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Reinforced concrete

Reinforced concrete is a composite material in which concrete's relatively low tensile strength and ductility are counteracted by the inclusion of reinforcement having higher tensile strength and/or ductility. The reinforcement is usually, though not necessarily, steel reinforcing bars (rebar) and is usually embedded passively in the concrete before it sets. For a strong, ductile and durable construction the reinforcement needs to have the following properties at least: High relative strength High toleration of tensile strain Good bond to the concrete, irrespective of pH, moisture, and similar factors Thermal compatibility, not causing unacceptable stresses in response to changing temperatures. Durability in the concrete environment, irrespective of corrosion or sustained stress for example. Key characteristics Three physical characteristics give reinforced concrete its special properties: 1. The coefficient of thermal expansion of concrete (8x10-6/0C) is approximately similar to that of steel (12x10-6/0C) eliminating large internal stresses due to differences in thermal expansion or contraction.

2.

When the cement paste within the concrete hardens, this conforms to the surface details of the steel, permitting any stress to be transmitted efficiently between the different materials. Usually steel bars are roughened or corrugated to further improve the bond or cohesion between the concrete and steel. The alkaline chemical environment provided by the alkali reserve (KOH, NaOH) and calcium hydroxide contained in the hardened cement paste causes a passivating film to form on the surface of the steel, making it much more resistant to corrosion than it would be in neutral or acidic conditions

3.

Mechanism of composite action of reinforcement and concrete The reinforcement in a RC structure, such as a steel bar, has to undergo the same strain or deformation as the surrounding concrete in order to prevent discontinuity, slip or separation of the two materials under load. Maintaining composite action requires transfer of load between the concrete and steel. The direct stress is transferred from the concrete to the bar interface so as to change the tensile stress in the reinforcing bar along its length. This load transfer is achieved by means of bond (anchorage) and is idealized as a continuous stress field that develops in the vicinity of the steel-concrete interface.

Polymers
What are polymers The polymers are a diverse group of engineering materials. Polymer materials are (with few exceptions) carbon-based materials, produced largely from gas and oil raw materials. They are the main components of plastics, rubbers, resins, adhesives and paints. They include materials such as polyethylene, poly(vinyl chloride), polyamide and epoxy resins.

Structure of polymers Polymers are produced by combining a large number of small molecular units (monomers) by the chemical process known as polymerisation to form long-chain molecules. Very large molecules (macromolecules) which consist of smaller units (monomers) are tightly bonded together with (strong) covalent bonds.

The molecular structure of polymers is responsible for many of the interesting physical properties which lie behind their various applications. . Although many of the materials are relatively strong, their stiffness is too low for most structural applications. However, they can be combined with fibres of high stiffness and strength to form composites with improved structural properties. Types of polymers There are two main types based on the molecular structures: 1) Thermoplastics 2) Thermosetting polymers

A large variety of polymers, with a wide range of properties, have been developed commercially. For example, phenol formaldehyde (PF) is a hard thermosetting material, polystyrene is a hard and brittle thermoplastic; polythene and plasticised polyvinyl chloride (PVC) are soft, tough thermoplastic materials. Many of these have found use in the construction industry

Thermoplastic polymers Thermoplastic polymers consist of a series of long-chain polymerized molecules. These are linier molecular chaings of repeating units. In a chain, molecules are strongly bonded with each other by covalent bond. The long molecular chains are held together by relatively weak Van der Waals forces. There is no cross links. Due this arrangement of molecules, thermoplastic polymers become flexible, workable and moldable above a specific temperature, and returns to a solid state upon cooling. In a thermoplastic polymer the chemical bond along the chain is extremely strong. However, bond between chains are weak. Therefore, when the material is heated, the intermolecular forces are weakened and the polymer becomes soft and flexible and molecular chains slide over one another; at high temperatures it becomes a viscous melt. At this raised temperature (for common plastics usually in the range of 1002500C) the polymers have liquid-like order, i.e. they are disordered and in the melt state. Upon cooling again it solidifies and the inter-molecular chain bonds are restored. The cycle of softening by heating and hardening by cooling can be repeated almost indefinitely, but with each cycle the material tends to become more brittle. Examples of thermoplastics: 1. Polyethylene (PE): resistant to chemical attack. used to make pipes, water tanks etc. Sub categories include HDPE, MDPE, LDPE. 2. Polypropylene (PP): used for reusable plastic containers, diapers, sanitary pads, ropes, carpets, plastic moldings, piping systems, car batteries, insulation for electrical cables and filters for gases and liquids. 3. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC): Polyvinylchloride is a polymer that can be heated and molded to create very hard, strong compounds such as piping. Because of its rigid properties once it's formed, manufacturers frequently blend additional plasticizing polymers into PVC. These polymers make PVC pipe more bendable and, generally, easier to work with than if it remains unplasticized. Those plasticizing agents are left out when uPVC (unplasticized polyvinylchloride) is manufacturedmwhich is nearly as rigid as cast iron pipe. PVC is a tough, lightweight material that is resistant to acids and bases. It has excellent chemical resistance across its operating temperature range, with a broad band of operating pressures. It resists corrosion and degradation from biological sources. Its smooth, erosion resistant, easily cut, bent and joined, and less installation cost. Therefore, it's a durable product to use in plumbing systems such as potable water lines, sewer lines etc. They can be used to buried installations for durable usage. PVC is used for vinyl siding, drainpipes, gutters and roofing sheets. It is also converted to flexible forms with the addition of plasticizers, thereby making it useful for items such as hoses, tubing, electrical insulation, coats, jackets and upholstery. Flexible PVC is also used in inflatable products, such as water beds and pool toys.uPVC is relatively tough and it's also frequently used in manufacturing exterior drainage systems such as rain gutter downspouts. Thermosetting polymers The thermosets by definition are three-dimensional random networks. The chains become crosslinked so that a solid material is produced which cannot be softened and which will not flow. Some are formed in a single step by reacting together two or more reactive monomers to form a network. In other cases a precursor polymer chain (usually of rather short length) is formed and then subsequently cross-linked with a second component. At higher temperatures they also soften

but never reach the state of viscous flow due to the cross-links which sustain cohesiveness. bonds break down upon melting and do not reform upon cooling. Thermosetting polymers are one of the least recyclable materials due to the cross-linking that takes place during the curing reaction which produces covalent bonds between the long polymer molecules. The resulting chemical structure is a hard material and when heated will disintegrate chemically and will burn if oxygen is present. In addition, to meet particular property specifications, thermosetting polymers will be modified by the addition of different additives and fillers, which then form a complex material. The cross-linking is an irreversible chemical reaction. This reaction can take place either at room temperature or under the application of heat and pressure. As the cross-linking is by strong chemical bonds, thermosetting polymers are rigid materials and their mechanical properties are affected by heat. Thermoset materials are usually liquid or malleable prior to curing and designed to be molded into their final form, or used as adhesives. If the number of cross-links is high, a thermoset material forms, characterised by relatively high stiffness and strength in addition to toughness. Thermoset materials are generally stronger than thermoplastic materials due to this three dimensional network of bonds (cross-linking), and are also better suited to hightemperature applications up to the decomposition temperature. However, they are more brittle. Since they are "set" (non-reformable), they tend not to be recyclable. the mechanical properties are highly dependent upon the network of molecular units and upon the lengths of cross-link chains. Examples of thermosets:

1. Bakelite: a phenol-formaldehyde resin used in electrical insulators and plasticware


2. Epoxy: Excellent resistance to chemical attack, good adhesion to many substrates and excellent mechanical properties (strength, elastic modulus, toughness) used as the matrix component in many fiber reinforced plastics such as glass-reinforced plastic and graphitereinforced plastic) 3. Polyurethanes: Used as insulating foams, mattresses, coatings, adhesives, flooring, synthetic fibers, etc. they are in the form of foams, with flexible and rigid types. rigid polyurethane foam (PUR/PIR) is the cost-effective
insulant for new construction because it has low thermal conductivity. In addition to the low thermal conductivity, rigid polyurethane foam (PUR/PIR) is stable and durable. It will function for as long as the building stands and has a useful life beyond 50 years. Thermal insulation with rigid polyurethane foam (PUR/PIR) conserves resources, saves energy leads to large energy savings and has no significant emission to the environment with less maintenance or repairs. It is ideal in the lightweight, low-energy or zero-energy building . In the selection of a suitable thermal

insulation material, the required thermal properties are of prime importance. For the functionality and safety of the building, other important criteria in the choice of insulation are mechanical strength, resistance to ageing, sound insulation properties, and resistance to moisture and fire. Moisture barrier can be made by applying metal coatings. Foams have low thermal expansion and Increased thermal resistance with the thickness and good dimensional stability. Depending on the density and facings, rigid polyurethane foam (PUR/PIR) insulation materials for building applications can be used long-term over a temperature range of 30C to +90C. Rigid polyurethane foam (PUR/PIR) insulation materials can withstand temperatures of up to 250C for short periods with no adverse effects. UV radiation causes discolouring in rigid polyurethane foam (PUR/PIR) insulation boards without facings or at the cut faces, and over time leads to a low-level sanding effect on the surface. Not affected by ordinary chemicals or adhesives used in a building. Rigid polyurethane foam (PUR/PIR) is a thermosetting plastic and does not melt or produce burning droplets under the effects of fire. However, may produce toxic gases during combustion. In summary, It has good thermal insulating properties, low moisture-vapour
permeability, high resistance to water absorption, relatively high mechanical strength and low density. In addition,

it is relatively easy and economical to install. The products of combustion of urethane foam and other plastics are hazardous. In the case of fire, the normal dangers such as lack of oxygen, dense smoke and hot gases are present. Fire regulations require that fire-retarding agents should be incorporated into polyurethane insulation foam. In addition, a protective lining should be incorporated so as to make the foam more difficult to ignite from a small source of flame. Higher-energy UV radiation promotes chemical reactions in foam, some of which are
detrimental to the foam structure. It has been noticed that a specific fungus can eat polyurethane.

General Properties of Polymers Thermal properties Polymers tend to expand readily as the temperature rises, and for unfilled polymers the linear thermal expansivity is generally an order of magnitude larger than for metals and ceramics. The thermal conductivity can be very low because energy transfer between polymer chains or through polymer networks is inefficient. For this reason polymers are widely used for thermal insulation, especially in fibre or foam form. Permeability Most polymers are not porous (unless designed with a porous structure) and consequently show excellent barrier properties to gases, vapours and liquids. Plastic tanks and pipes used for water and gas storage and distribution are generally thick enough to withstand high stresses and for this reason they can usually be considered impermeable. However, in some cases of organic fluids (in vapour or liquid form, e.g. hydrocarbons), the attractive interactions at the molecular level can cause increased permeation and consequently contamination of potable water. Environmental resistance and durability The environmental resistance which ultimately determines the durability of a component is a significant property of materials for engineering applications. The environmental factors and their usually joined action affecting durability is a complex process. Such factors include: sunlight, oxygen, heat, ozone, ionising radiation, biological organisms, water, solvents and organic fluids. The combination of atmospheric oxygen, water and sunlight results in weathering and aging, while solvents and organic fluids induce softening and ultimately dissolution; the effect is exacerbated by heat. Most of these effects are predominantly chemical in nature with the exceptions of softening and dissolution which is physical but in all cases occur at the molecular scale. In most cases these changes bring about degradation and dramatic deterioration of mechanical properties and performance. Oxidation may induce crosslinking and brittle fracture or may rupture the chains affecting drastically the microstructure, solubility and the mechanical behaviour including resistance to wear. This affects mainly the surfaces and can have important consequences for the appearance through chalking and loss of surface appearance. Fire properties Most polymeric materials are susceptible to relatively easy ignition above a critical temperature which leads to combustion, a rapid oxidation process which often involves the production of a flame. Although all polymers are considered combustible, their fire behaviour is a complex issue and can vary from one polymer to another. The external source of heat which brings about ignition and combustion acts usually at the surface and produces organic vapours of low molecular fragments and monomers which in some cases can be toxic. The end products of the reaction depend on the polymer composition; for example, in the case of PE, the material completely volatilizes and no residue remains, while in the case of PVC a solid carbonaceous char is formed. Polymers such as PVC and PTFE which contain halogens do not burn easily. However, PVC can decompose at rather low temperatures, releasing large amounts of acidic hydrogen chloride. Because of the often poor fire properties of many polymers, it is common to use additives such as mineral fillers like nanoclays which promote flame retardancy. Biological attack

Most synthetic polymers are not susceptible to microbial microorganism (bacteria, fungi) attack. In the case of plasticized PVC, it has been shown that the biological attack does not result from the polymeric material but is due to the plasticizer used. Consequently, more polymers withstand soil burial with ease without degradation. Of course, this also has a negative connotation, since due to this resistance polymers cannot biodegrade easily and can be a source of environmental pollution. However, some notable exceptions are some heterochain fibre-forming polymers such as UP and PA, which can suffer in burial tests from some deterioration of mechanical properties which is attributed to microbial attack. Toxicity While solid polymers are not usually toxic at normal use temperature, their constituent monomers can be highly toxic and should be handled with care. Furthermore, potentially toxic monomers and other toxic gaseous substances can be released as products combustion. Moreover, many low molecular weight additives can present toxicity problems which have to be taken into account when polymers are to be used, e.g. in contact with potable water.

Site investigations on contaminated land


What is contaminated site? Contamination of land may be defined in a number of different ways. A land in which the ground or groundwater has concentrations of one or more potentially harmful substances elevated above normal background levels, or in which concentrations of toxic or explosive soil gases occur is deemed contaminated. Depending upon the past history of the site, and surrounding areas, the ground may be contaminated by organic or inorganic chemicals, hazardous gases, biological agents or radioactive elements. Sources of contamination Land may be subject to contamination arising from a wide range of activities carried out either on the land, or on adjacent areas. Some of the principal contaminative activities are: - deposit or burial of industrial and domestic waste; - spills or leaks of noxious liquids at the surface, or from underground tanks, pipes and drains; - demolition of industrial structures and dispersal or burial of contaminated rubble and other materials; - contaminated fill material imported to the site; - spraying of agricultural chemicals (pesticides, herbicides etc.) using inappropriate procedures; - stockpiling of materials such as road salt, mining waste, etc; - burial of animal carcasses using inappropriate procedures. Contamination has become ubiquitous within industrial and urban areas, but may also be found in rural areas. The potential presence of contamination should be considered at the desk study stage of all site investigations. Contamination may conveniently be grouped into the following categories: by metals; by salts; by acids and alkalis;

by organic compounds and vapours; by fibrous materials (e.g. asbestos); by pathogens, viruses, bacteria etc.; by radioactive elements; by gases (e.g. methane, carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulphide, radon etc.) that either occur naturally, or arise from the biodegradation of chemical contamination in the ground. The investigation of sites potentially contaminated by radioactive material, explosives or pathogens, etc., has special requirements beyond those adopted for other forms of chemical contamination. Types of sites The types of sites where contamination of the ground might occur include: - landfill sites, and land surrounding these sites; - former sites of heavy industry (e.g. steelworks, ship building etc.), and gas works sites; - former or current chemical and manufacturing plants, particularly those using or storing bulk liquid chemicals or discharging significant quantities of effluent; - sewage farms and sewage treatment plants; - breakers' yards, timber treatment works, railway sidings; - all works employing metal finishing processes (e.g. plating, paint spraying etc.); - fuel storage facilities, garages and petrol forecourts; - areas of filled ground; - farm land; - former mining sites (particularly mines for metal ores). Significance of ground contamination The actual (and potential) presence of ground contamination on a site affects all aspects of the planning, performance and reporting of a site investigation. The actual presence of contamination is also likely to affect the scope and method of ground works subsequently carried out on the site, and may affect the foundation design and intended use of the site. The principal impacts of ground contamination on the site investigation process concern: health hazards that may arise during the execution of the field sampling and laboratory testing, requiring strict health and safety precautions to protect both site investigation personnel and the general public; the protection of surface and groundwater resources from the discharge of contaminated water arising from the investigation, or from the provision of pathways through an aquiclude; particles being deposited on land or surface water outside the boundaries of the site and thereby creating a hazard; the need to employ strict sampling, sample handling and testing protocols to ensure that the data collected are sufficient in type, quantity and quality so that the site can be categorized with the required degree of confidence; the need to employ qualified and suitably trained staff experienced in contaminated ground investigation to plan, direct, execute and monitor the work

Investigation Process Desk studies

Whether the site investigation is being undertaken principally for geotechnical or chemical purposes, a desk study must be carried out as the first stage. The desk study provides the basis for the design of the subsequent ground investigation. The assessment of the potential presence of contamination on a site from existing information should be part of the desk study of every site. The presence of contamination is usually associated with the former uses of the land or adjacent areas, although unusual geological conditions or random events (such as fly tipping, pipeline spills etc) may also result in contamination. In addition to the identification of contamination sources, the desk study information should be assessed to identify pathways for contaminant movement, both present and potentially in the future, as well as sensitive targets. Short-term events that could affect these risks, such as flooding, should also be considered. Long-term events requiring consideration include the closure of local mines, developments on neighbouring sites, rising ground water and possible changes in sea level. Data can be obtained from various sources such as local authorities, environmental agencies etc. A comprehensive method statement should be prepared, documenting the following: methods of investigation; any special procedures required in order to protect the environment, e.g. disposal of contaminated soil and ground water; the responsibilities of the various parties involved in the investigation; the quality control procedures; and the safety measures for the investigation. This is particularly important for potentially contaminated sites since special safety precautions may be necessary for persons carrying out the site reconnaissance. Consultation should be undertaken with local environmental authorities.

Site reconnaissance visit A reconnaissance visit should be made to the site during the course of the desk study. The visit allows a visual inspection of the site and its immediate environs. For sites known to be contaminated, and for sites indicated by the desk study to be potentially contaminated, the validation and investigation of the following information is especially important: the presence of tanks or drums, whose contents and locations should be marked on plans; the actual locations of drains and other buried services (which may be sources or preferential pathways for contamination); the locations of raw material and waste storage areas, and any process operations that are being carried out on the site; indications of contamination such as odours, staining of the ground or paving, lack of (or abrupt changes of) vegetation, or preponderance of resilient species such as buddleia. In the event that the site reconnaissance reveals health or environmental risks for which immediate action may be required, these matters should be drawn to the employer's attention. Investigation of contaminated ground

Site personnel: All site personnel involved in the investigation shouldvbe fully briefed in advance of the works. This briefing should include: potential health and safety risks posed by the site; additional safety procedures to be followed; protective clothing to be worn; definition of personal responsibilities and actions to be taken in the event of accidents or unexpected conditions; sampling and sample handling protocols to be followed; additional procedures to be adopted to avoid pollution of the environment, or harmful effects on people. The site work should be supervised by the experienced and suitably qualified competent persons. Sampling plan and procedures: An appropriate sampling plan is a key aspect of any contaminated ground investigation. The plan should aim to: identify the types and concentrations of contaminants present; determine the lateral and vertical spread of contamination; identify the source(s) of contamination and the potential path/target combinations; provide sufficient data points to plan remediation measures (if necessary); identify the potential hazards and assess the risks. A poorly designed sampling plan may fail to fully identify the contamination that is present. Conversely, oversampling and testing can be unnecessarily costly, and may still be ineffective. A staged investigation is usually most appropriate. In the case of water and gas sampling, it is also usually necessary to collect samples on several occasions over a period of time in order to obtain representative data on the conditions. Sampling is carried out at the site according to the sampling plan. The following factors should be considered for sampling. Sampling patterns: distribution of sampling point (grid system / specific locations etc). Number of sampling positions: The appropriate number of sampling positions depends on degree of confidence required, area of site and extent of suspected contamination, nature and distribution of contamination, number of stages, proposed future land use, cost, availability of suitable equipment, and timescale. When possible the investigation should be undertaken in stages, as this offers greater flexibility and economy. Several samples should be taken from each sampling position. Depth of samples: At a specific location, samples should be taken at various depths. Depth intervals depend on the thickness of the contaminated soil strata. Samples should be taken in each different soil horizon; in particular from above and below, where there is any change from permeable to low permeability soils. Sampling should extend to the underlying uncontaminated strata. Sampling techniques: The choice of sampling technique is site specific and influenced by the type and quality of sample to be retrieved, on-site access, the protection of water resources, geology, hydrogeology, and external factors such as cost and time. Techniques that minimize the exposure of the sample, cross-contamination, and arisings at the surface are favoured. Techniques in common use are Shallow trial pits, Percussion borehole sampling, Mechanical

augurs, Rotary dry coring, Push-in groundwater and soil sampling probes. Some methods produce heat which affects the contaminants. Sampling practices: The essential requirement of the method adopted for sample collection should be to ensure that the samples are representative of the material under investigation. In particular, the sample should not be exposed to contamination before being analysed, and has to remain stable until analysed. In addition, sampling implements and containers should be constructed of materials appropriate to the analyses to be undertaken. This is particularly important for the determination of trace organics. Equipment should be thoroughly cleaned before re-use. Sample stability: Some samples, especially liquids, may deteriorate rapidly after collection. Contaminants may be lost through volatilization, and may undergo chemical or biological changes, or there may be interaction with the container. To stop, or at least slow down, these reactions, a chemical preservative may be added to the sample, or the sample may be chilled or frozen. On-site testing: During some site investigations it may be advantageous to undertake testing on-site in order to: a) ensure the health and safety of the site personnel by obtaining early indication of the presence of hazards, e.g. radioactivity, toxic vapours and acidic liquids, etc.; b) allow the determination of contaminants that may change rapidly with time, i.e. pH, dissolved oxygen and sulfides; c) speed up analysis of samples and enable a rapid analytical response. On-site measurements of certain parameters are possible using portable measuring devices. Analysis of samples: To obtain useful results from an investigation of contaminated ground, the analytical techniques employed need to be able to measure reliably the parameter of interest, have an appropriate detection limit and have a known response to possible interfering species. There are various analytical techniques available. Suitable analytical techniques can be selected as required. Some of the critical aspects of sample analysis, however, include: a) sample pre-treatment; b) selection of analytical methods; c) analytical quality assurance. Data interpretation, assessment and reporting Once a site investigation has been carried out and the analyses have been completed, the significance of any contamination identified should be assessed in terms of the proposed use of the site. The following important questions should be answered based on the results obtained: a) What hazards are likely to effect the proposed use of the site? b) Which contaminants would give rise to these hazards? c) Are these contaminants present and, if so, in what concentration and with what distribution? d) Do any hazards exist? If so, how can these be removed or reduced? e) Would the choice of a less sensitive land use be more effective in removing or reducing the hazards? f) What remedial treatment is practicable and what monitoring is needed to enable the site to be used for the chosen purpose? A comprehensive contamination assessment report has to be prepared addressing the above questions. The report can be forwarded to the relevant local authorities for their review. Remediation of contaminated land

Ground remediation deals with the removal of pollution or contaminants from soil and/or groundwater for the general protection of human health and the environment or from a brownfield site intended for redevelopment. Remediation is generally subject to an array of regulatory requirements, and also can be based on assessments of human health and ecological risks where no legislated standards exist or where standards are advisory. Planning and designing Remediation Remediation process follows site investigation. Once contaminations are identified, proper planning of remediation process is vital before executing the tasks at site. The plan should include the remediation methods to be applied, standards to be followed, health and safety issues and precautions, disposal of contaminated waste, budget, timeline, social issues etc. The comprehensive plan should be discussed with the relevant local authorities and environmental authorities and their consent and approval should be obtained if required. Identifying and following standards If there are any standards or guidelines that have been the govt./Environmental agencies, those guidelines should be identified and strictly followed. In the absence of such local standards, internationally recognized guidelines can be followed for remediation process. A set of guidelines and reference information should be specified in the plan. Community consultation and information

In preparation for any significant remediation there should be extensive community consultation. The proponent should both present information to and seek information from the community. The proponent needs to learn about "sensitive" (future) uses like childcare, schools, hospitals, and playgrounds as well as community concerns and interests information. They should be informed of possible health and environmental issues of the remediation process and should be educated about the precautionary measures. Transport and emergency safety assessment Assessment should be made of the risks of operations, transporting contaminated material, disposal of waste which may be contaminated including workers' clothes, and a formal emergency response plan should be developed. Every worker and visitor entering the site should have a safety induction personalised to their involvement with the site. Remediation technologies Remediation technologies are many and varied but can be categorised into ex-situ and in-situ methods. Ex-situ methods involve excavation of affected soils and subsequent treatment at the surface, In-situ methods seek to treat the contamination without removing the soils. Excavation or dredging: processes can be as simple as moving the contaminated soil to a regulated landfill with treatment of contamination if required. Recently, ExSitu Chemical oxidation has also been utilized in the remediation of contaminated soil. This process involves the excavation of the contaminated area into large areas where they are treated using chemical oxidation methods. Solidification and stabilization This method relies on the reaction between a binder and soil to stop/prevent or reduce the mobility of contaminants. Stabilization - involves the addition of reagents to a contaminated soil to produce more chemically stable constituents; and Solidification - involves the addition of reagents to a contaminated material to impart physical/dimensional stability to contain contaminants in a solid product and reduce access by external agents (e.g. air, rainfall). Solidification/stabilization work has a reasonably good track record but also a set off serious deficiencies related to durability of solutions and potential longterm effects. In addition CO2 emissions due to the use of cement are also becoming a major obstacle to its widespread use in solidification/stabilization projects In situ oxidation New in situ oxidation technologies have become popular, for remediation of a wide range of soil and groundwater contaminants. Remediation by chemical oxidation involves the injection of strong oxidants such as hydrogen peroxide, ozone gas, potassium permanganate or persulfates. Oxygen gas or ambient air can also be injected to promote growth of aerobic bacteria which accelerate natural reduction of organic contaminants. Bioremediation The treatment of environmental problems through biological means is known as bioremediation and the specific use of plants for example by using phytoremediation or use of harmless microorganisms. Bioremediation is sometimes used in conjunction with a pump and treat system. In bioremediation, either naturally occurring or specially bred bacteria are used to consume contaminants from extracted groundwater. Mycoremediation is a form of bioremediation, the process of using fungi to return an environment (usually soil) contaminated by pollutants to a less contaminated state.

Pump and treat [edit] Pump and treat involves pumping out contaminated groundwater with the use of a submersible or vacuum pump, and allowing the extracted groundwater to be purified by slowly proceeding through a series of vessels that contain materials designed to adsorb the contaminants from the groundwater. For petroleum-contaminated sites this material is usually activated carbon in granular form. Chemical reagents such as flocculants followed by sand filters may also be used to decrease the contamination of groundwater.

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