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Point-to-Point Communication Physical Layer Aspects

Computer Communications Computer Engineering

Dr. Dirk Pesch, Electronics Dept., CIT, 2000

Introduction
Physical aspects of data transmission Transmission media
Channel capacity (bandwidth) and Reliability (Bit Error Rate)

Encoding - baseband and bandpass transmission


Digital to digital encoding Digital to analogue encoding Analogue to digital encoding Analogue to analogue encoding

Data communication interfaces


Electrical, mechanical, and functional aspects

Dr. Dirk Pesch, Electronics Dept., CIT, 2000

Physical Data Transmission


Analogue and digital transmission Transmission impairments
attenuation delay distortion & multi-path fading noise and interference

Transmission channel capacity

Dr. Dirk Pesch, Electronics Dept., CIT, 2000

Data Transmission Model

Data Source

Source Coding

Channel/Line Coding

Modulation

Noise + Interference

Transmission Medium

Demodulation

Channel/Line decoding

Source Decoding

Data Sink

Dr. Dirk Pesch, Electronics Dept., CIT, 2000

Analogue and Digital Transmission


Transmission
analogue = continuous digital = discrete

Analogue and digital appear in context of


Data Signalling Transmission

Dr. Dirk Pesch, Electronics Dept., CIT, 2000

Forms of Data
Analogue
Audio or acoustic data, e.g. human speech video data, e.g. TV pictures

Digital
text or character strings - textual data
binary representation Morse code ASCII code - information and control characters

Dr. Dirk Pesch, Electronics Dept., CIT, 2000

Signalling
Analogue data (audio waves) Analogue signal

Digital data (binary voltage pulses)

Analogue signal (modulated on carrier frequency)

Analogue data (audio waves) CODEC Digital data (bit sequence) Digital transmitter

Digital signal

Digital signal

Dr. Dirk Pesch, Electronics Dept., CIT, 2000

Transmission
Analogue signal Analogue data (1) signal occupies same spectrum as data (2) signal occupies different portion of spectrum Digital data is encoded by a modem to produce an analogue signal Digital signal Analogue data is encoded by a CODEC to produce a digital bit stream

Digital data

(1) signal consists of two voltage levels for binary 0 and 1 (2) data is encoded to produce digital signal with desired properties

Analogue transmission Analogue signal Is propagated through amplifiers, same whether signal represents analogue or digital data Not used

Digital transmission Signal is propagated through repeaters; at each repeater, digital data is recovered from inbound signal and used to generate new analogue outbound signal Signal is propagated through repeaters; at each repeater, digital data is recovered from inbound signal and used to generate new analogue outbound signal

Digital signal

Dr. Dirk Pesch, Electronics Dept., CIT, 2000

Delay Distortion & Multipath Fading


Delay distortion in guided transmission media Multi-path fading in terrestrial microwave channels Result: Inter-symbol interference (ISI) Counter measure: Equalisation

Dr. Dirk Pesch, Electronics Dept., CIT, 2000

Multi-path Propagation

base station reflection direct path mobile station

scattering

Dr. Dirk Pesch, Electronics Dept., CIT, 2000

Noise and Interference


Thermal noise Inter-modulation noise Crosstalk or adjacent channel interference Impulse noise Co-channel interference

Dr. Dirk Pesch, Electronics Dept., CIT, 2000

Effects of Noise on Data Transmission

Dr. Dirk Pesch, Electronics Dept., CIT, 2000

Channel Capacity
Data rate Bandwidth Noise Error rate
C = 2W log 2 M S C = W log 2 1 + N

Noise free channel Noisy channel

(Nyquist) (Shannon)

Dr. Dirk Pesch, Electronics Dept., CIT, 2000

Transmission Media
Guided transmission media
Twisted pair Coaxial cable Optical fibre

Unguided (wireless) transmission media


Terrestrial radio and microwave Satellite microwave Broadcast radio Infrared

Dr. Dirk Pesch, Electronics Dept., CIT, 2000

Transmission Media
Design factors affecting the available data rate and transmission distance Bandwidth Transmission impairments Interference Number of receivers

Dr. Dirk Pesch, Electronics Dept., CIT, 2000

Guided Transmission Media

Transmission medium Twisted pair Coaxial Cable Optical Fibre

Total data rate 4Mbps 500Mbps 2Gbps

Bandwidth

Repeater spacing

3MHz 350MHz 2GHz

2 to 10km 1 to 10km 10 to 100km

Dr. Dirk Pesch, Electronics Dept., CIT, 2000

Twisted Pair
Physical description
Separately insulated copper cables Twisted together Often bundled in cables Usually installed in buildings when built

Applications
telephone network (subscriber loop) PABX telephones in office buildings LANs between 10Mbps and 100Mbps (short range)

Transmission characteristics
analogue and digital transmission analogue: amplifiers every 5 to 6 km, digital: repeaters every 2 to 3 km strong attenuation with frequency analogue: 250kHz bandwidth, digital: long distance, ca. 4MHz, short distance ca. 100MHz

Dr. Dirk Pesch, Electronics Dept., CIT, 2000

Twisted Pair
Shielded Twisted Pair (STP), 150 cable Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP), 100 cable
Category 3: up to 16MHz Category 4: up to 20MHz Category 5: up to 100MHz

Attenuation (dB per 100m) Frequency (MHz) 1 4 16 25 100 300 Category 3 Category 5 UTP UTP 2.6 5.6 13.1 2.0 4.1 8.2 10.4 22.0 -

Near-end crosstalk (dB) 150 STP

150 STP Category 3 Category 5 UTP UTP 1.1 2.2 4.4 6.2 12.3 21.4 41 32 23 62 53 44 32 -

58 58 50.4 47.5 38.5 31.3

Dr. Dirk Pesch, Electronics Dept., CIT, 2000

Coaxial Cable
Physical description
Outer conductor is braided shield Inner conductor is solid metal Separated by insulating material Covered by padding Cable TV distribution Long distance telephone transmission Short-run computer system links LANs analogue and digital transmission problem: attenuation, thermal noise, and inter-modulation noise with FDM analogue and digital: amplifiers/repeaters every few km analogue: 400MHz bandwidth

Applications

Transmission characteristics

Dr. Dirk Pesch, Electronics Dept., CIT, 2000

Optical Fibre
Physical description
Glass or plastic core Laser or light-emitting diode Specially designed jacket Small size and weight, 2 to 125m Greater capacity Smaller size and lighter weight Lower attenuation Electromagnetic isolation Greater repeater spacing

Properties

Dr. Dirk Pesch, Electronics Dept., CIT, 2000

Optical Fibre
Applications
Long haul telecommunication trunks, 20,000 - 60,000 voice channels Metropolitan trunks, 100,000 voice channels Rural-exchange trunks, competes with microwave Subscriber loops for business use, voice, video and data high speed LANs (up to gigabit LANs)

Transmission characteristics
1014 - 1015 Hz, part of infra-red and visible spectrum multi-mode and single-mode fibres LED or ILD light sources for fibre optic transmission

Dr. Dirk Pesch, Electronics Dept., CIT, 2000

Types of Optical Fibre


Single (mono)-mode optical fibre

Multi-mode step-index optical fibre

Multi-mode graded-index optical fibre

Dr. Dirk Pesch, Electronics Dept., CIT, 2000

Unguided Transmission Media

Dr. Dirk Pesch, Electronics Dept., CIT, 2000

Terrestrial Radio and Microwave


Antenna
omni-directional, directional antenna, beam-forming antenna Line-of-sight (LOS) and non line-of-sight (NLOS) transmission antenna heights depend on application max. distance between microwave antennas: d = 7.14 Kh

Applications - Radio wave


Mobile telecommunication Wireless LANs

Applications - Micro wave


Long-haul telecommunications - instead of coaxial cable Short point-to-point communication for wireless local loop or between LANs

Transmission characteristics
Main source of loss is attenuation, shadowing (NLOS) and fading 2 4d Free space loss: L = 10 log dB

Dr. Dirk Pesch, Electronics Dept., CIT, 2000

Satellite Microwave
Physical description
Satellite is microwave relay station Operates a number of transponder channels geo-stationary satellites provide point-to-point or multi-point links low-earth and medium-earth orbit for mobile satellite applications Television distribution Long-distance telephone transmission Private business networks Mobile satellite networks

Applications

Transmission characteristics
Frequency range between 1GHz and 10GHz Most satellites in the 4/6GHz band Future mobile satellite services will be in the 2GHz band

Dr. Dirk Pesch, Electronics Dept., CIT, 2000

Data Encoding & Modulation


Data encoding and modulation for baseband and bandpass transmission
Digital to digital encoding Digital to analogue modulation
ASK, FSK, PSK, QAM

Analogue to digital encoding


PCM, ADPCM, MP3

Analogue to analogue modulation


AM, FM, PM

Dr. Dirk Pesch, Electronics Dept., CIT, 2000

Line Coding - Baseband Transmission


Line coding is used for digital baseband data transmission Line coding is related to channel coding Line coding matches the transmitted data to the characteristics of the line Line coding transforms digital data into a digital signal or a digital signal into another digital signal Reception of a digital baseband signal by a matched filter and maximum likelihood detection

Dr. Dirk Pesch, Electronics Dept., CIT, 2000

Performance Measures
Signal spectrum Clocking Error detection Signal interference and noise immunity Cost and complexity

Signal spectrum - Several aspects of the signal spectrum of a digitally encoded signal are important. The spectral bandwidth occupied by the signal is an important performance measure of digital signalling as it influences the total available data rate. A lack of a direct current component is also desirable. With a dc component there needs to be a direct physical attachment of transmission components; ac-coupling via transformers is possible only without a dc component. Ac-coupling provides excellent electrical isolation and interference reduction, e.g. echo suppression. The magnitude of signal distortion and interference depend on the spectral properties of the transmitted signal. The transfer function of the transmission channel is usually worse near the band edges and a good signal should concentrate the transmitted power in the middle of the bandwidth. Clocking - Bit synchronisation between transmitter and receiver is usually crucial and the digital signal should be such that synchronisation can be derived from the signal itself. To have an extra lead between transmitter and receiver for synchronisation is usually too expensive. Error detection - Error detection is a data link layer issue, above the physical layer, but some form of error detection mechanism built into the physical signalling-encoding scheme is useful as it allows faster detection. Signal interference and noise immunity - The bit error rate, which usually depends on the signal to noise and/or interference ratio is an important performance aspect of digital signals. Certain codes exhibit superior performance over others in respect to bit error rates. Cost and complexity - Although digital components and circuitry continues to drop in price, expense cannot be ignored in the real world. In particular, the higher the signalling rate to achieve a given data rate, the greater the cost. Some of the codes discussed below actually require a signalling rate that is higher than the data rate of the digital signal.

Dr. Dirk Pesch, Electronics Dept., CIT, 2000

Non-return to Zero
Non-return to Zero-Level (NRZ-L) Non-Return to Zero, invert ones (NRZI)

1 1

1 0

0 1

1 0

1 1

NRZ-L

NRZI

The most common, and easiest way, to transmit digital signals is to use two different voltage levels for the two binary digits. Codes that follow this strategy share the property that the voltage level is constant during a bit interval; there is no transition (no return to a zero voltage level). For example, the absence of voltage can be used to represent binary 0, with a constant positive voltage used to represent binary 1. More commonly, a negative voltage is used to represent one binary value and a positive voltage to represent the other. This latter code, known as Non-Return to Zero-Level (NRZL, or NRZ), as illustrated in the slide above. NRZ-L is generally the line code used to generate and interpret digital data by terminals and other devices. If a different code is to be used for transmission, it is typically generated from an NRZ-L signal by the transmission system. A variation of NRZ is know as NRZI ( Non-Return to Zero, Invert on ones). As with NRZ-L, NRZI maintains a constant voltage pulse for the duration of a bit time. The data themselves are encoded as the presence or absence of a signal transition at the beginning of a bit time. A transition (low-to-high or high-to-low) at the beginning of a it time denotes a binary 1 for that bit time and no transition denotes a binary 0. NRZI is an example of differential encoding. In differential encoding, the signal is decoded by comparing the polarity of adjacent signal elements rather than determining the absolute value of a signal element. One benefit of this scheme is that it may be more reliable to detect a transition in the presence of noise than to compare a value to a threshold. Another benefit is that with a complex transmission system it is easy to lose the sense of the polarity of the signal. For example on a multidrop twisted-pair line, if the leads from an attached device to the twisted pair are accidentally inverted, all 1s and 0s for NRZ-L will be inverted. This cannot happen with differential encoding. The main problem with NRZ-L and NRZI is that if a long period of 1s in the case of NRZ-L and 0s in the case of NRZI occurs, the receiver can easily lose synchronisation. Therefore, these two encoding methods are not used on longer transmission lines but more for data encoding for magnetic storage media.

Dr. Dirk Pesch, Electronics Dept., CIT, 2000

Multi-level Binary
Bipolar AMI (Alternate Mark Inversion) Pseudoternary

1 1

1 0

0 1

1 0

1 1

Bipolar AMI

Pseudo ternary

Multi-level binary encoding

Dr. Dirk Pesch, Electronics Dept., CIT, 2000

Biphase
Manchester encoding Differential Manchester encoding

1 1

1 0

0 1

1 0

1 1

Manchester

Differential Manchester

Dr. Dirk Pesch, Electronics Dept., CIT, 2000

Scrambling
Bipolar with 8 Zeros Substitution (B8ZS) High Density Bipolar 3 Zeros (HDB3)
1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0

Bipolar AMI
0 0 0 V B 0 V B

B8ZS
0 0 0 V B 0 0 V B 0 0 V

HDB3

Dr. Dirk Pesch, Electronics Dept., CIT, 2000

Frequency Spectrum of Line Codes

Normalised frequency f/R

Dr. Dirk Pesch, Electronics Dept., CIT, 2000

Bit Error Rate of Line Codes


1

0.1

Bit error probability

0.01

AMI, pseudoternary

0.001

0.0001

NRZ, biphase
1e-05

1e-06

1e-07

10

12

14

Eb/N0 (dB)

Dr. Dirk Pesch, Electronics Dept., CIT, 2000

Line Codes in ITU-T Digital Telecommunication Transmission Hierarchy


Data rate (kbps) 2048 8448 34368 139264 565000 1544 6312 32064 44736 Line code HDB3 HDB3 HDB3 CMI CMI Scrambled AMI or B8ZS B8ZS Scrambled AMI B3SZ

Dr. Dirk Pesch, Electronics Dept., CIT, 2000

Spread Spectrum Transmission


010111001 Information sequence

Channel encoder

Modulator

Channel

Pseudo-random pattern generator

Demodulator

Channel decoder

010111001 Output sequence

Pseudo-random pattern generator

Dr. Dirk Pesch, Electronics Dept., CIT, 2000

Direct-Sequence Spread Spectrum Transmitter

2 P x(t )g (t ) cos( 0t )
Binary data

x (t )

BPSK modulator Code generator Carrier generator

g (t )

2 P cos( 0t )

Dr. Dirk Pesch, Electronics Dept., CIT, 2000

Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum Receiver


r (t ) = A 2 P x(t Td )g (t Td ) cos( 0 (t Td ) + )
BPSK Data demodulator Binary data

Despreading

g t T d
Code synchron.
Correlator

)
Carrier generator

t T A 2 P x d

Code generator

Dr. Dirk Pesch, Electronics Dept., CIT, 2000

Example of DS Spreading
Baseband information signal 1 0 1 1 0

Pseudo-random spreading code

1 00 1 1 00 1 1 0 00 1 1 1 10 1 1 00 1 1 0 1 00 1 1 00 1 1 0 00 111 0

Resulting spreadspectrum signal

0 1 1 0 01 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 11 1 0

Dr. Dirk Pesch, Electronics Dept., CIT, 2000

Example of DS De-Spreading
Received spreadspectrum signal 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 11 1 0

Synchronous pseudo-random spreading code

1 00 1 1 00 1 1 0 00 1 1 1 10 1 1 00 1 1 0 1 00 1 1 00 1 1 0 00 1 11 0

Original baseband information signal

Dr. Dirk Pesch, Electronics Dept., CIT, 2000

Data Communication Interfaces


Asynchronous and synchronous transmission Line configurations Physical interface specifications
Mechanical Electrical Functional Procedural Connectors, pins Signals, voltage levels

Dr. Dirk Pesch, Electronics Dept., CIT, 2000

Physical Interface

DTE
Data Terminal Equipment

DCE
Data Circuit-terminating Equipment

Circuit or packet switched Network

Physical interface

Dr. Dirk Pesch, Electronics Dept., CIT, 2000

Asynchronous Transmission
Character based transmission Timing only maintain within each character Star and stop bit used for synchronisation
Start bit 5 - 8 bits of data P 1 - 2 bit times Stop

0 1

Idle state of line 0 1 Start bit Stop 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 Start bit Stop

Dr. Dirk Pesch, Electronics Dept., CIT, 2000

Synchronous Transmission
Steady bit stream without start and stop Separate timing, often through Manchester or differential Manchester coding Preamble and Postamble used to identify block of data

8-bit flag

Control fields

Data field

Control fields

8-bit flag

Synchronous frame format

Dr. Dirk Pesch, Electronics Dept., CIT, 2000

Line Configurations
Topology
Point-to-point multi-point (broadcast)

Half duplex Full duplex

Dr. Dirk Pesch, Electronics Dept., CIT, 2000

Standard Interfaces and Connectors


Interfaces
V.24/RS-232 RS-449 X.21, X.21bis ISDN LAN

Mechanical Connectors
N-pin D-type or sub-D-type DB-15 (BNC), RJ11, RJ45

Dr. Dirk Pesch, Electronics Dept., CIT, 2000

ITU-T V.24/EIA (RS)-232


Mechanical Electrical Functional Procedural 25 pin or 9 pin D-connector ITU-T V.28/EIA-232 ITU-T V.24/EIA-232 ITU-T V.24/EIA/232

Dr. Dirk Pesch, Electronics Dept., CIT, 2000

ISO 2110 D-Connector

25 pin female D-Connector

9 pin male D-Connector

Dr. Dirk Pesch, Electronics Dept., CIT, 2000

V.28/EIA-232 - Electrical
Line coding Voltage levels
Voltage +3V - +15V -3V - -15V

NRZ-L
Data 0 1 Control ON OFF

Signalling rate < 20kb/s Distance < 15m In certain cases signalling rate up to 115kb/s

Dr. Dirk Pesch, Electronics Dept., CIT, 2000

V.24/EIA-232 - Functional
Pin V.24 EIA-232 Name Direction to Function DATA SIGNALS 2 3 14 16 103 104 118 104 BA BB SBA SBB Transmitted data Received data Secondary transmitted data Secondary received data DCE DTE DCE DTE Transmitted by DTE Received by DTE Transmitted by DTE Received by DTE

CONTROL SIGNALS 4 5 6 20 22 8 23 23 19 13 12 21 18 25 105 106 107 108.2 125 109 110 111 112 133 120 121 122 140 141 142 CA CB CC CD CE CF CG CH CI CJ SCA SCB SCF RL LL TM Request to send Clear to send DCE ready DTE ready Ring indicator Received line signal detector Signal quality detector Data signal rate selector Data signal rate selector Ready for receiving Secondary request to send Secondary clear to send Sec. received line signal detect. Remote loopback Local loopback Test mode DCE DTE DTE DCE DTE DTE DTE DCE DTE DCE DCE DTE DTE DCE DCE DTE DTE wishes to transmit DCE is ready to receive, response to request DCE is ready to operate DTE is ready to operate DCE is receiving a ringing signal DCE is receiving a signal on ch. Line Indicates whether high probability of error Selects one of two data rates Selects one of two data rates On/off flow control DTE wishes to transmit on reverse channel DCE ready to receive on reverse channel Same as 109, for reverse channel Instructs remote DCE to loop back signals Instructs DCE to loop back signals Local DCE is in test condition

Dr. Dirk Pesch, Electronics Dept., CIT, 2000

V.24/EIA-232 - Functional
Pin V.24 EIA-232 Name Direction to Function TIMING SIGNALS 15 24 17 113 114 115 DA DB DD Transmitter signal element timing DCE Transmitter signal element timing DTE Receiver signal element timing GROUND 7 102 AB Common ground refernce for all circuits DTE Clock signal; transitions occur at center of each signal element Clock signal; both 113 and 114 relate to signals on circuit 103 Clock signal for circuit 104

Dr. Dirk Pesch, Electronics Dept., CIT, 2000

V.24/EIA-232 - Procedural
Direct connection of two computers via modem over UTP Circuits required
Signal ground (102) Transmitted data (103) Received data (104) Request to send (105) Clear to send (106) DCE ready (107) Received-line signal detector (109)

Additional circuits for modem over PSTN


DTE ready (108.2) Ring indicator (125)

Dr. Dirk Pesch, Electronics Dept., CIT, 2000

RS-232 Null Modem Example

Signal ground (7) Transmitted data (2) Received data (3) Request to send (4) Clear to send (5) Received line signal detector (8) DCE ready (6) DTE ready (20) Ring indicator (22) Transmitter timing (15) Receiver timing (17)

(7) (2) (3) (4) (5) (8) (6) (20) (22) (15) (17)

Dr. Dirk Pesch, Electronics Dept., CIT, 2000

Differential Signalling
Differential signalling used to increase distance of transmission line
+V 1 A lead -V +V 0 B lead -V 1 Cable length (m) 10K 1.2K 1K 0V B driver 0 + A driver 0V receiver

V.24/RS-232 10 100K 1M 10M 10K Data signalling rate (b/s)

Dr. Dirk Pesch, Electronics Dept., CIT, 2000

Other Data Communications Interfaces


EIA (RS) - 449, EIA (RS) - 530
RS-449 uses 37 and 9 pin D-connector RS-530 uses 25 pin D-connector use of differential signalling distances of up to 1.2km data rates of up to 10Mb/s

ITU-T V.35
34 pin ISO 2593 connector (similar to D-connector) typical rates, 48kb/s, 56kb/s, 64kb/s, up to 6Mb/s control signals compatible to RS-232, data signals use differential signalling

Dr. Dirk Pesch, Electronics Dept., CIT, 2000

ITU-T X.21/X.20, X.21bis


Physical interface of WAN standard X.25 15 pin connector balanced signalling similar to RS-449 X.21 uses synchronous transmission, X.20 uses asynchronous transmission X.21bis equivalent to V.24, interim use Due to synchronous transmission, X.21 transmits coded character strings, which results in more complex logic

Dr. Dirk Pesch, Electronics Dept., CIT, 2000

X.21 - Functional
Interchange circuit G Ga Gd T R C I S B Name Direction to Function

Signal ground or common ground DTE common return DCE common return Transmit Receive Control Indication Signal element timing Byte timing

DCE DTE DCE DTE DCE DTE DTE DTE

Ground

Data transfer Control

Timing

Dr. Dirk Pesch, Electronics Dept., CIT, 2000

ISDN
Physical connection
between terminal equipment (TE) and network equipment (NE) (DTE - DCE analogy) connection requires 8 circuits, e.g. RJ45

Electrical specification
balanced transmission based on current loop differential digital signalling basic rate - 192kb/s, pseudoternary encoding, 750mV primary rate - 1.544Mb/s or 2.048Mb/s 1.544Mb/s - line code AMI with B8ZS 2.048Mb/s - line code AMI with HDB3

Dr. Dirk Pesch, Electronics Dept., CIT, 2000

ISDN Interface
Local power source a b c d Transmit Receive e f Power sink g h e f g h Remote power source a b c d Receive Transmit

Dr. Dirk Pesch, Electronics Dept., CIT, 2000

LAN
Twisted pair LAN, use of RJ45 8 pin connector Ethernet 10 Base-T wiring
10 Base-T pin # 1 2 3 6 RJ45 pin # 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 10 Base-T signal name

Transmit data + Transmit data Receive data + not used not used Receive data not used not used

Dr. Dirk Pesch, Electronics Dept., CIT, 2000

Modems
MODEM = MOdulator/DEModulator Modem is the general term for an electronic device used for transmission of information over any type of medium Modems are usually associated with data (nonvoice) communications Typical applications
modems for data communication over the analogue telephone network modems for data communication over digital telecommunication networks (ISDN and GSM)

Dr. Dirk Pesch, Electronics Dept., CIT, 2000

Modems for Analogue Telephone Network


Modems transform digital data into analogue data for transmission in an analogue telephone channel Analogue telephone channel has bandwidth of ca. 3kHz - 3.4kHz (depending on definition) A large range of modem standards are available. Most of those are standardised in ITU-T recommendations. ITU-T recommended modem standards are published in the ITU V series Most modems use a Hayes compatible command set to perform their functions

Dr. Dirk Pesch, Electronics Dept., CIT, 2000

Modem Standards

Dr. Dirk Pesch, Electronics Dept., CIT, 2000

Latest ITU-T (CCITT) Modem Standards


V.34
33.6kb/s data rate, full duplex transmission

V.90
56kb/s download, 33.6kb/s upload speed

V.92
56kb/s download, 48kb/s upload speed suspension of data transmission to accept voice call better error detection and recovery functions

Dr. Dirk Pesch, Electronics Dept., CIT, 2000

Intelligent Modems
CCITT/ITU-T modem standards define modulation/demodulation scheme Modems used for data communication between two computers require more functionality Hayes developed de-facto standard for control of modem by computer Hayes compatible command set

Dr. Dirk Pesch, Electronics Dept., CIT, 2000

Hayes Command Set

Dr. Dirk Pesch, Electronics Dept., CIT, 2000

Modem Indicators

Dr. Dirk Pesch, Electronics Dept., CIT, 2000

Microcom Networking Protocol (MNP)


Error detection and correction concepts On-line data compression MNP covers 10 protocol classes, MNP class 1 to MNP class10 MNP class 1 to 3 defines asynchronous (1, 2) and synchronous (3) data transmission to optimise throughput MNP class 4 adds adaptive packet assembly and data phase optimisation MNP class 5 adds data compression MNP class 6 to 10 add more enhanced compression techniques and more sophisticated error detection and correction schemes that are channel adaptive

Dr. Dirk Pesch, Electronics Dept., CIT, 2000

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