try the same equation for calculating XC as we did XL we find that: X C = C = 2 50 1.65mF = 0.51836 This result clearly does not equal the required -1.93. A hint to the solution lies in the fact that current and voltage as swapped roles as mentioned earlier. So instead of calculating V/I let us calculate I/V to get:
30
remember the minus, for the impedance is j1.93. This brings us to the final conclusion that the reactance of a capacitor XC equals:
XC =
1 1 = 2fC C
Having an equation with which to calculate the reactance of the capacitor, we are now able to write Ohms law for a capacitor:
VC = j
I I I = = jX C I = 90 C jC C
Again, the road travelled to the solutions presented above is not mathematically sound and cannot be used as proof!! You can however find the mathematical solutions in most AC circuit literature.
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Z = R + jX = Z
This leads us to Ohms law (V=IR) written in vector format for AC circuits:
V = IZ
From this we find that the impedance of an inductor and capacitor equals: Z L = X L 90 = jX L or
Z C = X C 90 = jX C
If we combine resistors with inductors or capacitors in a circuit, the impedance will respectively be: Z = R + jX L or Z = R + jX C
Plotting these impedances on Real and Imaginary axes we get the following triangles known as impedance triangles: R Z Im XL>0
XC<0
R
R
Figure 7.1: Impedance triangles for inductive and capacitive loads combined with Resistors.
From figure 7.1 the following is found: i. The magnitude of the impedance is calculated using Pythagoras: Z 2 = R 2 + X 2 .
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Example: The objective is to calculate the total circuit impedance for each of the two circuits.
Inductive load: R = 2.65 and Z L = jL = j1.93 Z Tot = R + jX L = 2.65 + j1.93 X 2 = R 2 + X L tan 1 L = 3.2836 R Capacitive Load: R = 2.65 and Z L = 1 = j1.93 jC
Impedances in series and parallel Exactly the same rules apply as for resistors in series or parallel. The mathematics is just a bit more tedious because now you are working with complex numbers.
Exercise: Calculate the impedances for the inductors and capacitors in the circuit at 50Hz Write down Z1, Z2 and Z3 in both polar ( Z = Z ) and rectangular Z = R + jX format. iii. Calculate the equivalent impedance of the circuit between nodes a and b without the capacitor connected and draw the impedance triangle. Write all calculated impedances in polar and rectangular format. [Ans: Z = 17.6673.99 ] iv. Recalculate the equivalent impedance with the capacitor connected. What do you observe regarding the reactance and impedance angle of the new equivalent impedance compared to (iii)?
i. ii.
R1=3
L1 = 25 mH
L2 = 30 mH
L3 = 900 mH C = 173F
R2=2
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Exercise
Let us use the same AC circuit used in the last exercise only this time we connect a voltage source to terminals ab where VS = 2300 V .
a IS Vs
R1=3
L1 = 25 mH
L2 = 30 mH
I1 IC
C = 173F L3 = 900 mH
I2 I3
R2=2
i.
b Calculate all the currents (excluding IC) without the capacitor connected, giving the
results in Polar format. You might have to revisit your 2nd year circuits
ii.
Recalculate all the currents with the capacitor connected again giving the results in polar format. What do you notice regarding IS?
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ZL= j6
vL + vC
_
VS = 25 0 V
i(t)
Z=5
X=3
ZC= -j3
=36.87
R=4
Figure 9.2: Real time voltage and currents found in the RLC circuit.
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Note the phase difference of the voltages relative to the current! (5ms = 90). Also note that the inductor and capacitor voltages are 180s out of phase, when the one is positive the other is negative.
Because of the real time sinusoidal illustrations tediousness, we rather use vector diagrams to illustrate the relative magnitude and phase angles. A vector diagram for the above solution is presented in figure 9.3. 90
VL
53.13 180
I VS
0 360
-36.87
-126.87
VC
VR
270
Figure 9.3: Vector diagram of voltages and currents found in the RLC circuit.
Again note the magnitudes and angles of the voltages relative to each other and the current. The vectors rotate anti-clockwise at an angular velocity of =2f radians per second. Mentally rotating the vectors anti-clockwise clearly reveals which is leading r lagging which.
From figures 9.3 and 9.2 you would have noticed something strange (if youre sharp). The voltage across the inductor is greater than the voltage source itself!! Is this possible? Yes, but before we look into the why, lets first have a look at the power.
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Figure 9.4: Real time power for Resistor, Inductor and Capacitor.
Observe the following in figure 9.4: i. Power in resistor is always positive, has a frequency of 100Hz and an average of PR=100W.
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ii. iii.
Power in inductor also has a frequency of 100Hz but the average is 0. Power in capacitor also averages at 0 and is 180 out of phase with the inductors power.
VERY IMPORTANT TO SEE: When the inductor is consuming/storing the energy, the capacitor is releasing its energy. And when the capacitor is consuming/storing energy the inductor releases its energy. This can also be seen as a continuous exchange of energy between the capacitor and inductor through the flow of current.
Because the resistors power is always positive and has a positive average it means that the resistor is always consuming energy. Both the inductor and capacitor has an average power of 0 meaning that half the time it is consuming (storing) energy and the other half it acts as a source by releasing its energy to the other circuit elements. Because of this store/release action found in inductors and capacitors resulting in a zero average power, it cannot be seen in the same way as the power continuously consumed by the resistor. In order to distinguish between the two types of power it is given specific names. It is stated that:
The name ACTIVE energy implies that that type of energy can be used for work, something useful. It is this power that is converted into torque and heat inside a motor. The REACTIVE energy does not physically contribute to the work. However the reactive energy is responsible for creating and maintaining the magnetic fields in transformers and motors.
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Figure 9.5: Illustration of instantaneous source voltage, circuit current, active, reactive and apparent power components within the RLC circuit
A couple of observations can be made from figure 9.5. First, because the inductors and capacitors impedances are not equal, there is a non-zero resultant reactive power with an amplitude of 75 VAR. This resultant reactive power causes the total power to go negative for a short period of time. This means that for a short time during each cycle the circuit as a whole is actually acting as a source instead of an energy-consuming load. The second observation is that the average total power equals the average active/real power, 100 W. This however makes sense seeing that the average reactive power is still zero. The third observation I want to highlight is the amplitude of the total power being 125 VA
Clearly now the APPARENT power consists of an ACTIVE component and a REACTIVE component. But what is the mathematical relation between the three?
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Up to now we have written the voltage and current waveforms as sine functions. Conventionally however they are written as cosine functions to make the power function more user friendly. Writing the source voltage and circuit current as cosine functions we obtain:
v S (t ) = V p cos(t v ) V i (t ) = I p cos(t i ) A
Calculating the total instantaneous power can be done as follows:
pT (t ) = v S (t )i (t ) = V p I p cos(t v ) cos(t i )
Vp I p
Substituting the values of our RLC circuit into this equation results in:
p (t ) = 125 cos(36.87) + 125 cos(2t 36.87)
Note the following VERY important aspects: The amplitude of the apparent power S is 125 VA, which equals Vrms I rms . The average power P in the RLC circuit is 100 W, which equals Vrms I rms cos( ) where is the angle by which the current lags (or leads) the voltage. Constructing a triangle based on the above trigonometry we get:
S = 125 VA
S sin()
= 36.87
P = 100 W
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Where the remaining side of the triangle can be calculated as S sin = 75 , which equals the amplitude of the reactive power in figure 9.5. The term cos( ) is known as the POWER FACTOR, and as the POWER FACTOR ANGLE being the angular difference between the voltage and current.
So, similarly to constructing an impedance triangle as illustrated in figure 7.1, we can also construct what is called a Power triangle as illustrated in figure 9.6 applied to the RLC circuit.
P S pf P (a) (b)
Figure 9.6: Power triangles for (a) an inductive load and (b) a capacitive load.
pf Q>0 S Q<0
If the total impedance of an RLC circuit has a positive angle and reactance, it is an inductive load. If the total impedance has a negative angle and reactance, it is a capacitive load.
On the final page you will find a summary of all the formulas discussed and required.
Exercise: Complete the analysis of the RLC circuit by doing the following: i. ii. iii. iv. Calculate the power of each element Calculate the total power of the circuit Show that the sum of the individual elements power equals the total power Draw a power triangle for the circuit
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Wye connection
Delta connection
The three phases are named A, B and C. In a Wye connection there is a neutral point and hence each phase can be seen and analysed as a single-phase circuit. In the Delta connection there is no neutral point and hence needs a transformation to a Wye equivalent before it can be analysed as using single-phase analysis. We will first discuss all the aspects with regard to the Wye connected circuit before later discussing the Delta connection.
10.2 Analysis
Looking at the voltages
Figure 10.2 shows the instantaneous voltages of vAN, vBN and vCN. Notice that the voltage waveforms are 120s out of phase. Writing the voltage as phasors we obtain:
V AN = 2310V V BN = 231 120V VCN = 231120V
These voltage values are called line-to-neutral or phase voltages since they are measured between neutral and the line connecting the source to the load.
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If we measure between two lines it is called the line-to-line or line voltage. Line voltages are noted as follows and displayed in figure 10.3 alongside the phase voltages:
V AB = V AN V BN = 40030V V BC = V BN VCN = 400 90V VCA = VCN V AN = 400150V
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Notice the 30 degree shift between the phase and line voltages as well as the increase in amplitude from phase to line voltage.
From the above results we can find a VERY IMPORTANT relation between the phase and line voltage values. If we calculate
VL = 3V V = VL 3
DO NOT CONFUSE THIS WITH CALCULATING THE RMS VALUE OF A SINUSOIDAL WAVEFORM, WHICH USES A FACTOR OF
2 . THE VALUES
Since we are only looking at balanced three phase systems, the load connected to each phase must be identical. Let us connect an inductive load with a power factor of 0.9 lagging such that:
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To find the total 3-phase power we simply multiply the power of a single phase by three to find:
S 3
V 2 = 3V I = 3VL I = = L = 3I Z Z 3Z S3 = S 3 pf = 3S pf
In closing figure 10.4 shows the instantaneous single-phase power for each phase and the sum of the three single-phase powers. Notice that the sum equals a constant value. And just guess what that value is The total average 3-phase power: P3 = 1079 W
Figure 10.4: Instantaneous single phase powers and sum there of equalling P3
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Three-phase circuit analysis and calculation are usually done per-phase. This means that if a circuit is connected Y-Y, you only need to analyse one of the phases since all three phase are identical except for the 120 phase shift. When talking about per phase values, such as the per phase impedance or phase current or phase voltage, it refers to a Y-Y connected circuit.
If a circuit is not connected Y-Y, for instance Y-, or -Y or -, then that circuit is first transformed to a Y-Y circuit so that per-phase analysis can be done.
Transforming a Delta source to a Wye source has already been discussed earlier and is very easily done using:
V = VL 3
Regarding the phase angle, dont worry, you simply select VAN as your reference voltage giving it an angle of 0s. Transforming a Delta load to a Wye load is done using:
Z = Z 3
It was mentioned earlier that the phase currents in Delta circuits are not equal to the line currents. Figure 10.5 gives the relation using Kirchoffs current law:
A iAa iab a ica
I Aa = I ab I ca
Where Iab and Ica are phase currents. Going through the math you will find that
B C
I =
IL 3 30
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Vector = Z
Reactance:
Scalar = Z
XC =
X L = L = 2fL
1 1 = C 2fC
R Z * = Z tan 1 = R jX X
V Z
I * = I rms I = V Z*
I = I rms I =
pf = V I = tan 1
pf = cos( pf ) =
Q X = tan 1 P R P R = S Z
Apparent Power:
S = V rms I rms = Vp I p
P = P2 + Q2 pf V rms
2
S = S pf = P + jQ = V I * =
Z*
= I rms Z
VL = 3V
Z =
Z 3
V =
2 2
VL
S 3 = 3V I = 3VL I =
V Z
VL 2 = 3I Z 3Z
S3 = S 3 pf = 3S pf = P3 + jQ3 = 3P + 3 jQ
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