ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE PROGRAM

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF FLORICULTURE INDUSTRIES ON LAKE ZIWAY: WITH PARTICULAR REFERENCE TO WATER QUALITY

By: Malefia Tadele

June 2009 Addis Ababa

 ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE PROGRAM

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF FLORICULTURE INDUSTRIES ON LAKE ZIWAY: WITH PARTICULAR REFERENCE TO WATER QUALITY

By Malefia Tadele

Advisors: Hammed Suliman /PhD/AAU/ Mekuria Argaw /PhD/AAU/

A Thesis Report Submitted to Addis Ababa University School of Graduate Studies as a Partial Fulfillment of MSc. Degree in Environmental Science

June 2009 Addis Ababa


Acknowledgment
First, I would like to thank the Almighty GOD, and his mother saints marry for all the things done for me, for making me strong during those difficult days. Second, I would like to thank my advisors Dr. Hameed Suliman and Dr. Mekuria Argaw for their support and advice throughout the study, without their unlimited supervision this paper may not be realized. I am sincerely grateful to Dr. Hameed for his constructive comments and suggestions. I would like to extend my sincere appreciation to the Horn of Africa Regional Environmental network for sponsoring my research, Addis Ababa University, Technology faculty for allowing me to have access to the laboratory facilities and Debre Zeit Agricultural Research Center. My heartfelt thanks goes to my beloved mother, w/z Tena Limeneh, even if she is not here today, she is always in my heart. It is because of her advice and support I am here today, and I will always remember her in my prayers until we meet in eternity. I am also grateful to my father, Ato Tadele Getahun, my sisters, brothers and friends for their advice and support. My thanks also extended to Ato Kassahun Melese for helping me to analyze the data. Lastly, I would like to thank Sher Ethiopia Flower farm workers and the people of Ziway for providing me the information needed for the thesis work and for their unreserved support during collection of the samples.


ABSTRACT
Lake Ziway is one of the rift valley fresh water lakes. The Lake have long been used as source of towns water supply, small scale irrigation, bathing, animal watering, domestic water use, fishery and eco-tourism .There is a lot of deliberation about floriculture industries located at the shore discharging untreated effluent directly in to the lake; as a result excessive fertilizer and pesticide residue from the farm is deteriorating the water quality as well as the aquatic life. Therefore, this study was proposed with the objective of assessing the impact of floriculture industries on the water quality. In order to do this, five sites were chosen on the lake near the outlet of flower farms. The first site which was used as a control was located in the upstream area before the effluent joins the lake water and the other four sites were at the downstream. A total of 60 samples were tested for physicochemical, oxygen demanding, nutrient and micronutrient parameters. The results were analyzed using SAS software to see if there were significant differences between the control and impaired sites. In addition, the results were also compared with water quality guidelines to check if the concentrations of these parameters were within the permissible limits.EC,TDS,DO,BOD,COD,NO3-,PO43,Na,Ca,Mg,k,Fe and Zn showed significant difference (P<0.05) between the control and impaired sites; whereas Cu and Cr were below detection level. The result indicated higher levels of TDS (2729.38 to 574.5176.5), EC (0.41640.044 to 1.3586.38), PH (9.050.188 to 7.980.34), COD (92.753.38 to 126.85.79) BOD (16.81.11 to 22.97.42) NO3(1.682.524 to 50.818.43) andPO43-(0.51420.41 to 6.82.8) at the impaired sites where the effluent was directly discharged without treatment. However, the concentrations of physicochemical and micronutrient parameters were relatively low in sampling sites where the effluent is treated by the farm to reduce the environmental impact before released in to the lake. The levels of PH, EC, TDS, NO3-, PO43-, Na, Mg, K, Ca, BOD, COD & DO were beyond WHO, FAO and US-EPA water quality guideline values for use as a raw public water supply, irrigation, maintenance of fisheries and aquatic life respectively. In general, the water quality of Lake Ziway has been threatened and becoming less suitable for the variety of purposes being used. Actions should be taken before the once precious fresh water Lake turn out to be seriously polluted. Environmental audit and waste water management could be possible solutions to minimize the direct discharge of fertilizer rich effluents in to the lake. Key words: Lake Ziway, Floriculture industries, water quality, Farm effluent, Water quality guidelines, waste water management

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Table of Contents Acknowledgment .........................................................................................i ABSTRACT ...............................................................................................ii Lists of Tables.............................................................................................v Lists of Figures ..........................................................................................vi Lists of Appendices ................................................................................. vii Acronyms ................................................................................................ viii 1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................1 1.1 Background and Justification............................................................1 1.2 Problem statement.............................................................................3 1.3 Objectives of the study......................................................................4
1.3.1General objective ...........................................................................................4 1.3.2 Specific objective..........................................................................................4

2. LITERATURE REVIEW ....................................................................5 2.1. Environmental Views of Floriculture ..............................................5

2.1.1. Intensive Water Use.....................................................................................6 2.1.2. Pollution of Water........................................................................................6 2.1.3. Pollution of Soil ...........................................................................................7 2.1.4. Pollution of Air ............................................................................................7

2.2. Potential Contaminants ....................................................................8

2.2.1 Fertilizers ......................................................................................................8 2.2.2 Pesticides.......................................................................................................9 2.2.3 Crop protection agents ................................................................................10

2.3 Environmental impact of horticulture and floriculture ...................11 2.4. Environmental & Worker Health...................................................12 2.5. Floriculture Development in Ethiopia ...........................................13 2.6. Environmental Standards of Floriculture Sector ...........................16 2.7 Water quality of Lake Ziway ..........................................................17 2.8 Lake Naivasha .................................................................................17

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3. MATERIALS AND METHODS.......................................................19 3.1 Description of the study area ..........................................................19
a) Topography......................................................................................................19 b) Soils .................................................................................................................19 c) Hydrology ........................................................................................................20 d) Climate.............................................................................................................20 e) Vegetation........................................................................................................21

3.2 Study Design ...................................................................................23

3.2.1 Assessment of pollutant sources near Lake Ziway .....................................23 3.2.2. Sampling ....................................................................................................23

3.3. Analytical Methods ........................................................................24 3.4 Data analysis /stastical Analysis .....................................................24 4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION.........................................................25 4.1. Physicochemical Parameters..........................................................25 4.2 Oxygen Demanding Parameters......................................................31 4.3. Nutrients (NO3- and PO43-) ...........................................................34 4.4 Micronutrients .................................................................................36 5. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION................................39 5.1Conclusion........................................................................................39 5.2 Recommendations ...........................................................................40 REFERENCES .......................................................................................41 Annexes ....................................................................................................47

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Lists of Tables
Table 2.1 Pesticides used in Colombian flowers, indicating WHO classification. ...10 Table 2.2. Major Statistics of Floriculture Development in Ethiopia......................14 Table 3.1 Altitude, area, dimension of the lake and weather summary ..................20 Table 4.1. Mean values of physicochemical parameters at 5 study sites. ...............26 Table 4.2. Guideline values for some selected parameters ...................................30 Table 4.3. Guidelines for Interpretation of water quality for Irrigation ...................31 Table 4.4 Mean values of Dissolved oxygen at five study sites ............................32 Table 4.5 Mean values of NO3- and PO43- ........................................................34 Table 4.6 Mean values of trace metals concentrations of the 5 study sites .............37

Lists of Figures
Figure 2.1.Image of flower greenhouses at the shore of Lake Ziway.15 Figure 3.1 Location map of the Study Area .......................................................22 Figure 4.1 Mean values of PH at five study sites in Lake Ziway ...........................27 Figure 4.2 Mean values of EC and TDS at 5 sites in Lake Ziway ..........................28 Figure 4.3 Mean values of turbidity along the sampling sites in Lake Ziway ..........29 Figure 4.4 Variation of total hardness at 5 study sites in Lake Ziway.....................30 Figure 4.6 Relations b/n BOD&COD at 5 sites in Lake Ziway .............................33 Figure 4.7 Mean values of NO3- at 5 study sites in Lake Ziway ...........................35 Figure 4.8 Mean values of PO43- at 5 study sites in Lake Ziway..........................36 Figure 4.9 Mean values of micronutrients at the study site in Lake Ziway ..............38

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Lists of Appendices
Annex 1. Fertilizers in use in Ethiopian Floriculture industries .............................47 Annex 2.Some of the Chemicals used in Ethiopia floriculture Industries ................48 Annex 3. ANOVA result for physicochemical Parameters ...................................50 Annex 4. ANOVA result for micronutrients ......................................................51 Annex 5. ANOVA result for nutrients and oxygen demanding parameters .............52 Annex 6. Duncans Multiple Range Test for physicochemical parameters ..............53 Annex 7. Duncans Multiple Range Test for micronutrient ...........................54 Annex 8.Laboratory Result for Physical and chemical Analysis of Water (Sample-I)

..................................................................................................................56
Annex 9.Laboratory result for Physical and chemical Analysis of Water (Sample-II)

..................................................................................................................57
Annex 10.Laboratory result for Physical and chemical Analysis of Water (Sample-III)

..................................................................................................................58
Annex 11.Laboratory result for Physical and chemical Analysis of Water (Sample-IV)

..................................................................................................................59
Annex 12 Images showing the study sites and pollution of the lake shore ..............60

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Acronyms
ANOVA APHA BOD COD DO DS/m EC EHPEA FEPA EU FAO GPS IBC ICC IPM LSD m.a.s.l MPS Me/l Mg/l MoRAD NTU S/cm PANNA SAS TDS TH TSS UNEP USEPA UWEA WHO Analysis of Variance American Public Health Association Biological Oxygen Demand Chemical Oxygen Demand Dissolved Oxygen DeciSiemen/meter Electrical Conductivity Ethiopian Horticultural Producers and Exporters Association Federal Environmental Protection Authority European Union Food and Agricultural organization of the United Nations Global positioning system Institute of Biodiversity Conservation International Code of Conduct Integrated Pest Management List Significant Difference meters above sea level Millieu Program Sierteelt mlliequivalent per liter milligram per liter Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development Nephlometric Turbidity Units micro Siemens per centimeter Pesticide Action Network North America Stastical Analysis System Total Dissolved Solids Total Hardness Total Suspended Sediment united nations environmental program United States Environmental Protection Authority Uganda Workers Education Association World Health Organization

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1. INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background and Justification

In many cultures fresh cut flowers are deeply symbolic. As a gift they embody a universal desire for connection--to other people, to the beauty of nature, to God. What is deeply ironic is the extreme disparity between the symbol and the real circumstances of their production. Fact is, the rapidly growing floriculture industry is using pesticides intensively and is poisoning its workers and the environment in a number of Latin American and African nations (PANNA, 2002). Most developing nations which have geographic advantage take floriculture as a solution to achieve rapid economic growth. Cut flowers are often taken by national governments and international development agencies like World Bank as alternative to tropical crops like coffee, bananas, and palm oil. Flowers need good light for at least 10 hours per day, possibly all year around. The temperature should be between 10-25 oC. In addition to these it needs water, land and labor. Most developing nations especially tropical countries can offer in abundance all these resources (Frank & Cruz, 2001). Ethiopia, like many other developing countries, is attempting to diversify its export base with a view to gaining new sources of income and foreign exchange; and thus reducing its exposure to price volatility that typify international markets. Besides, the country is benefiting from this development through creating employment opportunity for unemployed citizens. Recently, Floriculture is booming in the country but there are a number of challenges that must be resolved to continue the development of the sector with present rapid speed. Among the challenges include environmental impacts of the sector which can create pressure on the sustainability and market acceptability of flower industries. There are around 120 chemicals that enter the country for the floriculture industry which are found on the world health organization negative pesticide list, while environmentalists have characterized some of these chemicals as having carcinogenic potential, Such hazardous chemicals are used in the flower farming sector in Ethiopia.


The type and amount of pesticides and agro-chemical products being used, the manner of their usage and their very disposal are creating concerns. In the future, these problems could have a large impact on the countrys environmental health as well as develop in to long-term health concerns for workers (PANNA, 2002). Recently, a large scale horticulture and floriculture greenhouse complex has been established at the shore of Lake Ziway providing new and badly needed employment opportunities to the local population, which mainly depends on smallholder agriculture while a part receives food aid. On the other hand, this development will further increase the pressure on local water resources as the greenhouses depend on surface water from Lake Ziway for irrigation, while other inputs (nutrients and biocides) may increase the risk of environmental pollution ( Hengsdijk and Jansen, 2006b). Lake ziway is well known for its aquatic bird life and other aquatic animals such as the 11 fish species (of which one is exotic), various species of phytoplankton, zooplankton and other micro flora, there are also terrestrial plants and animals found around the lake constituting its fauna and flora. However, Lakes resources have been misused causing resource degradation and ecosystem disturbance (IBC, 2005). The need to use waters of the Ethiopian Rift- valley Lakes and their inflows for agricultural, domestic and industrial purposes is increasing; but there seems to be little knowledge as to whether these water bodies are chemically suitable for the purpose of their intended uses. Utilization of the water bodies without information on their chemical composition could be both a health threat and cause degradation of the environment (Zinabu Gebre-Mariam, 2003).


1.2 Problem statement
The intensive use of agro-chemicals in modern floriculture may have detrimental effects on human health and the environment. There is an increasing evidence and concern that the current economic benefits of the flower industry come at the expense of workers and the environment. Several studies indicated that the most visible impact of floriculture on the environment comes from the massive use of toxic chemicals including fertilizers, pesticides, fungicides, insecticides, nematocides, soil fumigants as well as plant growth regulators. Floriculture industries located at the shore of Lake Ziway have been putting pressure on the water quality of the lake through discharging effluents containing chemicals directly in to the water. Effluents from the farm are causing algal blooms around the outlet of the farm which is driven by excessive nitrate and phosphate residues. Besides, pesticides from the effluent can migrate via water in to the food chain as well, ultimately being consumed by humans/ Animals in food. Each farm has a water way from the greenhouse to the lake, which is used to drain effluents; the roof runoff from the greenhouse also makes its way to the lake. In addition, Fertilizer and pesticide residues from washing of equipments, leakages from the vocum house directly discharged in to the Lake via the water way without any waste water treatment procedures to reduce the pollutants. Some of the floriculture farms at the shore of the lake are MPS certified; these farms have been applying waste management techniques to reduce environmental impacts. However, most of the farms are not taking any measure instead the effluent from the greenhouse directly discharged in to the lake. The Lakes resources have been misused causing resource degradation and ecosystem disturbances. Delays in reversing the deterioration process may result, not in a distant future, in the depletion /extinction of the Lakes biodiversity followed by the lake facing the fate of Lake Alemaya which was dried. Lake Ziway is used for a variety of purposes such as source of the towns water supply, small scale irrigation, domestic water use, fishery and eco-tourism, growing commercial flowers around the lake without considering the environment highly 3


affects the water quality of the lake, the aquatic life as well as the fragile ecosystem of the rift valley (Tenalem and Dangnachew, 2007). These farms should not be located in ecologically sensitive areas, unless the industry uses safe disposal techniques for the wastes; the farm is polluting the lake and damaging the suitable environment for the aquatic life. As far as the researcher is concerned, there is no research conducted on the environmental impacts of floriculture around Lake ziway. This study tried to address the impact of these industries on the water quality of the Lake, in which the floriculture industry is located.

1.3 Objectives of the study 1.3.1General objective

The overall objective of this study was to assess the impact of floriculture industries on the water quality of Lake Ziway.

1.3.2 Specific objective

To determine the level of physicochemical, oxygen demanding and nutrient parameters To compare results obtained in samples collected in the impaired sites with control samples. To check if the results obtained are within the range of water quality guidelines for irrigation, use as raw public water supply, maintenance of fisheries and aquatic life. To recommend possible solutions on the environmental management of the farm.


2. LITERATURE REVIEW
Globally the flower industry uses a wide range of pesticides, and there are reports that these have caused both human health and environmental problems in countries where flower farming started more than a decade ago. It is known that a range of pesticides are imported in large quantities for Ethiopias flower farming industry. It is also known that these are often used without going through the registration system of Ethiopias Ministry of agriculture and rural development, a requirement for pesticides used on food crops. Floriculture already earns Ethiopia $20m a year. But environmentalists are concerned that growers are using chemicals which are damaging the environment and making workers ill. The major concerns are social concerns- working rights and decent working conditions and environmental concerns .For example, if you take the pesticide issue, pesticides are about workers conditions and also about the environment. Floriculture is relatively young industry in Ethiopia with the first commercial farming only started by a Dutch company in 1984. Initially flower farming only occupied about 20 hectares until the industry started to expand in 2003. By 2006, 2,000 hectares of land was dedicated to flower production, with 65 flower farms established, 38 of which had already started production. This number has continued to increase with over 70 currently in existence. The rift valley in Ethiopia is a hot spot for flower production. Water availability and transport links provide suitable conditions for the young industry. One large company Sher Ethiopia now occupies about 300 hectares in Ziway (Nigussu and Tadesse, 2008).

2.1. Environmental Views of Floriculture

Environmental implication of floriculture involved the intensive use of water as well as soil, the water and air pollution because of its intensive and toxic chemical usage and waste disposal system of the industries.


2.1.1. Intensive Water Use One of the major environmental issues in which floriculture industry accused is the intensive uses of water. There are water shortages in the towns and villages in most floriculture areas; because flower production requires its use in large quantities (USEPA, 1990). The consumption of water for the production of cut flowers reached 60,000 litter/ ha/ day. For example, after intensive water use by floriculture, the water table has dropped under the savanna surrounding Bogota (David, 2002). According to the findings of study one of the cases which rise conflict between the floriculture farms of Ecuador and the neighboring community is depletion of water in the surrounding (Frank & Cruz, 2001). Fishermen and local residents living on the shores of Lake Naivasha in Kenya have recently made alarming announcements that the water levels of the Lake have been dropping for the past several years, fish stocks are declining and the lake is being polluted by chemicals. The blame for this situation has been put on the flower industry around the lake. Approximately 30 large flower farms, mainly producing cut flowers for the European markets, are situated around the lake. The flower industry is using water from the lake for irrigation purposes; Lake Naivasha is the only fresh water ecosystem in the Eastern Rift Valley with area between 114 and 991 square kilometers; depending on the rainfall (Becht et al., 2006). 2.1.2. Pollution of Water As floriculture industries use of excessive amounts or improper application of fertilizers and pesticides, may result in harmful chemical contamination of groundwater. In Costa Rica, pesticide residues of floriculture industries are directly discharged into waterways, pesticide equipments are washed into streams and rivers, and runoff is allowed to enter, aquifer recharge areas (David, 2002). Contamination of the main sources of water supply for human consumption, the intensive use and disposal of chemicals, freely released into the natural water basins is common problem in Colombia with floriculture industries. In Ecuador also the disposal of contaminated water in to natural water ways creates conflict with neighboring communities (Cathrine and Kristina, 2003).


Lake Naivasha in Kenya floriculture farms has been accused of polluting the lake water through extensive use of chemicals, which has had a heavy effect on the lake's biodiversity. Fishermen highly blame that fish stocks are declining and the lake is being polluted by chemicals. Because of this there is usually conflicts raised between the community and the flower farms and some of them are feeling insecurity to produce comfortably (Becht et al., 2006). 2.1.3. Pollution of Soil One of the most visible impacts of floriculture industries on the environment is the depletion of the soil through the intensive usage of fertilizers and chemical as well as during the waste disposal of cut flowers. The different types and amount of chemicals exposes the soil to loss its natural fertility. They have different character and reacted differently when they apply to the soil and change its texture, acidic value and fertility. Researcher from Colombia stated the treats that Flower farmers in Colombia dont realize that the intensive use of the soil, the water and the intensive and excessive use of chemicals is going to convert the Savannah of Bogota into a sterile land, (USEPA, 1996).

2.1.4. Pollution of Air

Air pollution caused by flower industry has given rise to various conflicts with the neighboring communities. The pesticides applied in the greenhouses travels an average distance of 1,500 miles, adding significantly to global warming and air pollution (Anonymous, 2003). UWEA (2006) mention in its research in Ugandan floriculture industries the neighboring communities of flower farms complain of a smell when spraying is going on at the farm. It was reported that bees necessary for pollination have disappeared due to spraying hence poor yields in the surroundings. The findings of IEDECA in Ecuador also showed that one of the reasons for rising of conflicts between flower farms and the surrounding communities were the smell released from the floriculture industries during the application of pesticides. Thus, they include in one of local legislation that companies now set grounds leaving distance of 1000 m from the


residential areas and that 20% of the companies ground be left for green areas and fences ( Frank & Cruz,2001).

2.2. Potential Contaminants

Pesticides and fertilizers used in the normal course of growing plants are the most important potential threats to groundwater. Pesticides having high leaching potentials, high surface loss potentials, or which are persistent in soil are of greatest concern. One reason aldicarb was removed from the market was its large leaching potential. Oxamyl, diazinon, and demeton-s-methyl are examples of some active ingredients in commonly used pesticides with large leaching potentials. Dicofol, benomyl, endosulfan, and fluvalinate are examples of chemicals which move readily in sediment on the soil surface. Method of application, pesticide formulation, soil type, and microbial activity in the soil are some other factors which affect how much chemical may reach the groundwater (Hengsdijk and Jansen, 2006b).

2.2.1 Fertilizers
Use of excessive amounts of improper application of fertilizers and pesticides may result in harmful chemical contamination of ground water (David, 2002). Fertilizers are significant pollution treats because of their high solubility and the frequent application of large volumes of irrigation water (Thrupp and Lori Ann, 1998). Nitrogen and phosphorus must be managed carefully to ensure that excessive amounts do not degrade water quality. Too much nitrogen and phosphorus along with carbon in surface water cause eutrophication (excessive algae growth) in rivers, lakes, and ponds (David, 2002). The reverse is also true; decreasing the losses of nitrogen and phosphorous from agriculture does not quickly change eutrophic waters to pristine waters (Restrepo, 2002). In floriculture, the use of fertilizer nutrients is extremely high due to the high crop demand and the year-round production of cut-flowers. Data for Ethiopia are notavailable, but the Dutch standards are 1190 kg N /ha and 280 kg p/ha for roses cultivated under artificial light. It is expected that nutrient rates in Ethiopia are in


same range. In non-circulation systems fertilizer use may be higher due to leaching losses.

2.2.2 Pesticides
In the U.S., flower imports are not inspected for pesticide residues because they are not edible; however, since flowers are considered as an agricultural product, they must be pest- free when imported. As a result, trade regulations in countries like the U.S. and Japan actually promote use of highly toxic fumigant methyl bromide, also, a potent ozone depleter, for some flower exports (Restrepo, 2002). According to Maharaj et al. (1995) rose producers in Ecuador use an average of six fungicides, four insecticides, and three nematicides (nematode poisons), along with several herbicides. Some of the toxic insecticides and nematicides, including methyl parathion, terbufose, and aldicarb are restricted heavily in the united states because of the health hazard they pose. According to Meer and Vander (1997) methyl bromide, an ozone depleter and a categoryl acute toxin, is a heavily used and is among the most dangerous toxic substances known. There exists a wide array of other pesticides with known health risks. Some fungicides used, such as Mancozeb and Captan are suspected carcinogens, and such herbicides as paraquat, are extremely toxic through any route of exposure, whether absorbed through the skin, inhaled, or somehow ingested. These chemicals are dangerous, let alone when they are coupled with the method of usage and the conditions in which they are utilized. Many of these substances are applied daily in warm, poorly ventilated greenhouses, where high levels of toxic vapours can accumulate and where contact to these pesticide residues is close to impossible to avoid by workers. According to Sandra (2000), flower greenhouses in Morels state Mexico, applied 36 different chemicals, including the persistent organochlorines, DDt, aldrin, and dieldrin (Megara and John, 1999).

Table2.1 Pesticides used in Colombian flowers, indicating WHO classification. Pesticides Insecticides aldicarb cypermethrin deltamethrin dichlorvos endosulfan fenvalerate Lambada cyhalothrin malathion methamidophos mevinphos Fungicides acephate benomyl captan chiorothalonil Copper hydroxide Copper oxychloride mancozeb Methyl bromide fumigant III III III III III III III Ia Ia II II Ib II II II III Ib Ia Levels of toxicity

Ia= extremely hazardous Ib= highly hazardous II= moderately Hazardous III=slightly hazardous

(Meer and Vander, 1997) 2.2.3 Crop protection agents The use of crop protection agents in floriculture generally is high, especially in roses. Data for Ethiopia are not available, but in the Netherlands producers of roses use on average 68 kg active ingredients per ha (Hengsdijk and Jansen, 2006b). The Netherlands has a very strict admission policy for crop protection agents and most toxic agents are not any longer permitted.

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The policy of the Ethiopian government in this respect is unknown but most likely less regulated. Therefore, total use of crop protection agents in Ethiopia may be lower but may contain more toxic substances. In a fairly new production environment as Ethiopia pest and disease pressure (and related use of crop protection agents) may be initially lower, but it will soon reach levels as in other production areas requiring similar input levels as elsewhere. For rose cultivation, insects are a greater threat than for vegetables, while insecticides are most toxic for humans and aquatic organisms.

2.3 Environmental impact of horticulture and floriculture

Since the producers of flowers use closed systems, they are much better able to control input use (water, nutrients and pesticides) than vegetable growers, which depend on prevailing rainfall conditions, drainage the soil, airborne crop infections, etc. Especially in greenhouses equipped with recirculation systems, input use can be managed better. Input use per se is not an adequate indicator of emissions to the environment in floriculture. Emissions will depend on the type of applied crop protection agent (mobility, decomposition rate, etc.), practiced irrigation regime, intensity of drainage and recirculation, type of substrate, etc. Therefore, emissions of greenhouses are very location (greenhouse)-specific and it is hard to draw general conclusions (Hengsdijk and Jansen, 2006a). Much information is lacking, which is required for performing a proper environmental impact assessment of the horticulture and floriculture sector in the CER valley. However, the little data available gives an indication of the potential impact of floriculture development on the regional water resources in relation to current open field vegetable production. In general, input use (water, fertilizers and crop protection agents) per ha is higher in greenhouses than in open field vegetable production as a consequence of the crop characteristics, quality requirements for export to the EU and the year-round production. Current irrigated area along the Bulbula River, including vegetable and livestock production covers at least 1300 ha and may exceed 2500 ha. Legesse et al. (2004)

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estimate current water extraction from the Bulbula River for domestic and irrigation water at 58 million m3 of which the majority is used for irrigation water purposes. An area of 200 ha of greenhouses with an annual water use of 15000 m3 ha-1 would increase the irrigation water extraction with only 3 million m3. Differences in emissions of polluting substances, such as nutrients and residues of crop protection agents should be considered in the same (scale) context. The use of fertilizers and crop protection agents per ha will be higher in floriculture but the related environmental impact depends on the scale of production. 2.4. Environmental & Worker Health Pesticides can cause cancer, birth defects, reproductive and nervous system damage, and floriculture workers are exposed at numerous stages of plant growth. Worker exposure is of particular concern in greenhouses, where up to 127 different chemicals are used in enclosed spaces--increasing risk of exposure through the skin and by inhalation. A study of fern and flower workers in Costa Rica found that over 50% of respondents had at least one symptom of pesticide poisoning, such as headache, dizziness, nausea, diarrhea, skin eruptions or fainting. In Ecuador, nearly 60% of workers surveyed showed poisoning symptoms, including headaches, dizziness, hand-trembling and blurred vision. Reproductive problems are also a concern; studies of the largely female workforce in Colombia found moderate increases in miscarriages and birth defects among children conceived after either parent started working in floriculture (David, 2002). A Danish study of Colombian flower workers concluded that female floriculture workers had reduced ability to become pregnant, and that sperm concentrations were 40% lower in male workers with long term exposure (more than 10 years). Indications of genetic damage were also found in studies of workers exposed to organochlorines in greenhouses in Mexico.

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2.5. Floriculture Development in Ethiopia
In recent decades, the global demand for cut flowers has grown considerably. This growth in market demands and its diversification value has attracted increasing numbers of developing countries to the global fresh flower trade. These reasons seem to make Ethiopia come in to the picture of this business. But some people say that Ethiopia gives attention for this sector because the European production cost skyrocketed. European cut flower growers (especially Netherlands) have been looking to other continuities for more affordable conditions as experienced other East African countries like Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda (Nancy, 2006). Though floriculture development in Ethiopia blooming in recent years, it started for commercial purpose in 1980/81 which is now twenty six years ago. The first fresh cut flowers production was commenced in 1981 /82 crop season. The Derge regime had established Horticulture development corporations where government was responsible both for regulation and production even for marketing of horticultural products including flowers. During that time the production and export of cut flowers in Ethiopia was not established with well planned and aiming of profit seeking but foreign exchange earnings (Ethiopian Horticultural Strategy, 2007). As a result of this, the industry was one of the highly subsidized sub-sectors during the Derge regime (Sisay, 2001). Floriculture was started to show modest increase in 1990s by 2-3 % from the agricultural output of the country. In 2001 it contributed $ 4.7 million to the countrys foreign currency earnings. But it was not as such significant enough to say it was important sector to develop the countrys economy. In five years the total export earnings increased at least five times that figure. Because of the Government of Ethiopia gave more attention for favorable investment condition and a more enabling atmosphere for private sector development the floriculture sector started to grow incredibly for the last few years. The first private floriculture producer started around 1997, a second in 1999. From 2001 onwards, other growers started coming in and according to Trade and Industry floriculture industries under production reached 65 in the year 2006 (Ethiopian Horticultural Strategy, 2007).

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These government support initiatives attract more and more investors and it helps Ethiopia to have better comparative advantage as compared to other production countries in the region together with near to ideal agro climatic condition, proximity to EU market and relatively cheap labour. Hence the sector is growing dramatically (Table 2.1). In 2006 Ethiopia was the second largest exporter of large roses to the Dutch auctions (after Kenya) and the third largest supplier for small roses (after Kenya and Uganda) (Ethiopian Horticultural Strategy, 2007) Table2.2. Major Statistics of Floriculture Development in Ethiopia
Year Number of Farms
2001/02 _ _

Cultivated Area(ha)

Number of Export stems

_

Export value (USS)

305000

2002/03 2003/04 2004/05 2005/06 2006/07

_ _ 30 69 80

_ _ 150 345 645

16000000 32000000 83000000 186000000 1114000000

2900000 5500000 12700000 26900000 113000000

Source: Ministry of Trade & Industry (Oct 2006)

The recently initiated flower production areas are mainly around Addis Ababa, Upper Awash valley and Lake Ziway. Addis Ababa, the capital, with its altitude elevated about 2000 meters is the most suitable place for the production of high quality roses. Besides its suitable weather, all the infrastructures like roads, power, telecommunication and water have been availed for the investors in floriculture sector. (http://www.ethiopiaemb.org.cn/investpolicy.htm). Most of foreign and domestic investors on flower production have started their production on this area. It is also practically witnessed that Ethiopian highlands provide Near Ideal growing condition for roses. In the Upper Awash Valley with an altitude spanning from the range of 1200 to 1400 meters and the farms are located along the length of the River Awash with in 149

14


220 km away from the capital. Lake Ziway which is located in the southern region of the country (165 km from Addis Ababa), the farms situated between Lake Ziway and the main highway with altitude ranges between 16001700 m above sea level.

Figure 2.1.Image of flower greenhouses at the shore of Lake Ziway Among the resources which make Ethiopia favorable for floriculture development is water and irrigable land resources which the country has and the flower needs in abundant. Ethiopia has 122 billion cubic meter surface water, 2.6 billion cubic meter ground water, 12 river basins, 18 natural lakes including the rift valley lakes and a potential of 3.7 million hectares irrigable land. About 80 90 percent of these resources are located in the west and south west of the country where close to 40 percent of the Ethiopian population lives and 10 20 percent of these resources are located in the east and central part where most of the population has settled. But the above principal production sites are located within the low resource available and highly populated areas (Ethiopian Horticultural Strategy, 2007). Most of the Floriculture farms are largely confined around the vicinity of Addis Ababa. Most farms are located in West Shewa particularly located in Holleta, Sebeta and Addis Alem while the rest are more or less evenly distributed in the Rift Valley and the Awash River Basin systems (Nancy, 2006). The fact of the matter is that Ethiopia is still in the beginning stages of floriculture industry and there are a number of challenges that must be resolved to continue the development of the sector with the

15


present rapid speed. Among the challenges include social and environmental impacts of the sector which can create pressure on the sustainability and market acceptability of flower industries. According to recommendation given on the Development strategy for the exportoriented horticulture in Ethiopia based on the stakeholders discussions at the workshop on February 9th, 2007, Ethiopia needs development of a conducive legislative framework and pesticide registration system which is felt under responsibility of Government especially Ministry of Trade and Industry and Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development as well as development of a Code of Conduct at sectoral level to demonstrate compliance with general standards (environment, workers welfare, etc) with responsibilities of Ethiopian Horticultural Producers and Exporters Association (Ethiopian Horticultural Strategy, 2007). Currently, the Ethiopian Horticultural Producers and Exporters Association (EHPEA) initiated the development of an Ethiopian Code of Practice on sustainable flower cultivation. This initiative responds to a request of the EHPEA members to develop a sector broad tool to respond in an effective way to the growing demand by various stakeholders for corporate social responsible farm management. This initiative has been one of the strategic actions of EHPEA for 2006 and 2007, and is supported by the Netherlands throughout the Dutch Ethiopian horticulture partnership (Ethiopian Horticultural Strategy, 2007).

2.6. Environmental Standards of Floriculture Sector

MPS (Horticultural Environmental Program)

The Dutch Horticultural Environmental Program MPS (Millieu Program Sierteelt) was introduced not only for the flower but for the whole horticulture industry in the Netherlands. It started in early 1995, especially to improve the image of the Dutch flower industry. The following year it was extended to other European countries (Belgium and Denmark), since 1998 also the southern countries (Israel, Kenya, Tanzania, Zambia, Zimbabwe, contacts in Latin America and Asia). Some of the farms near Lake Ziway are also MPs certified and these farms have better management of their effluents. By the end of 1999 exactly 3,633 farms were 16


registered in MPS, the big majority of those (3309) were from Holland (Frank & Cruz, 2001). The MPS standard is the dominant code on the European market and many African and European flower producers comply with the standard (Ethiopian Horticultural Strategy, 2007). MPS is not a code based on fixed criteria but more an environmental management system, based on a comparison among the farms with regard to the use of pesticides, fertilizer and energy ( in Africa also water ) and the waste management . Due to the public pressure in Holland and other parts of the world, MPS is working on a Social chapter since 1998, which is existing as the 5th version as of now. Recently, in a very interesting development, after a lot of public pressure and debate, a letter of intent has been signed to include ICC in to MPS (Frank & Cruz, 2001).Some of the floriculture industries in Ethiopia are also MPS certified, they are working with the Ethiopian Horticultural Association to reduce their impact on the environment. 2.7 Water quality of Lake Ziway Lake Ziway is one of the rift valley fresh water Lakes, having a low salt concentration. The total dissolved solids range between 200 and 400mg/l (Kebede, 1994; Gashaw, 1999). The total dissolved solids in the Bulbula River (outflow from lake) and Meki River are similar (300-400 mg/L), the salt concentration of the water in the Ketar River is less than 200 mg/l (Gashaw, 1999). The pH is neutral to slightly alkaline. The predominant ions in the Meki and Ketar River are calcium and bicarbonate. The Bulbula River and Lake Ziway have a relative abundance of sodium and bicarbonate. The different water composition can be explained by the geology of the area. The main source for sodium is the dissolution of sodium containing rock minerals. As there is relatively much interaction between water in the (shallow) lake and the rocks, the sodium concentration rises in the lake (as well as in the out flowing Bulbula River) (Gashaw, 1999). 2.8 Lake Naivasha The more than 30 flower farms in the Lake Naivasha region pose a number of serious ecological problems for Kenyas rivers and for the lake, including loss of water, an 17


unsustainable increase in the population because of the laborers they have attracted, and the over pumping of water from the Lake to the flower greenhouses and a ditch where waste water drained back in to the lake. Pesticides and fungicides were plainly visible in a storage facility on the property. If action isnt taken immediately, the lake will not only be polluted, it will be drained. The overuse of water has taken its toll. Scientists have concluded that Naivashas water levels are 10feet lower than what is healthy. Prior to the proliferation of the flower farms and the subsequent decline in water levels, Lake Naivasha was one of the worlds top ten sites for birds, with more than 350 recorded species. It was also renowned for its sparkling clear water and the papyrus plants and water lilies that could be found at its edges. Much of this plant life has disappeared, eaten by the crayfish or destroyed by the grazing animals that trample it as they seek the receding waters. And in the past two years, the number of hippos has dropped by more than 25 percent because of decreased water levels. The pesticides applied on the farms and in the greenhouses eventually end up in Lake Naivasha and in the ground water, endangering the areas people and wildlife, including hippos, fish and birds. There is no legal framework guiding the use of water from Lake Naivasha. The flower farms, through the Lake Naivasha Growers Association and Lake Naivasha Riparian Association, have drafted their own selfregulation codes for responsible water use. Over the years, however, environmental lobbyists have raised concern over the uncontrolled sinking of boreholes to get water (Becht et al., 2006).

18

 3. MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 Description of the study area
The study was conducted around Lake Ziway, the Great Rift Valley zone of Ethiopia. It is situated in east showa zone of oromia region at about 160km from Addis Ababa. Lake Ziway has an open water area of 434 km2, average depth of 4 m, and an elevation of 1636 m.a.s.l. The Ziway Watershed falls in between 715N to 830N latitude and 38E to 3930E longitude covering a total area of about 7300 km2. It is composed of two main rivers flowing into the lake, Meki and Katar, and one river flowing out of the lake, Bulbula. Floriculture industries are situated between Lake Ziway and the main highway with altitude ranges between 16001700 meters above sea level (MoWR, 2006).

a) Topography
The dominant landform of Ziway plain, which includes Lake Ziway, is flat lacustrine terrace with Andi-Eutric Fluvisols Sodic phase, gently undulating terrace with mollic and Eutric Fluvisols and nearly level lacustrine plain with Andi-Mollic Fluvisols. The altitude of the area varies from 1,650 to 1,850 m.a.s.l. The Rift floor slopes from north to south into central trough, which contains the lakes Ziway, Shalla and Abijata(IBC, 2005).

b) Soils
The soils in the rift valley have been derived from the parent materials i.e., from ignimbnites, unwelded pumicious, pyroclastics some coarse beds of lacustnne sediments and alluvial deposits. Soils in the eastern and western swampy margins of the Lake are coarse textured with organic loam topsoil over pumic sand. Silty clays have developed on fine textured alluvium along the deltas of rivers Meki and Katar. Alkaline sub soils occur in all areas except the mid-Meki valley. The mid-Meki valley is dominated by heavy-textured soils, which are neutral in reaction (Makin et al., 1974).

19


The terraces of the Lake to the east of Bulbula River and seasonally flooded grasslands bordering the Lake comprise coarse-textured soils on pumice Soils affected by both high salinity and alkalinity occur fairly extensively along the north eastern, northwestern and southeastern shores of the Lake and to the north-west of Adami Tullu. c) Hydrology Precipitation in the basin, as in the tropics, is very high although there is a time-to-time variation in distribution. hydrological cycle. However, due to There is also high groundwater recharge the layering controls and limited directly from precipitation. This recharge is therefore an important element in the groundwater storage capacity of the volcanic ash, retention of groundwater is only for short period perhaps for a few years. In addition to precipitation, there is indirect groundwater recharge from rivers flowing across the valley floor. These rivers, which receive flow from the groundwater systems, normally terminate in lakes and rivers (IBC, 2005).

d) Climate
Ziway has steppe climate of semi-arid type. There was a climatic change over the last three decades due to erratic rain and temperature variation in the rift valley ecosystem. The East-South monsoon has an influence on the Rift Valley Lakes. Ziway-Abijata-Langano climatic complex covers an area of over 10,700 km2. Table3.1 Altitude, area, dimension of the lake and weather summary
Altitude m.a.s.l Area Km2 Width km Length km RF (mm/yr) max mean min Temp.

1650

434

20

25

600-800

28

20

12

Source: Meteorological Data Collected at Ziway Agricultural Research Center

20


e) Vegetation
There is no closed woodland found in the plain area. Dense woodland and trees around the lake were used to support variety of wildlife. Now, however, they are degraded due to their conversion into different land uses. The areas around the Lake have now been left with only patches of remnants wood and bush lands. According to Zerihun Woldu and Mesfin Tadesse (1990), the dominant tree species are A. tortilis, A. seyal, A.snegal, A. etbaica, A.albida, Balanites aegyptica and Dichrostachy cinerea. In addition, other woody species like Olea europea sub sp. cuspidata and Acokanthera shimperi grow in the escarpments of the hills bordering the lake, whereas species like Commiphora shimperi, Rhus natalensis and Cordia monoica characterize recovering and protected sites in lower altitudes.

21

Figure3.1 Location map of the Study Area

22


3.2 Study Design
3.2.1 Assessment of pollutant sources at the shore of Lake Ziway A reconnaissance survey has been conducted around the lake area to identify the sources of effluents. There are 11 farms inside the Flower Company; some of the farms already put in to practice waste water management techniques. However, most of the farms directly discharge the effluent in to the Lake without any waste water treatment procedures. Each farm has a pipe and a waterway from the greenhouse to the Lake, which is used to pump the water from the lake and to discharge the effluent back. Based on the site survey, five points were chosen along the greenhouses to assess the concentration of physicochemical, nutrients, micronutrients and oxygen demanding parameters. In order to see the impact of the farm effluent on the water quality of the Lake, the first site (SS1) was chosen at the upstream area 1km away from the farm which is used as a control, SS2 was located at the point of disposal of the first three farms which have been applying waste water management techniques to reduce the impact on the Lake. SS3 were chosen at the point of disposal of flower farms which doesnt apply waste management techniques and SS4 were around the newly constructed greenhouse. The last site (SS5) was located at the downstream area a little bit far from the greenhouses which was used to observe the cumulative effect on the lake.

3.2.2. Sampling
The sampling sites were located by using GPS (Global Positioning System) and accurately marked on the map (Figure3.1).Sample collection was done by direct immersion of the polyethylene vessels in to the lake. A total of 60 samples were collected for one month and once in a week (three composite samples per site) starting from October to November.

23


3.3. Analytical Methods
Water samples were collected and analyzed for PH, electrical conductivity (EC), Turbidity, Total suspended solids (TSS), Total dissolved solids (TDS), Nitratenitrogen (No3-N), orthophosphate (PO43-), Dissolved Oxygen (DO), Biological oxygen demand (BOD),chemical oxygen demand (COD), micronutrients such as Na+, Ca2+, K+ ,Mg2+, Cu2+, Zn2+ and Fe2+ parameters at Addis Ababa University, Technology faculty. The turbidity of the water is determined photo electrically using photometer and digital turbidity meter. The meter is calibrated using standard samples, once the meter is calibrated to correctly read these standards; the turbidity of the water sample was taken. Total hardness was determined by a complexometric titration using a standard acid solution. PH was measured using JENWAY model 3510 PH meter; TDS and EC were measured using JENWAY model470 conductivity meter. Vacuum pamper was used to measure TSS. Nitrate-Nitrogen, orthophosphate, Potassium, Calcium, magnesium and Sodium were all analyzed by using HACH spectrophotometer Model DR/2400 in accordance with the HACH procedural manual (HACH, 1999).Dissolved oxygen was measured with DO meter (Model GENWAY 9150), Chemical oxygen demand was determined using a HACH DR/2016 photometer (HACH,USA) and BOD5 was measured following APHA(1998) instruction.

3.4 Data analysis /stastical Analysis

The data collected for this study were analyzed using SAS (Stastical Analysis System, version 9) for variation in physicochemical, oxygen demanding, nutrients and micronutrient concentrations between the control and impaired sites and also among different Sampling sites. The GLM procedure was applied to test the mean differences at 5% level of significance. The results of physicochemical parameters were also compared with water quality standards to check whether the lake water is within the acceptable range for irrigation and domestic water use.

24

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 4.1. Physicochemical Parameters

The results of physicochemical parameters were compared with the control samples; which showed significant difference between the control and impaired sites (Annex1&2). In addition, FAO, WHO, and US-EPA guideline values (Table 4.2) for agricultural irrigation, maintenance of fisheries and aquatic life and for use as a raw public water supply or domestic use were also compared with the results to check if the lake water is within the acceptable range for the required use. The quality of the lake water in the upstream area (control site) was relatively within the acceptable range for the variety of uses of the lake water. The level of Physicochemical and nutrient concentrations were found to be high at SS3 and SS4; where the flower farms around these sites discharge the effluent directly in to the lake without treating the effluent. In addition, the newly constructed greenhouses were also the sources of excessive sediments in the lake. However, the concentrations of pollutants were found to be low at SS2 as compared to the other impaired sites because the farms around this site have been using waste water management techniques to reduce the impact on the lake which led to a positive effect on the lakes water quality. Mean values of PH showed significant difference between the control and impaired sites (p<0.05) (Annex1). The PH value gradually decreased from 9.050.188 (control) to 7.980.34 (SS4) at the downstream (Table 4.1). These variations in PH could be explained by addition of PH reducing agents to increase availability of micronutrients. In other words, low PH increases the solubility of many compounds particularly phosphates and elements like manganese, Zinc, iron, copper and boron (UNEP, 2001).

25


Table4.1. Mean values of physicochemical parameters (Mean SE, n=4) at 5 study sites.
Parameter SS1(control) Turbidity (NTU) TSS(mg/l) TDS(mg/l) PH EC (ds/m) TH (mg/l) 0.01960.01 2729.4 9.10.18 0.41640.04 45.64.08 0.06230.12 45782.3 8.90.26 0.67050.83 33.76.47 0.08660.11 519173.8 8.50.2 0.7950.147 61.68.1 0.09570.14 574176.5 7.90.34 1.3580.38 74.89.26 0.03160.0 53013 8.80.3 0.91090.2 72.81.92 28.85.5 SS2 26.816.47 Sampling sites SS3 36.228 SS4 36.620.84 SS5 29.719.9

TH= Total Hardness TSS= Total suspended solids TDS= Total dissolved solids

The PH of the water is important because it affects the solubility and availability of nutrients and how they can be utilized by aquatic organisms. Lake Ziway is slightly alkaline in nature due to the geology of the rocks in the area. The work of Gashaw (1999) also supported this idea; the PH of lake Ziway is around 8.5 because of the geology and rocks of the surrounding catchments. The pH of most natural waters is in the range of 6.0-8.5 (Chapman, 1996). Gradual reduction of PH values at the downstream affect the solubility of nutritive chemicals; as a result, the availability of these substances to aquatic organisms is increased. This could create unfavorable environment for fish and other aquatic organisms in the lake (Barnes et al., 1998). The PH of the Lake slightly exceeded FAO and WHO water quality guidelines for irrigation and use as raw public water supply in both the control and impaired sites. However, the mean values of PH were within the ranges of WHO guideline values for maintenance of fisheries and aquatic life.PH value of >8.4 are beyond the normal range for irrigation (FAO, 2001). This could show that the lake water is becoming less suitable for irrigation and domestic use. Harriet et al. (2006) stated that extraction of water and release of products from the floriculture industry in Lake Naivasha

26


increased the PH of the water from (7.280.03 to 8.80.0); the average PH value exceeds WHO limits for drinking water (PH<8).???

FAO guideline values PH>8.4

Figure4.1 Mean values of PH at five study sites in Lake Ziway Electrical conductivity and Total dissolved solid values showed significant differences between the control and impaired sites (p<0.05) (Annex1). EC and TDS were relatively greater at SS4 and SS5 (Table4.1); this could be due to the farms around these sites discharged untreated effluents in to the lake which led to a negative effect on the lakes water quality. EC estimates the amount of total dissolved salts or the total amount of dissolved ions in the water. High electrical conductivity indicates high dissolved solids concentration; dissolved solids can affect the suitability of water for domestic, industrial and agricultural uses (Moore, 1989). According to FAO water quality guidelines, electrical conductivity values less than 0.7ds/m has no potential irrigation problem but values between 0.7-3 ds/m could create slight to moderate problems on irrigated lands. Electrical conductivity values measured at the impaired sites showed values greater than 0.7ds/cm, which might revealed the environmental impact of the farm effluent on the lake water. Similarly, TDS value between 450-2000mg/l has slight to moderate irrigation problem and the mean values of TDS at Lake Ziway were between these ranges. Except the control, mean values of TDS were above the water quality guidelines (Table4.2) for fisheries and aquatic life; it also exceeded WHO standards.

27

Ethiopiap
USA standard, TDS=500(mg/l)

Standard EC=1000
(s/cm)

Figure4.2 Mean values of EC and TDS at 5 sites in Lake Ziway High TDS levels generally indicate hard water, which can cause scale build up in pipes, valves and filters, reducing performance and adding to system maintenance costs (Barnes et al., 1998). Turbidity is the amount of particulate matter that is suspended in water. There were no significant difference between the control and impaired sites; however, turbidity values at SS4 (near the new greenhouse) were slightly higher than the other sampling sites (Table 4.1). The sources of turbidity could be sediments from disturbed soil and high numbers of microscopic plankton due to excess nutrients and sunlight. In addition, excavation of the soil during the construction of the greenhouse might aggravate sedimentation at the downstream. Turbidity or cloudiness in water is caused by suspended materials that scatter light passing through the water. In addition to blocking out the light needed by submerged aquatic vegetation and burying fish eggs and benthic creatures, suspended sediment can carry nutrients and pesticides throughout the water system, damage gills, and interfere with the ability of fish to find food (Barnes et al., 1998). Turbidities of less than 10 NTU represent very clear waters; 50 NTU is cloudy; and 100-500 or greater is very cloudy to muddy. Some fish species may become stressed at prolonged exposures of 25 NTU or greater.

28


Based on this classification, the lake water around the farm was slightly cloudy and fishes in this water could be threatened (USEPA, 2005).

Turbidity=25 (NTU)

Figure4.3Mean values of turbidity along the sampling sites in Lake Ziway Mean values of total hardness revealed that there were significant differences between the control and impaired sites (p<0.05) (Annex1). An increase in total hardness along the waterway could be explained by high levels of calcium and magnesium dissolved from fertilizers used in floriculture, which are the two most common minerals that make water hard. The concentration of Ca2+ and Mg2+ increased at the downstream which might be the reason for high levels of total hardness at the impaired sites. The degree of hardness becomes greater as the Ca and Mg content increases and is related to the concentration of multivalent cat ions dissolved in the water. Water described as hard is high in dissolved minerals, specifically Ca and Mg. Hard water is not a health risk, but a nuisance because of mineral build up on mixtures and poor soap and / detergent performance (Anonymous, 1999). According to U.S. Department of water quality association, water with total hardness between 60-120 mg/l is classified as moderately hard. Similarly, mean values of total hardness at SS3, SS4 and SS5 were within this range; 61.598.1 (SS3), 67.489.26 (SS4) and 72.81to1.92 (SS5).

29

Figure 4.4 Variation of total hardness at 5 study sites in Lake Ziway Table4.2. Guideline values for some selected parameters
Fisheries and Aquatic Life Variables PH EC TDS TSS NO3-N PO43BOD COD DO TH Unit ms/cm mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l EU Ethiopiap WHO Drinking Water EU USA

6-9

6-9 1000

6.5-9.5

6.5-8.5

6.5-8.5

500 _ 10

500

25

25

10

5
p=provisional standard

5 150 4

Sources: Chapman, 1996;EPA/UNIDO,2003; WHO,2004

30


Table4.3. Guidelines for Interpretation of water quality for Irrigation
Parameters Units Degree of Restriction on use None EC TDS Na NO3-N ds/m mg/l meq/l mg/l 0.7 < 450 <3 < 5 Slight to moderate 0.7-3.0 450-2000 3-9 5-30 Sever > 3.0 > 2000 > 9 > 30

Source: FAO, 2001

4.2 Oxygen Demanding Parameters

Dissolved oxygen (DO) levels showed high significant difference between the control and impaired sites (Annex3); mean values of dissolved oxygen reduced from 2.370.296 (control) to1.40.37 (SS4) at the downstream area (Table 4.4). These values were compared with US-EPA standards and the level of dissolved oxygen both in the control and impaired sites were below the standard values. The reduction of dissolved oxygen level at the impaired sites could be due to nutrient enrichment from the farm effluent which promotes excessive growth of algae and aquatic vegetation; when the vegetation decomposes the level of dissolved oxygen decline. Concentrations below 4.0 mg/l adversely affect aquatic life (FEPA, 2003). Dissolved oxygen was also below the recommended range at the control site, this might be due to the speed of the water flow, when the movement of the water is slow, there will be less aeration. Besides, bacteria in water can consume oxygen as organic matter decays. Thus excess organic material in the lake can cause an oxygendeficient situation to occur. The oxygen dissolved in Lakes, rivers, and oceans is crucial for the organisms living in it. As the amount of dissolved oxygen drops below normal levels in water bodies, the water quality is harmed and aquatic organisms begin to die off (Barnes et al., 1998).

31


Table 4.4 Mean values of Dissolved oxygen at five study sites in Lake Ziway
parameters SS1(control) SS2 1.220.407 976.134 17.751.06 Sampling sites SS3 1.460.27 119.14.78 20.32.77 SS4 1.590.311 119.710 23.36.5 SS5 1.40.37 126.85.79 22.97.42

DO(mg/l) COD(mg/l) BOD(mg/l)

2.370.296 92.753.38 16.81.11

DO= 5-6 ppm is required for growth and activity of most aquatic organisms DO levels < 3ppm is stressful to most aquatic organisms DO levels < 2ppm will not support fish (US-EPA, 1997) The levels of dissolved oxygen at the impaired sites were < 2ppm; this might indicate that the lake water around the farm is becoming unfavorable for supporting aquatic organisms. Fish, invertebrates, plants and aerobic bacteria all require oxygen for respiration. As the dissolved oxygen level decrease in the water, fish and invertebrates that can move will leave areas with low concentration of oxygen (Anonymous, 1999). In Lake Ziway, fish stocks are declining around the outlet of the study site (personal communication).This might be due to reduced levels of dissolved oxygen.

Figure4.5 Mean values of DO at 5 study sites in Lake Ziway

32

Ethiopiap

standard BOD5mg/l

Figure 4.6 Relations b/n BOD&COD at 5 sites in Lake Ziway

Biological oxygen demand and Chemical oxygen demand values were also showed significant difference between sampling sites (P<0.05)(Annex3).The concentration of BOD and COD in most unpolluted water bodies is less than 2mg/l, respectively (Chapman, 1996). The values of BOD at the study sites ranged between 16.81.11 (control) to 22.97.42 (SS5); and COD 92.753.38 (control) to 126.85.79 (SS5) (Table4.4); BOD values in both the control and impaired sites found to be above the guideline values (5mg/l) of Ethiopia for fisheries and aquatic life (FEPA, 2003).COD values also increased along the downstream but it was found to be within the range of the guideline values. Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) is a measure of the amount of oxygen that bacteria will consume while decomposing organic matter under aerobic conditions. However, Chemical oxygen demand (COD) does not differentiate between biologically available and inert organic matter, and it is a measure of the total quantity of oxygen required to oxidize all organic material in to carbon dioxide and water. High levels of COD and BOD values in the study area could be due to excessive organic and inorganic wastes in the farm effluent (Gordon et al., 1992).

33


Organic wastes from the farm effluent act as a food source for water born bacteria. Bacteria decompose these organic materials using dissolved oxygen, thus reducing the dissolved oxygen present for fish. The difference in the concentration of BOD could be due to excessive concentration of nutrients at the downstream area which increased the demand for dissolved oxygen by bacteria to decompose these organic materials.

4.3. Nutrients (NO3- and PO43-)

Mean values of Nitrate- nitrogen and phosphate revealed significant difference between the control and impaired sites (p<0.05) (Annex 3). Nitrate concentrations were very high at SS3 (31.916.35) and SS5 (50.818.43) when it was compared with the control (1.682.524) (Table4.4); this could be explained by use of excessive fertilizers by the farms located at the downstream area. Increased nitrate levels near SS3 caused excessive algal growth, which might be the reason for reduced levels of oxygen. Based on FAO guidelines, NO3-N values between 5-30mg/l have slight to moderate problems for irrigation; values >30 sever. The ambient standard to protect aquatic ecosystems is 10 mg/L (FEPA, 2003).Similarly, the level of phosphates at the impaired sites were also beyond EU guideline values (5mg/l). Table4.5 Mean values of NO3- and PO43parameters Sampling sites

SS1(control)
NO3-(mg/l) PO43-(mg/l)

SS2 6.9584.29 1.220.407

SS3 31.916.35 3.291.048

SS4

SS5 50.818.43 6.82.8

1.682.524 0.51420.41

31.9119.95 72.69

An increase in nitrate may be followed by an increase in phosphates. As phosphates increase and the growth of aquatic plants is encouraged, algal blooms can occur with the increase in algae growth and decomposition, the dissolved oxygen levels will decrease. Nitrogen is also a concern in drinking water because an increased level of nitrate has been linked with blue-baby syndrome in infants (Dodds, 2002). 34


The concentration of PO43- both in the control and impaired sites were beyond FEPA provisional standards (PO43-=0.005mg/l). The reason for increased levels at the control could be runoff from agricultural fields along river Meki, which is one of the inflows to Lake Ziway. Irrigation is intensively practiced along the river; as a result fertilizer residues from the farms may enter in to the river. Floriculture industries are known for using excessive fertilizers and the effluents from the farm drained directly to the lake. In aquatic ecosystems, because phosphorous is available in the lowest amount, it is usually the limiting nutrient for plant growth. This means that excessive amounts of phosphorous in a system can lead to an abundant supply of vegetation and cause low dissolved oxygen.

EPAp standard No3=10mg/l

Figure4.7 Mean values of NO3- at 5 study sites in Lake Ziway

35

EPAp standard Po43 =0.005mg/l

Figure 4.8 Mean values of PO43- at 5 study sites in Lake Ziway

The concentration of NO3- and PO43- at the impaired sites were also beyond the FAO and WHO guideline values for maintenance of fisheries, aquatic life and domestic use. High levels of PO43- and NO3- in the lake water promoted excessive growth of algae in the lake near the outlet of the farm; which led to reduction in dissolved oxygen level. This might be the cause for the decline of fish catch near the outlet of the farm in Lake Ziway. The work of Vijay (2004) stated that high phosphate (5.6mg/l) and nitrate (33mg/l) levels in Lake Naivasha as a result of runoff from floriculture farms located at the shore of the Lake region might be the cause for increased phytoplankton biomass in the Lake.

4.4 Micronutrients
The level of micronutrients; Na+, Mg2+, Ca2+, K+, Zn2+, Fe2+ increased along the downstream except for Na+ and showed significant differences between the control and impaired sites(Annex2). As Mg2+, Ca2+and K+ increase, Na+ will be displaced; besides, reduction of PH at the downstream increased availability of Zn and Fe. However, the levels of Cu2+, Cr2+ were found below the detection level.

36


Reduction of PH along the greenhouses might be due to addition of reagents to reduce the PH of the water in the greenhouses; to increase availability of micronutrients and to create suitable environment for the growth of roses. Table4.6 Mean values of micronutrient concentrations (Mean SE, n=3) of the 5 study sites
Sampling sites

parameters
Ca++

SS1(Control)
1.561.01

SS2
6.1253.5

SS3
13.638.56

SS4
24.154.5

SS5
21.910.3

Mg++ Na+ K+ Cu++ Cr++ Zn++ Fe++

0.9250.253 3.2160.89 0.430.1825 bdl bdl 1.26170.253 0.130.1

2.4252.2 3.3257.4 1.210.85 bdl bdl 1.790.89 0.220.2

3.251.82 2.913.6 1.350.7 bdl bdl 1.780.59 0.70.3

3.62.05 2.44.1 1.980.75 bdl bdl 3.370.97 0.60.3

21.481.82 3.25.3 2.20.95 bdl bdl 3.20.215 0.60.5

Values are in meq/l

Bdl= below detection limits

The PH of water affects the solubility of many toxic and nutritive chemicals; therefore, the availability of these substances to aquatic organisms is affected. As alkalinity reduced, most metals become water soluble. The reduction in the level of PH along the downstream might be the reason for the increased levels of micronutrients at the impaired sites because when the PH level decreased more metals became available (Figure4.9). The work of Ouman(2005) also supported this idea and suggested that nutrient availability, especially micronutrients is directly correlated with PH and maintaining an optimum PH is critical for the nutrition of most greenhouse crops.

37


According to McEldowney et al. (1993) a reduction in PH will increase the mobility of micronutrients and makes them bio available for organisms; High levels of micronutrients in the lake could be toxic to the aquatic life .

Figure4.9 Mean values of micronutrients at the study site in Lake Ziway

38

5. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1Conclusion
Floriculture industries located at the shore of Lake Ziway have been creating much needed employment opportunities to the local people which mainly depend on smallholder agriculture; it has been also helping the country to generate foreign exchange. However, these industries located near Ziway are using a broad range of fertilizers and pesticides; the farm effluent is directly discharged in to the nearby lake which led to deterioration of the water quality and aquatic life. In this study, the results of Physicochemical, Oxygen demanding, nutrients and micronutrient parameters analyzed at the impaired sites were compared with samples taken at the upstream area (control) which showed significant difference in physicochemical, nutrients, micronutrients and oxygen demanding parameters. The levels of these parameters were high at the impaired sites especially in sampling sites where waste water management was not put in to practice. Besides, the results were compared with water quality guidelines to check if the water quality of the lake is within the acceptable range. Most of the parameters analyzed at the impaired sites were beyond the permissible limits. Based on the guideline values, the potential irrigation problem of the lake water near the farm were slight to moderate and it is also becoming less suitable for the maintenance of fisheries and aquatic life. Although the water quality of Lake Ziway is still acceptable for irrigation under the current condition, the high levels of fertilizer residues in the farm effluent is promoting growth of algae and aquatic vegetation beyond what is naturally sustainable. In addition, the Lake water around the farm is becoming less suitable for sanitation purposes. In general because of the activities of the flower farm on the Lake, the water quality may seriously deteriorate and fish catches will decline near the shore of the lake.

39


Unless immediate measures are taken, the lake water will be heavily polluted and become unfit for the variety of purposes being used before.

5.2 Recommendations
Based on results of this study and experience of other countries producing floriculture products, the following recommendations were drawn to sustain the floriculture industries with its minimum environmental impacts: Fertilizer management: providing nutrients in the right quantities at the right time helps to reduce excessive amounts of nutrients entering in to the lake. Waste water treatment: Effluents loaded with fertilizer and pesticide residues should be treated before discharging to the lake. Waste Water recycling: This method also helps to reduce excessive abstraction of water in addition to protecting the lake water from being polluted. Many pesticides are harmful to aquatic organisms and some are dangerous to humans as well. Integrated Pest Management should be used to minimize intensive pesticide application by floriculture industries. It is an effective and economical management strategy for controlling crop pests, helps to protect the environment and human health. Lake Ziway has immense potential for sustainable, small-scale agriculture and ecotourism that could protect both the lake and the livelihoods of the communities around it. The former would promote food security for the communities; the latter would attract even more local and foreign visitors who would help the local economy while causing little or no damage to the environment. The firm should undertake environmental audit about the inputs and discharges in to and out of the farm.

40


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Restrepo, M. 2002. At Colombia's National Institute of Health. Published in the 2002 issue of the Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment and Health (SJWEH), SJWEH SAS.2002.SAS Proprietary Software Version 9.SAS Institute Inc., cary, NC, USA. Sandra,G. 2000. A biology at the center for Atmospheric sciences at the National Autonomous University of Mexico. Sisay Habte.2001. Ethiopian Cut Flower Industry and International Market: Ethiopian Export Promotion Agency, Promotion Development and Market Research Directorate Tadesse Amera and Nigussu Aklilu.2008.Flower Farming: Ethiopian NGOS work to Improve Conditions for Flower Producers. Pesticide news, 82 Tenalem Ayalew and Dagnachew Legesse .2007. The changing face of the Ethiopian rift lakes and their environs; call of the time, Lakes and reservoirs: Research and managment12 (3), 149-165. Thrupp and Lori Ann. 1998. "Bitter Sweet Harvest: Pesticide Exposures in Latin America's Flower Export Trade", World Resources Institute. UNEP(United nations Environmental Program). 2001. Floriculture and the Environment: Growing flowers without methyl bromide. US-EPA(United States Environmental Protection Agency).1990. The Quality of our nations water: A Summary of the 1988 National water quality Inventory. US-EPA (United States Environmental Protection Agency). 1996. Cut-Roses: Request for exception to Worker Standards Prohibition of Early Entry to Pesticide.

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US-EPA.1997. Monitoring Guidance for Determining the Effectiveness of Non point source controls. EPA 841-B-96-004. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington,DC. US-EPA.2005.Use of Biological Information to better define designated aquatic life uses in state and tribal water quality standards, EPA 822-R-05-001, Office of water, U.S. Environmental protection Agency, Washington ,D.C. UWEA(Uganda Workers Education Association).2006. Priming Women Workers Rights African Horticulture, Progress Research Report, Presented to Women Working World Wide Regional Workshop. Uganda 55. Vijay, P.2004. Comparative Studies of the water chemistry of three tropical lakes in Kenya and India: Water Pollution, Nairobi, Kenya. WHO(world Health Organization). 2004. Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality. Recommendations, 3rd ed., vol.1.WHO, Geneva Zerihun Woldu and Mesfin Tadesse .1990. The Status of the Vegetation in the Lakes region of the Rift Valley lakes of Ethiopia and the Possibilities of its Recovery. In SINET-AnEthiopian Journal of Science. Vol.13,No.2.Addis Ababa University Zinabu,G. 2003. The water chemistry of the Ethiopian rift valley lakes and their influent rivers: Assessment of suitability for irrigation. Ethiopian Journal of Natural resources.5 (1):125-142 htpp://www.panna.org http://www.f- h.biz/environment http://water.usgs.gov/pubs/circ/circ1133/

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http://www.ethiopiaemb.org.cn/investpolicy.htm http://water.usgs.gov/pubs/circ/circ1133/ www.ec.gc.ca/ceqg-rcqe/English/ceqg/water/default.cfm http://jas.fass.org/cgi/content/full/82/13_suppl/E196

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Annexes
Annex1. Fertilizers in use in Ethiopian Floriculture industries Item no. Fertilizer 1 Calcium Nitrate 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 Potassium Sulphate Borax Magnisium sulphate MAP Phospheric acid Potassium Nitrate Zinc sulphate Magnisium Niterate Niteric Acid Sulpharic Acid Manganise sulphate Copper sulphate Ammonium sulphate Sulphric Dust MKP Sodium Molybedate Calcium Hipochloride Fe EDDHA6% DAP Almunium sulphate UREA

47


Annex2.Some of the Chemicals used in Ethiopia floriculture Industries No. Product name Active Ingredient 1 2 3 4 5 Apollo Dynamic Zoro Knocout Akramactin Aviramic Floramite Pegaseus Abalon 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Tosha Polythrin oxymitrin mercure Nissron mitac Tedion striker miteclean Cascade 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 Dynamite Aligator Impulse Stroby collis Rubigan Bellice Soncozeb Switch Nuster Folicure Boscalid + Pyracolstrobin 25%Azoxy strobin Cyprodiml + Fludiox Imidacloprut tebuconazole oxymethrin Difenthinron Hexythiaon Binfenazation Difenthinron clofortazine Keofentazin Abemectin

48


25 26 27 28 manic mavric prova Meletatox Dofemoraph Acetate Mancozeb Tufluvalinat

49


Annex3. ANOVA result for physicochemical Parameters
Source Total Sample Site Replication Error Total Sample Site Replication Error Total Sample Site Replication Error Total Sample Site Replication Error Total Sample Site Replication Error Total Sample Site Replication Error Df 59 3 4 2 50 59 3 4 2 50 59 3 4 2 50 59 3 4 2 50 59 3 4 2 50 59 3 4 2 50 Turbidity Sum of squares 22093.56 12304.18 962.97 122.68 8703.73 TSS 0.58731 0.23030926 0.05299510 0.01144316 0.58731 TDS 1626902.583 494284.58 674965.67 18859.03 438793.3 PH 11.6673 0.20067 8.729 0.0143 2.723 EC 8.99752 0.84409 5.976704 0.030545 2.14617 TH 9481.277 1730.312 5603.1 9.5584 2138.33 F value 23.56*** 1.38NS 0.35ns P 0.0001 0.2533 0.7047

13.12*** 2.26* 0.98 ns

<0.0001 0.0753 0.3832

18.77*** 19.23*** 1.07 ns

<0.0001 <0.0001 0.3492

1.23 ns 40.07*** 0.13 ns

0.3093 <0.0001 0.8776

6.56*** 34.81 *** 0.36 ns

0.0008 <0.0001 0.7024

13.49*** 32.75*** 0.11 ns

<0.0001 <0.0001 0.8945

DF=degrees of freedom

50


Annex4. ANOVA result for micronutrients
Total Sample Site Replication Error Total Sample Site Replication Error Total Sample Site Replication Error Total Sample Site Replication Error Total Sample Site Replication Error Total Sample Site Replication Error 59 3 4 2 50 59 3 4 2 50 59 3 4 2 50 59 3 4 2 50 59 3 4 2 50 59 3 4 2 50 Fe 2.8328 1.21092 0.518290.51829 0.00336 2.8328 Zn 67.2879 3.4552 42.8996 0.022236 20.9107 Ca 53.4365 11.9325 23.374 1.843 16.287 Mg 240.307 38.739 63.381 0.4923 137.695 Na 30868.955 2229.4286 19541.2757 14.1852 9084.065 K 53.436 11.9325 23.374 1.843 16.287

18.34*** 5.89*** 0.08 ns

<0.0001 0.0006 0.9266

2.75* 25.64*** 0.03 ns

0.0521 <0.0001 0.9736

12.21*** 17.94*** 2.83*

<0.0001 <0.0001 0.0686

4.69** 5.75*** 0.09 ns

0.0058 0.0007 0.9146

4.09* 26.89*** 0.04 ns

0.0113 <0.0001 0.9617

12.21*** 17.94*** 2.83 ns

<0.0001 <0.0001 0.7031

DF= degrees of freedom

51


Annex5. ANOVA result for nutrients and oxygen demanding parameters
Total Sample Site Replication Error Total Sample Site Replication Error Total Sample Site Replication Error Total Sample Site Replication Error Total Sample Site Replication Error 59 3 4 2 50 59 3 4 2 50 59 3 4 2 50 59 3 4 2 50 59 3 4 2 50 DO 12.016 2.2653 7.1777 0.036 2.537 BOD 1610.73 304.6 414.57 5.43 886.13 COD 13303.73 210.8 11042.23 12.23 2038.47 NO330868.95 2229.43 19541.28 14.185 9084.07 PO43642.0456 56.749 474.207 2.8437

14.88*** 35.36*** 0.35 ns

<0.0001 <0.0001 0.7031

5.73** 5.85*** 0.15 ns

0.0019 0.0006 0.8583

1.72 ns 67.71** 0.15 ns

0.1741 <0.001 0.8611

4.09* 26.89*** 0.04 ns

0.0113 <0.0001 0.9617

8.74 54.76 0.66

<0.0001 <0.0001 0.5229

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Annex6. Duncans Multiple Range Test for physicochemical parameters
SITE 1 2 3 4 5 SITE 1 2 3 4 5 SITE 1 2 3 4 5 SITE 1 2 3 4 5 SITE 1 2 3 4 5 SITE 1 2 3 4 5 TURBIDITY N 12 12 12 12 12 TSS N 12 12 12 12 12 TDS N 12 12 12 12 12 PH N 12 12 12 12 12 EC N 12 12 12 12 12 TH N 12 12 12 12 12 MEAN 26.81a 36.18a 36.6a 29.74a 28.8a MEAN 0.019b 0.062ba 0.086ba 0.095a 0.032ab MEAN 272c 457b 518.83ba 574.5a 529.6ba MEAN 7.98c 8.76b 8.9ba 9.05a 8.93ba MEAN 0.425d 0.72c 0.796c 0.968b 1.382a MEAN 45.64d 53.78c 61.59b 67.47a 72.8a

Means with different superscripts are significantly different (P<0.05) N=number of samples

53


Annex7. Duncans Multiple Range Test for nutrients & micronutrients (N=number of samples)
Fe SITE 1 2 3 4 5 SITE 1 2 3 4 5 SITE 1 2 3 4 5 SITE 1 2 3 4 5 SITE 1 2 3 4 5 SITE 1 2 3 4 5 SITE 1 2 3 4 N 12 12 12 12 12 Zn N 12 12 12 1 12 N 12 12 12 12 12
PO43-

MEAN 0.13c 0.22bc 0.31ba 0.4a 0.22bc MEAN 1.26b 1.79b 1.78b 3.37a 3.2a MEAN 1.68c 6.96c 31.9b 31.91b 50.78a MEAN 0.51c 1.22c 3.51b 7.17a 7.06a DO MEAN 2.34a 1.77b 1.47b 1.59bc 1.4c BOD MEAN 16.83b 17.75b 20.33ab 23.33a 22.92a COD MEAN 92.75c 97c 119.08b 119.67b

NO3-

N 12 12 12 12 12 N 12 12 12 12 12 N 12 12 12 12 12 N 12 12 12 12

54


5 SITE 1 2 3 4 5 SITE 1 2 3 4 5 SITE 1 2 3 4 5 SITE 1 2 3 4 5 12 Ca N 12 12 12 12 12 Mg N 12 12 12 12 12 Na N 12 12 12 12 12 K N 12 12 12 12 12 MEAN 0.43c 1.2b 1.35b 1.98a 2.2a MEAN 3.21e 9.32d 18.91c 32.17b 37.79a MEAN 0.93b 2.42a 3.26a 3.55a 3.73a MEAN 1.55c 6.125c 13.63b 24.15a 21.48a 126.83a

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Addis Ababa University Faculty of Technology Civil Engineering Department Annex8.Laboratory Result for Physical and chemical Analysis of Water (Sample-I)
Parameter Turbidity (NTU) TSS TDS PH EC(ds/m) Fe(meq/l) Zn(meq/l) Cu(meq/l) Cr(meq/l) NO3 PO4 TH DO BOD COD Mg(meq/l) Ca(meq/l) Na(meq/l) K(meq/l) S1R1 S1R2 S1R3 S2R1 S2R2 S2R3 S3R1 S3R2 S3R3 S4R1 S4R2 S4R3 S5R1 S5R2 S5R3

27 0.025 273 9 0.456 0.12 0.88 Nil Nil 0.1 0.15 45 2.5 17 98 0.7 0.9 3.2 0.3

27 0.06 274 9.1 0.45 0.11 0.89 Nil Nil 0.12 0.14 45 2.3 17 97 0.9 2.6 3.6 0.3

27 0.028 275 9.1 0.456 0.12 0.88 Nil Nil 0.1 0.15 45 2.5 17 98 0.7 0.9 3.2 0.3

6.5 0.023 434 8.6 0.641 0.32 1.49 Nil Nil 42.15 3.75 52.32 1.3 19 124 0.6 9.4 2.9 0.3

8 0.023 429 8.8 0.645 0.12 1.42 Nil Nil 42.65 3.4 52.8 1.7 19 123 2.4 3.3 3.1 0.8

3.5 0.023 438 8.9 0.695 0.32 1.47 Nil Nil 43.54 2.83 52.11 1.7 18 122 2.1 14.6 3.1 1.2

3.8 0.013 474 8.9 0.81 0.5 2.68 Nil Nil 65.1 3.68 63.8 1.7 20 109 2.8 21 2.8 1.5

4 0.013 477 8.4 0.816 3 0.7 2.62 Nil Nil 43.21 3.65 65.2 1.9 20 109 3.4 20.5 3.0 1.2

4.5 0.015 474 8.3 0.794 0.4 2.65 Nil Nil 64.12 3.21 54.34 1.7 20 109 1.2 18.2 2.9 0.9

6.5 0.024 556 7.7 1.5 0.4 3.1 Nil Nil 33.1 4.1 59.76 2 23 122 2.9 27.8 3.4 1.9

3.7 0.024 560 7.6 1.54 0.6 3.11 Nil Nil 33.5 3.9 59 1.9 24 123 0.8 27.8 2.5 0.8

5.2 0.025 572 8.0 1.54 0.6 3.08 Nil Nil 32.8 3.71 62.67 1.9 23 123 1.8 26.4 2.2 1.2

18 0.023 368 8.9 0.918 0.33 3.3 Nil Nil 5.67 0.8 51.52 2 17 98 0.9 0.8 3.1 0.4

16 0.023 366 8.7 0.911 0.74 3.1 Nil Nil 5.59 0.85 50.53 1.8 18 97 1.3 1.5 2.7 0.6

6 0.023 374 8.8 0.905 0.81 3.3 Nil Nil 5.61 1.2 51 2.1 17 96 2 7.8 3.5 0.4

Nil values represent below detection level Date of Analysis october1-December27, 2001

56

Addis Ababa University Faculty of Technology Civil Engineering Department Annex9.Laboratory result for Physical and chemical Analysis of Water (Sample-II)
Parameters Turbidity (NTU) TSS TDS PH EC(ds/m) Fe(meq/l) Zn(meq/l) Cu(meq/l) Cr(meq/l) NO3PO43TH DO BOD COD Mg(meq/l) Ca(meq/l) Na(meq/l) K(meq/l) S1R1 S1R2 S1R3 S2R1 S2R2 S2R3 S3R1 S3R2 S3R3 S4R1 S4R2 S4R3 S5R1 S5R2 S5R3

26.8 0.003 275 9.2 0.452 0.01 1.47 Nil Nil 0.12 0.14 52 2 16 95 0.6 0.8 3 0.6

26.9 0.005 276 9.3 0.453 0.14 1.48 Nil Nil 0.12 0.15 51 2 16 94 0.9 1.5 2.8 0.2

26.9 0.004 275 9.3 0.454 0.14 1.45 Nil Nil 0.12 0.15 52 2 16 94 0.9 1.2 2.8 0.4

59.1 0.005 354 8.9 0.522 0.17 1.47 Nil Nil 51.42 1.78 74.28 1.1 17 123 2.3 5.4 3.6 1.6

60 0.006 355 8.8 0.623 0.18 1.46 Nil Nil 51.21 1.78 73.36 1.1 17 124 3.5 7.5 3.4 0.7

102 0.006 354 9 0.621 0.19 1.46 Nil Nil 50.4 1.78 73.49 1.2 17 123 6 7.5 2.6 0.7

58 0.005 353 8.7 0.52 0.34 3.1 Nil Nil 25.18 5.21 73.11 1.3 17 114 6.9 17 2.9 2.5

58 0.014 353 8.6 0.819 0.12 3.1 Nil Nil 27.52 6.45 72.19 1.2 17 116 5.3 22.7 2.4 1.9

58 0.009 356 8.8 0.818 0.56 3.12 Nil Nil 27.91 6.18 71.12 1.2 17 114 7.8 24.3 3.3 1.9

57 0.005 357 7.9 0.818 0.23 3.3 Nil Nil 75.13 9.23 84 1 19 125 1.7 3.8 2.0 2.8

58 0.01 357 7.9 0.925 0.41 3.09 Nil Nil 75.13 6.42 84.11 1.1 19 124 5.6 5.1 2.7 0.5

58.5 0.008 356 7.8 1.51 0.57 3.12 Nil Nil 77.68 9.35 84 1.1 19 125 5.5 8.9 2.7 2.1

41 0.0051 388 8.8 0.951 0.7 1.46 Nil Nil 3.46 0.79 62.19 1.6 18 106 1.4 6.9 3.2 0.6

41.2 0.0057 389 8.8 0.897 0.52 1.45 Nil Nil 3.41 0.77 63.22 1.6 18 107 1.4 6.6 3.7 0.7

40.8 0.0054 389 8.6 0.878 0.84 1.45 Nil Nil 1.32 0.79 63.22 1.5 18 106 1.5 11.2 2.8 1.3

Nil values represent below detection level Date of Analysis october1-December27, 2001

57

Addis Ababa University Faculty of Technology Civil Engineering Department Annex10.Laboratory result for Physical and chemical Analysis of Water (Sample-III)
Parameters Turbidity (NTU) TSS TDS PH EC(ds/m) Fe(meq/l) Zn(meq/l) Cu(meq/l) Cr(meq/l) NO3PO43TH DO BOD COD Mg(meq/l) Ca(meq/l) Na(meq/l) K(meq/l) S1R1 25 0.042 284 9 0.395 0.18 1.2 Nil Nil 0.18 1.3 41 2.4 19 91 0.7 3.4 3.2 0.3 S1R2 25 0.042 281 9.1 0.395 0.11 1.2 Nil Nil 1.7 0.9 41.61 2.9 17 90 0.9 0.6 2.5 0.3 S1R3 23 0.042 279 9.3 0.455 0.16 1.4 Nil Nil 1.2 0.7 41.37 2.8 16 90 0.7 1.3 2.8 0.5 S2R1 46 0.042 537 8.6 0.645 0.22 1.42 Nil Nil 17.81 3.78 61.15 1.7 23 118 5.2 16.7 3.2 2.1 S2R2 23 0.046 652 9 0.645 0.24 1.48 Nil Nil 6.55 3.78 61.14 1.7 21 118 5.2 29 3.2 2.4 S2R3 34 0.043 536 8.6 0.601 0.27 1.48 Nil Nil 17.75 3.24 62 1.4 23 117 5.7 30.1 3.5 2.5 S3R1 37 0.037 745 8.2 0.788 0.68 2.7 Nil Nil 4.76 9.57 45.9 1.5 27 134 3.4 25.3 2.8 2.9 S3R2 44 0.043 744 7.9 0.805 0.9 2.9 Nil Nil 4.75 9.81 68.35 1.6 22 135 2.1 27.6 3.4 2.8 S3R3 41 0.044 822 7.5 0.803 1.2 2.7 Nil Nil 10.21 11.21 68.71 1.6 24 135 2.9 27.21 2.7 2.9 S4R1 39 0.0531 347 8.6 0.762 0.54 3.8 Nil Nil 49.32 6.85 75.41 1.7 20 138 3.3 33.7 1.9 2.4 S4R2 28 0.053 675 8.8 1.2 0.82 3.4 Nil Nil 48.79 4.33 77.63 1.3 21 119 3.6 30 1.8 1.8 S4R3 29 0.053 675 8.8 1.2 0.6 3.2 Nil Nil 21.61 6.21 65.81 1.5 20 137 3.6 31.2 2.8 2.6 S5R1 64 0.0425 524 8.8 0.912 0.73 1.34 Nil Nil 12.23 1.4 56.31 1.8 19 91 8.3 4.6 3.7 3.2 S5R2 24.7 0.042 524 8.8 0.911 0.62 1.33 Nil Nil 12.23 1.46 54.1 1.8 19 93 4.5 4.5 2.5 1.7 S5R3 20.5 0.044 521 8.9 0.912 0.62 1.25 Nil Nil 15.48 1.5 54.68 1.4 18 91 4.7 4.6 2.6 1.6

Nil values represent below detection level Date of Analysis october1-December27, 2001

58

Addis Ababa University Faculty of Technology Civil Engineering Department Annex11.Laboratory result for Physical and chemical Analysis of Water (Sample-IV)
Parameters Turbidity (NTU) TSS TDS PH EC(ds/m) Fe(meq/l) Zn(meq/l) Cu(meq/l) Cr(meq/l) NO3PO43TH DO BOD COD Mg(meq/l) Ca(meq/l) Na(meq/l) K(meq/l) S1R1 S1R2 S1R3 S2R1 S2R2 S2R3 S3R1 S3R2 S3R3 S4R1 S4R2 S4R3 S5R1 S5R2 S5R3

43 0.008 258 8.6 0.351 0.11 1.5 Nil Nil 3.42 0.8 43.5 2.5 15 91 1.3 1.8 2.7 0.4

34 0.007 257 9 0.437 0.24 1.5 Nil Nil 7.87 0.8 43.54 2.2 18 87 1.4 1.7 3 0.8

34 0.007 257 9.1 0.345 0.33 1.3 Nil Nil 5.1 0.79 43.86 2.5 17 90 0.9 3.7 3.1 0.7

24 0.274 481 8.7 0.597 0.21 3.1 Nil Nil 18.31 4.3 56.44 1.5 23 111 1.9 9.6 3.4 1.2

29.3 0.274 924 8.9 0.668 0.28 2.68 Nil Nil 19.57 4.3 59.46 1.9 24 114 1.4 15.1 3.1 1.2

38.7 0.273 732 8.7 0.667 0.2 2.47 Nil Nil 21.45 4.8 60.5 1.3 23 112 2.8 15.4 3.5 1.5

46 0.251 731 8.4 0.774 0.93 5.1 Nil Nil 39.7 9.1 72.71 2.3 34 119 2.5 33.2 2.8 2.7

43.8 0.269 692 8.3 0.785 0.81 4.89 Nil Nil 35.68 7.4 75.94 1.4 37 122 2.5 25.8 2.4 1.0

41.2 0.437 673 8.8 0.82 0.83 4.86 Nil Nil 34.79 8.6 78.35 1.7 25 120 1.8 27.1 3.8 1.6

23 0.0394 637 8.1 1.4 0.71 3 Nil Nil 53.41 12.92 84.88 1.2 21 130 6.9 22.3 2.6 2.8

23 0.042 630 7.5 1.328 0.71 3.1 Nil Nil 53.57 6.27 53.1 1.1 20 128 5.3 22.3 2.8 3.6

26 0.042 635 8.0 1.325 0.52 3.2 Nil Nil 55.29 8.5 83.25 1.1 46 128 3.7 18.5 2.1 3.6

14.6 0.0421 548 8.7 0.935 0.57 0.74 Nil Nil 3.45 1.9 48.34 1.9 15 96 0.6 6 3.9 2.1

18 0.0453 548 8.7 0.934 0.52 1.3 Nil Nil 7.21 1.7 44.91 1.9 18 91 1.3 5.8 2.4 0.5

16.9 0.446 545 8.6 0.901 0.71 1.4 Nil Nil 7.84 1.5 45.28 1.8 18 92 1.2 13.2 2.9 1.4

Nil values represent below detection level Date of Analysis october1-December27, 2001

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Annex12 Images showing the study sites and pollution of the lake shore

Image showing birds near the effluent discharge

Image showing untreated effluents at the outlet of greenhouses

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Image showing cattles grazing near the greenhouse where the effluent discharged

Image showing eutrophication of water near the greenhouse

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