Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Introduction
Physical aspects of data transmission Transmission media
Channel capacity (bandwidth) and Reliability (Bit Error Rate)
Data Source
Source Coding
Channel/Line Coding
Modulation
Noise + Interference
Transmission Medium
Demodulation
Channel/Line decoding
Source Decoding
Data Sink
Forms of Data
Analogue
Audio or acoustic data, e.g. human speech video data, e.g. TV pictures
Digital
text or character strings - textual data
binary representation Morse code ASCII code - information and control characters
Signalling
Analogue data (audio waves) Analogue signal
Analogue data (audio waves) CODEC Digital data (bit sequence) Digital transmitter
Digital signal
Digital signal
Transmission
Analogue signal Analogue data (1) signal occupies same spectrum as data (2) signal occupies different portion of spectrum Digital data is encoded by a modem to produce an analogue signal Digital signal Analogue data is encoded by a CODEC to produce a digital bit stream
Digital data
(1) signal consists of two voltage levels for binary 0 and 1 (2) data is encoded to produce digital signal with desired properties
Analogue transmission Analogue signal Is propagated through amplifiers, same whether signal represents analogue or digital data Not used
Digital transmission Signal is propagated through repeaters; at each repeater, digital data is recovered from inbound signal and used to generate new analogue outbound signal Signal is propagated through repeaters; at each repeater, digital data is recovered from inbound signal and used to generate new analogue outbound signal
Digital signal
Multi-path Propagation
scattering
Channel Capacity
Data rate Bandwidth Noise Error rate
C = 2W log 2 M S C = W log 2 1 + N
(Nyquist) (Shannon)
Transmission Media
Guided transmission media
Twisted pair Coaxial cable Optical fibre
Transmission Media
Design factors affecting the available data rate and transmission distance Bandwidth Transmission impairments Interference Number of receivers
Bandwidth
Repeater spacing
Twisted Pair
Physical description
Separately insulated copper cables Twisted together Often bundled in cables Usually installed in buildings when built
Applications
telephone network (subscriber loop) PABX telephones in office buildings LANs between 10Mbps and 100Mbps (short range)
Transmission characteristics
analogue and digital transmission analogue: amplifiers every 5 to 6 km, digital: repeaters every 2 to 3 km strong attenuation with frequency analogue: 250kHz bandwidth, digital: long distance, ca. 4MHz, short distance ca. 100MHz
Twisted Pair
Shielded Twisted Pair (STP), 150 cable Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP), 100 cable
Category 3: up to 16MHz Category 4: up to 20MHz Category 5: up to 100MHz
Attenuation (dB per 100m) Frequency (MHz) 1 4 16 25 100 300 Category 3 Category 5 UTP UTP 2.6 5.6 13.1 2.0 4.1 8.2 10.4 22.0 -
150 STP Category 3 Category 5 UTP UTP 1.1 2.2 4.4 6.2 12.3 21.4 41 32 23 62 53 44 32 -
Coaxial Cable
Physical description
Outer conductor is braided shield Inner conductor is solid metal Separated by insulating material Covered by padding Cable TV distribution Long distance telephone transmission Short-run computer system links LANs analogue and digital transmission problem: attenuation, thermal noise, and inter-modulation noise with FDM analogue and digital: amplifiers/repeaters every few km analogue: 400MHz bandwidth
Applications
Transmission characteristics
Optical Fibre
Physical description
Glass or plastic core Laser or light-emitting diode Specially designed jacket Small size and weight, 2 to 125m Greater capacity Smaller size and lighter weight Lower attenuation Electromagnetic isolation Greater repeater spacing
Properties
Optical Fibre
Applications
Long haul telecommunication trunks, 20,000 - 60,000 voice channels Metropolitan trunks, 100,000 voice channels Rural-exchange trunks, competes with microwave Subscriber loops for business use, voice, video and data high speed LANs (up to gigabit LANs)
Transmission characteristics
1014 - 1015 Hz, part of infra-red and visible spectrum multi-mode and single-mode fibres LED or ILD light sources for fibre optic transmission
Transmission characteristics
Main source of loss is attenuation, shadowing (NLOS) and fading 2 4d Free space loss: L = 10 log dB
Satellite Microwave
Physical description
Satellite is microwave relay station Operates a number of transponder channels geo-stationary satellites provide point-to-point or multi-point links low-earth and medium-earth orbit for mobile satellite applications Television distribution Long-distance telephone transmission Private business networks Mobile satellite networks
Applications
Transmission characteristics
Frequency range between 1GHz and 10GHz Most satellites in the 4/6GHz band Future mobile satellite services will be in the 2GHz band
Performance Measures
Signal spectrum Clocking Error detection Signal interference and noise immunity Cost and complexity
Signal spectrum - Several aspects of the signal spectrum of a digitally encoded signal are important. The spectral bandwidth occupied by the signal is an important performance measure of digital signalling as it influences the total available data rate. A lack of a direct current component is also desirable. With a dc component there needs to be a direct physical attachment of transmission components; ac-coupling via transformers is possible only without a dc component. Ac-coupling provides excellent electrical isolation and interference reduction, e.g. echo suppression. The magnitude of signal distortion and interference depend on the spectral properties of the transmitted signal. The transfer function of the transmission channel is usually worse near the band edges and a good signal should concentrate the transmitted power in the middle of the bandwidth. Clocking - Bit synchronisation between transmitter and receiver is usually crucial and the digital signal should be such that synchronisation can be derived from the signal itself. To have an extra lead between transmitter and receiver for synchronisation is usually too expensive. Error detection - Error detection is a data link layer issue, above the physical layer, but some form of error detection mechanism built into the physical signalling-encoding scheme is useful as it allows faster detection. Signal interference and noise immunity - The bit error rate, which usually depends on the signal to noise and/or interference ratio is an important performance aspect of digital signals. Certain codes exhibit superior performance over others in respect to bit error rates. Cost and complexity - Although digital components and circuitry continues to drop in price, expense cannot be ignored in the real world. In particular, the higher the signalling rate to achieve a given data rate, the greater the cost. Some of the codes discussed below actually require a signalling rate that is higher than the data rate of the digital signal.
Non-return to Zero
Non-return to Zero-Level (NRZ-L) Non-Return to Zero, invert ones (NRZI)
1 1
1 0
0 1
1 0
1 1
NRZ-L
NRZI
The most common, and easiest way, to transmit digital signals is to use two different voltage levels for the two binary digits. Codes that follow this strategy share the property that the voltage level is constant during a bit interval; there is no transition (no return to a zero voltage level). For example, the absence of voltage can be used to represent binary 0, with a constant positive voltage used to represent binary 1. More commonly, a negative voltage is used to represent one binary value and a positive voltage to represent the other. This latter code, known as Non-Return to Zero-Level (NRZL, or NRZ), as illustrated in the slide above. NRZ-L is generally the line code used to generate and interpret digital data by terminals and other devices. If a different code is to be used for transmission, it is typically generated from an NRZ-L signal by the transmission system. A variation of NRZ is know as NRZI ( Non-Return to Zero, Invert on ones). As with NRZ-L, NRZI maintains a constant voltage pulse for the duration of a bit time. The data themselves are encoded as the presence or absence of a signal transition at the beginning of a bit time. A transition (low-to-high or high-to-low) at the beginning of a it time denotes a binary 1 for that bit time and no transition denotes a binary 0. NRZI is an example of differential encoding. In differential encoding, the signal is decoded by comparing the polarity of adjacent signal elements rather than determining the absolute value of a signal element. One benefit of this scheme is that it may be more reliable to detect a transition in the presence of noise than to compare a value to a threshold. Another benefit is that with a complex transmission system it is easy to lose the sense of the polarity of the signal. For example on a multidrop twisted-pair line, if the leads from an attached device to the twisted pair are accidentally inverted, all 1s and 0s for NRZ-L will be inverted. This cannot happen with differential encoding. The main problem with NRZ-L and NRZI is that if a long period of 1s in the case of NRZ-L and 0s in the case of NRZI occurs, the receiver can easily lose synchronisation. Therefore, these two encoding methods are not used on longer transmission lines but more for data encoding for magnetic storage media.
Multi-level Binary
Bipolar AMI (Alternate Mark Inversion) Pseudoternary
1 1
1 0
0 1
1 0
1 1
Bipolar AMI
Pseudo ternary
Biphase
Manchester encoding Differential Manchester encoding
1 1
1 0
0 1
1 0
1 1
Manchester
Differential Manchester
Scrambling
Bipolar with 8 Zeros Substitution (B8ZS) High Density Bipolar 3 Zeros (HDB3)
1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
Bipolar AMI
0 0 0 V B 0 V B
B8ZS
0 0 0 V B 0 0 V B 0 0 V
HDB3
0.1
0.01
AMI, pseudoternary
0.001
0.0001
NRZ, biphase
1e-05
1e-06
1e-07
10
12
14
Eb/N0 (dB)
Channel encoder
Modulator
Channel
Demodulator
Channel decoder
2 P x(t )g (t ) cos( 0t )
Binary data
x (t )
g (t )
2 P cos( 0t )
Despreading
g t T d
Code synchron.
Correlator
)
Carrier generator
t T A 2 P x d
Code generator
Example of DS Spreading
Baseband information signal 1 0 1 1 0
1 00 1 1 00 1 1 0 00 1 1 1 10 1 1 00 1 1 0 1 00 1 1 00 1 1 0 00 111 0
0 1 1 0 01 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 11 1 0
Example of DS De-Spreading
Received spreadspectrum signal 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 11 1 0
1 00 1 1 00 1 1 0 00 1 1 1 10 1 1 00 1 1 0 1 00 1 1 00 1 1 0 00 1 11 0
Physical Interface
DTE
Data Terminal Equipment
DCE
Data Circuit-terminating Equipment
Physical interface
Asynchronous Transmission
Character based transmission Timing only maintain within each character Star and stop bit used for synchronisation
Start bit 5 - 8 bits of data P 1 - 2 bit times Stop
0 1
Synchronous Transmission
Steady bit stream without start and stop Separate timing, often through Manchester or differential Manchester coding Preamble and Postamble used to identify block of data
8-bit flag
Control fields
Data field
Control fields
8-bit flag
Line Configurations
Topology
Point-to-point multi-point (broadcast)
Mechanical Connectors
N-pin D-type or sub-D-type DB-15 (BNC), RJ11, RJ45
V.28/EIA-232 - Electrical
Line coding Voltage levels
Voltage +3V - +15V -3V - -15V
NRZ-L
Data 0 1 Control ON OFF
Signalling rate < 20kb/s Distance < 15m In certain cases signalling rate up to 115kb/s
V.24/EIA-232 - Functional
Pin V.24 EIA-232 Name Direction to Function DATA SIGNALS 2 3 14 16 103 104 118 104 BA BB SBA SBB Transmitted data Received data Secondary transmitted data Secondary received data DCE DTE DCE DTE Transmitted by DTE Received by DTE Transmitted by DTE Received by DTE
CONTROL SIGNALS 4 5 6 20 22 8 23 23 19 13 12 21 18 25 105 106 107 108.2 125 109 110 111 112 133 120 121 122 140 141 142 CA CB CC CD CE CF CG CH CI CJ SCA SCB SCF RL LL TM Request to send Clear to send DCE ready DTE ready Ring indicator Received line signal detector Signal quality detector Data signal rate selector Data signal rate selector Ready for receiving Secondary request to send Secondary clear to send Sec. received line signal detect. Remote loopback Local loopback Test mode DCE DTE DTE DCE DTE DTE DTE DCE DTE DCE DCE DTE DTE DCE DCE DTE DTE wishes to transmit DCE is ready to receive, response to request DCE is ready to operate DTE is ready to operate DCE is receiving a ringing signal DCE is receiving a signal on ch. Line Indicates whether high probability of error Selects one of two data rates Selects one of two data rates On/off flow control DTE wishes to transmit on reverse channel DCE ready to receive on reverse channel Same as 109, for reverse channel Instructs remote DCE to loop back signals Instructs DCE to loop back signals Local DCE is in test condition
V.24/EIA-232 - Functional
Pin V.24 EIA-232 Name Direction to Function TIMING SIGNALS 15 24 17 113 114 115 DA DB DD Transmitter signal element timing DCE Transmitter signal element timing DTE Receiver signal element timing GROUND 7 102 AB Common ground refernce for all circuits DTE Clock signal; transitions occur at center of each signal element Clock signal; both 113 and 114 relate to signals on circuit 103 Clock signal for circuit 104
V.24/EIA-232 - Procedural
Direct connection of two computers via modem over UTP Circuits required
Signal ground (102) Transmitted data (103) Received data (104) Request to send (105) Clear to send (106) DCE ready (107) Received-line signal detector (109)
Signal ground (7) Transmitted data (2) Received data (3) Request to send (4) Clear to send (5) Received line signal detector (8) DCE ready (6) DTE ready (20) Ring indicator (22) Transmitter timing (15) Receiver timing (17)
(7) (2) (3) (4) (5) (8) (6) (20) (22) (15) (17)
Differential Signalling
Differential signalling used to increase distance of transmission line
+V 1 A lead -V +V 0 B lead -V 1 Cable length (m) 10K 1.2K 1K 0V B driver 0 + A driver 0V receiver
ITU-T V.35
34 pin ISO 2593 connector (similar to D-connector) typical rates, 48kb/s, 56kb/s, 64kb/s, up to 6Mb/s control signals compatible to RS-232, data signals use differential signalling
X.21 - Functional
Interchange circuit G Ga Gd T R C I S B Name Direction to Function
Signal ground or common ground DTE common return DCE common return Transmit Receive Control Indication Signal element timing Byte timing
Ground
Timing
ISDN
Physical connection
between terminal equipment (TE) and network equipment (NE) (DTE - DCE analogy) connection requires 8 circuits, e.g. RJ45
Electrical specification
balanced transmission based on current loop differential digital signalling basic rate - 192kb/s, pseudoternary encoding, 750mV primary rate - 1.544Mb/s or 2.048Mb/s 1.544Mb/s - line code AMI with B8ZS 2.048Mb/s - line code AMI with HDB3
ISDN Interface
Local power source a b c d Transmit Receive e f Power sink g h e f g h Remote power source a b c d Receive Transmit
LAN
Twisted pair LAN, use of RJ45 8 pin connector Ethernet 10 Base-T wiring
10 Base-T pin # 1 2 3 6 RJ45 pin # 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 10 Base-T signal name
Transmit data + Transmit data Receive data + not used not used Receive data not used not used
Modems
MODEM = MOdulator/DEModulator Modem is the general term for an electronic device used for transmission of information over any type of medium Modems are usually associated with data (nonvoice) communications Typical applications
modems for data communication over the analogue telephone network modems for data communication over digital telecommunication networks (ISDN and GSM)
Modem Standards
V.90
56kb/s download, 33.6kb/s upload speed
V.92
56kb/s download, 48kb/s upload speed suspension of data transmission to accept voice call better error detection and recovery functions
Intelligent Modems
CCITT/ITU-T modem standards define modulation/demodulation scheme Modems used for data communication between two computers require more functionality Hayes developed de-facto standard for control of modem by computer Hayes compatible command set
Modem Indicators