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Chapter 1: Introduction to Physics Physics (from Ancient Greek: physis "nature") is a part of natural philosophy and a natural science

e that involves the study of matter and its motion through space and time, along with related concepts such as energy and force. More broadly, it is the general analysis of nature, conducted in order to understand how the universe behaves. (Wikipedia) "Physics is an experimental science. Physicists observe the phenomena of nature and try to find patterns and principles that relate these phenomena. These patterns are called physical theories or, when they are very well established and of broad use, physical laws or principles." (Young, R.A. Freedman (2004))

Physics is one of the oldest academic disciplines, perhaps the oldest through its inclusion of astronomy. Over the last two millennia, physics was a part of natural philosophy along with chemistry, certain branches of mathematics, and biology, but during the Scientific Revolution in the 17th century, the natural sciences emerged as unique research programs in their own right. Physics intersects with many interdisciplinary areas of research, such as biophysics and quantum chemistry, and the boundaries of physics are not rigidly defined. New ideas in physics often explain the fundamental mechanisms of other sciences, while opening new avenues of research in areas such as mathematics and philosophy. Physics also makes significant contributions through advances in new technologies that arise from theoretical breakthroughs. For example, advances in the understanding of electromagnetism or nuclear physics led directly to the development of new products which have dramatically transformed modern-day society, such as television, computers, domestic appliances, and nuclear weapons; advances in thermodynamics led to the development of industrialization; and advances in mechanics inspired the development of calculus.

Branches of Physics

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Classical mechanics is a model of the physics of forces acting upon bodies. It is often referred to as "Newtonian mechanics" after Isaac Newton and his laws of motion. Mechanics is subdivided into statics, which models objects at rest, kinematics, which models objects in motion, and dynamics, which models objects subjected to forces. The classical mechanics of continuous and deformable objects is continuum mechanics, which can itself be broken down into solid mechanics and fluid mechanics according to the state of matter being studied. The mechanics of liquids and gases includes hydrostatics, hydrodynamics, pneumatics, aerodynamics, and other fields. An important concept of mechanics is the identification of conserved energy and momentum, which leads to the Lagrangian and Hamiltonian reformulations of Newton's laws. Liouville's theorem for statistical and Hamiltonian mechanics is a classical 19th century result which describes the behavior of the phase space distribution function. Liouville's theorem has a suggestive formulation, the Poisson bracket, which encodes Hamilton's equations of classical mechanics, and has analogies with the commutator in quantum mechanics. A relatively recent result of considerations concerning the dynamics of nonlinear systems is chaos theory, the study of systems in which small changes in a variable may have large effects.

Thermodynamics studies the effects of changes in temperature, pressure, and volume on physical systems at the macroscopic scale, and the transfer of energy as heat. Historically, thermodynamics developed out of need to increase the efficiency of early steam engines. The starting point for most thermodynamic considerations are the laws of thermodynamics, which postulate that energy can be exchanged between physical systems as heat or work. They also postulate the existence of a quantity named entropy, which can be defined for any system. In thermodynamics, interactions between large ensembles of objects are studied and categorized. Central to this are the concepts of system and surroundings. A system is composed of particles, whose average motions define its properties, which in turn are related to one another through equations of state. Properties can be combined to express internal energy and thermodynamic potentials, which are useful for determining conditions for equilibrium and spontaneous processes. Electromagnetism describes the interaction of charged particles with electric and magnetic fields. It can be divided into electrostatics, the study of interactions between charges at rest, and electrodynamics, the study of interactions between moving charges and radiation. The classical theory of electromagnetism is based on the Lorentz force law and Maxwell's equations. Light is an oscillating electromagnetic field that is radiated from accelerating charged particles. Thus, all of optics, the study of the nature and propagation of light, can be reduced to electromagnetic interactions. Two major fields of optics are geometric optics or "classical optics", and physical optics which study the electromagnetic properties of light to achieve greater understanding of phenomena such as interference, diffraction, and polarization.
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A more recent development is quantum electrodynamics, which incorporates the laws of quantum theory in order to explain the interaction of electromagnetic radiation with matter. Relativistic electrodynamics accounts for relativistic corrections to the motions of charged particles when their speeds approach the speed of light. It applies to phenomena involved with particle accelerators and electron tubes carrying high voltages and currents. The special theory of relativity enjoys a relationship with electromagnetism and mechanics; that is, the principle of relativity and the principle of stationary action in mechanics can be used to derive Maxwell's equations and vice versa. The theory of special relativity was proposed in 1905 by Albert Einstein in his article "On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies". The title of the article refers to the fact that special relativity resolves an inconsistency between Maxwell's equations and classical mechanics. The theory is based on two postulates: (1) that the mathematical forms of the laws of physics are invariant in all inertial systems; and (2) that the speed of light in a vacuum is constant and independent of the source or observer. Reconciling the two postulates requires a unification of space and time into the frame-dependent concept of space-time. General relativity is the geometrical theory of gravitation published by Albert Einstein in 1915/16.It unifies special relativity, Newton's law of universal gravitation, and the insight that gravitation can be described by the curvature of space and time. In general relativity, the curvature of space-time is produced by the energy of matter and radiation. Quantum mechanics is the branch of physics treating atomic and subatomic systems and their interaction with radiation. It is based on the observation that all forms of energy are released in discrete units or bundles called "quanta". Remarkably, quantum theory typically permits only probable or statistical calculation of the observed features of subatomic particles, understood in terms of wave functions. The Schrdinger equation plays the role in quantum mechanics that Newton's laws and conservation of energy serve in classical mechanicsi.e., it predicts the future behavior of a dynamic systemand is a wave equation that is used to solve for wave functions. For example, the light, or electromagnetic radiation emitted or absorbed by an atom has only certain frequencies (or wavelengths), as can be seen from the line spectrum associated with the chemical element represented by that atom. The quantum theory shows that those frequencies correspond to definite energies of the light quanta, or photons, and result from the fact that the electrons of the atom can have only certain allowed energy values, or levels; when an electron changes from one allowed level to another, a quantum of energy is emitted or absorbed whose frequency is directly proportional to the energy difference between the two levels. The photoelectric effect further confirmed the quantization of light. In 1924, Louis de Broglie proposed that not only do light waves sometimes exhibit particle-like properties, but particles may also exhibit wave-like properties. Two different formulations of
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quantum mechanics were presented following de Broglie's suggestion. The wave mechanics of Erwin Schrdinger (1926) involves the use of a mathematical entity, the wave function, which is related to the probability of finding a particle at a given point in space. The matrix mechanics of Werner Heisenberg (1925) makes no mention of wave functions or similar concepts but was shown to be mathematically equivalent to Schrdinger's theory. A particularly important discovery of the quantum theory is the uncertainty principle, enunciated by Heisenberg in 1927, which places an absolute theoretical limit on the accuracy of certain measurements; as a result, the assumption by earlier scientists that the physical state of a system could be measured exactly and used to predict future states had to be abandoned. Quantum mechanics was combined with the theory of relativity in the formulation of Paul Dirac. Other developments include quantum statistics, quantum electrodynamics, concerned with interactions between charged particles and electromagnetic fields; and its generalization, quantum field theory.

Theory

Major subtopics

Concepts

Newton's laws of motion, Lagrangian mechanics, Hamiltonian Classical mechanics,kinematics, statics, mechanics dynamics, chaos theory, acoustics, fluid dynamics,continuum mechanics

Density, dimension, gravity, space, time, motion, length, position, velocity, acceleration, Galilean invariance, mass, momentum,impulse, force, energy, angular velocity, angular momentum, moment of inertia, torque, conservation law, harmonic oscillator, wave,work, power, Lagrangian, Hamiltonian, Tait Bryan angles, Euler angles

Capacitance, electric charge, current, electrical Electrostatics, electrodynamic conductivity, electric field, electric permittivity, electric Electromag s,electricity, magnetism,magn potential, electrical resistance,electromagnetic netism etostatics, Maxwell's field, electromagnetic induction, electromagnetic equations,optics radiation, Gaussian surface, magnetic field, magnetic flux, magnetic monopole, magnetic permeability

Thermodyn amicsand s Heat engine, kinetic theory tatistical mechanics

Boltzmann's constant, conjugate variables, enthalpy, entropy, equation of state, equipartition theorem, thermodynamic free energy,heat, ideal gas law, internal energy, laws of thermodynamics, Maxwell relations, irreversible process, Ising model, mechanical action,partition function, pressure, reversible process, spontaneous process, state function, statistical ensemble, temperature,thermodynamic
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equilibrium, thermodynamic potential, thermodynamic processes, thermodynamic state, thermodynamic system,viscosity, volume, work, granular material

Path integral formulation, scattering Quantum theory, Schrdinger mechanics equation, quantum field theory, quantum statistical mechanics

Adiabatic approximation, black-body radiation, correspondence principle, free particle, Hamiltonian, Hilbert space, identical particles,matrix mechanics, Planck's constant, observer effect, operators, quanta, quantization, quantum entanglement, quantum harmonic oscillator, quantum number, quantum tunneling, Schrdinger's cat, Dirac equation, spin, wavefunction, wave mechanics, waveparticle duality, zero-point energy, Pauli Exclusion Principle, Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle

Relativity

Special relativity, general relativity,Einstein field equations

Covariance, Einstein manifold, equivalence principle, fourmomentum, four-vector, general principle of relativity, geodesic motion,gravity, gravitoelectromagnetism, inertial frame of reference, invariance, length contraction, Lorentzian manifold, Lorentz transformation, massenergy equivalence, metric, Minkowski diagram, Minkowski space, principle of relativity, proper length, proper time, reference frame, rest energy, rest mass, relativity of simultaneity, spacetime, special principle of relativity, speed of light, stressenergy tensor, time dilation, twin paradox, world line

Idealized Models and Sign Conventions Idealization is the process by which scientific models assume facts about the phenomenon being modeled that are strictly false but make models easier to understand or solve. That is, it is determined whether the phenomenon approximates an "ideal case," then the model is applied to make a prediction based on that ideal case.

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