Chopter

Dlrect-Current Mschines

The d-c machineis a highly versatilemachine. It can provide high starting torquesas well as high accelerating and decelerating torques. It is capable of quick reversals, and speed controlovera'rangeof 4 : I is achieved with relative in comparison rvith all otherelectromechanical ease energy-conyersion devices. Theseare featnres that are responsible for its usein the really tough jobs in industry, such as are found,in steel mills. Unfortunately, the need for a mechanical rectifier(in the form of a commutator)to convertthe a-c emf that is inducedin eacharniaturecoil to a unidirectionalvoltagemakesit oueof the leastruggeci machines s well as moreexpensive. of electric The principles underlyiugbasictorque productionanclinducedvoltages in the d-c machine are outlined in detail in Chapter 3. Here rveinvestigate the operationalcharacteristics of the yarioustypes of d-c machines,beginningwith a description of how the direct voltageis obtained. The influence of the armature windingrnmf.onmachinebehavior is explored with particularemphasis on its effecton cnmmutation and its externalcharacteristics. The subjectof coma position of preeminence in the study of d-c rnachines mutation occupies be-

cause without good commutation the machine is rendered almost useless. The motor speed-torquecllrves are analyzed anri rlso the various methods of speed coltrol. Ilirrally, the procedure for finding machine performance thror-rghthe use of the governing equations, the eqliivalent circuit, tlie power-flow diagram, arrd the magnetization curve is outlinecl arrd illmtratecl.

6 . 1 G S N E R A T ' O NO F U N I D T R E C T ' O N A IV . OI.IAGES It is helpfulat the start of our study of d-c machines to understand horva
direct voltage can be produced at the armrtnre output terrninals. Appearing in Irig. 6-1(a) is a plot of the flux density produced by thc field wincliug as a function of clispiacement along the periphery of the rotor. Thc flat-topped

z',i- #

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DTRECT-CURRENT MAcl,uNEs

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GENERATION OF UNIDIRECTIONAI. VOLTAGES

283

portion of the plot is attributable to the constntair gap beb.ween the rotor surface and tlie f'ccs of thc polepieces.A sharpflloffoccursin the intcrpolar spacebecause of the effectof the largeair gapsthere. Figure 6-1(b) depictsa

oa,displocemenl olongoir -9op (o) Commutoior segmenl

I o l
t

'
\

1,,----\l
r'-6Q\ \ o

l @

1( "'R---\s:--o'1 s:-0" . \,\ ,,----l-- E -Foh

*" H

-{J:/

/A

l\-----l Il t s
l
(D'

O *

: o Y

ts

s l u -

d=@1, gop displocemenf (c)

Fig. 6-1. Generation of unidirectionai voltage: (a) shape of air-gap flux density producedby field winding; (b) emf generated is a single-coilarmature for four istants of time; (c) plolof .Bo as a function of time, with specific time instants of (b) shown.

effective in voltage production with this arrangement, unlike the Gramme-ring winding. The copper segments are part of the rotor structure, thereby rotating with it. Any emf that is induced in the coil a*a' appears at these copper segments. Placed in contact'with the copper segmentsand fixed in space are -two carbon brushes Br and 82. These are used to collect the voitage inducecl in the armature winding and to make it available to the external circuit. The coil in lig. 6-1(b) is shown in four different positions relative to the flux field. The rotor is assurnedlevolving at speed n in thp counterclockwise direction. At time instant 1, the emf inclucedin the coil is zero bccausecach coil side filcls itself at a point of.zero flur density. At instant 2, there is an emf inducecl in each coil side and its rnagnitude is proportional to the value of flux density, as obtained from lig. 6-1(a), as well as to the veiocity and length of the coil sides. 'rhe directiou of the induced voltage in coil side o is such that it makes the polarity of brush 81 positiue. As the rotor revolves an additional 90 degrees, the situation illustrated in 3 of ltis. 6-1(b) is found to prevail. Again note the zero voltage value. At instant 4, coil side o is under the influence of south-pole flux and so has an emf of reversed poiarity induced. FIowever, note that its attached commutator segment is norv in contact rvith brush 82, u'hich keeps this brush at a negative polarity. A complete piot of thc voltage appearing at the armture tenninals is depicted in ttig. 6-1(c) with the four time instants of ltis.6-i(b) specificallyindicated. It is important to note that, although the voltage in each coil side alternates for each revolution, the voltage appearing at the brushesis urridirectional because of the effect of the seemented commutator.t Although the use of a sirrgiecoil in conjunction with the commutator furnishes a unidirectionai voltage, the resulting r,vaveshape of rrig.6-1(c) is unsatisfactory because the magriitude is not constant over the full period. A considerableimprovement can be achievcd by increasing and distributing the number of armature coils. riigure 6-2(a) depicts in developed form a trvo-pole machirre having eight slots on the rotor equipped with trvo coil sides per slot, yielding a total of eight coils. This representation is typical of the situation found in practical machines. The lower part of the figure illustrates the manner in rvhich the various coil sidesare joined to give . summed quantity. The r,vinding layout shown is referred to as a waue ,winding for obvions reasons.f As a general rule the sides of a given coil are made to span one pole pitch (i.e., 180 electrical degrees). Nloreover, in the doubie layer rvinding, such as the one illustrated here, each coil is so placed that rne side occu.piesa lolver position and the other side an upper position. l'or exauiple, coil sides 1 and l0 are
aruangement of FiS. 6-1(b) becomes an a-c generatorwhen each coil side is connectedto a closedcopperring and echbrush is made to ride on one ring. Then the positive and negative varitionsof inducedemfs rernadeto appearat the brushes and therefore the armature terminls. {Another frequently used arrangementis the lap winding.

the distinction tFor betterunderstanding wilh the a-cgeneratol is worth making.The

cross-sectional view of a two-pole machine having an armature wirrding consisting of a simple coil, a*a'. Coil side o is joinecl to coil side o' by a back con-

nection that is not shown. The front ends of eachcoil side are joined permarrently to coppersegments as indicted. Note that both coil sidesare

.u:

s e c . . 1
q

GENERATION OF UNIDIRECTION,AT VOTTAGES 285

r-_

tno --tot*

Il

I ' ;i

ir Roo ,n o r

(r,,'-i,6

Coil 5 C o i l7 - 1 6 Coil 1- lO C o i l3 - 1 2

Tololinduced voltoge between brushes

to tr
(c)

tx -- art

Fig.6-2. Generation of a d-c voltage: (a) winding layout for a simple machine; (b) schematic representation of two armature paths existing between the brushesat the time 6illustrated in (a); (c) total induced armature voltage as a function of time; complete cycle is shown for each of four coils.

joincd by the bacli-enrl connection to constitlte onc coil. Note that the span is 180 degreesancl that coil side 10 occupies the lorver position in slot 5, rvhile eoil side I occupiesthe uppct'position in slot 1. A study of liig. 6-2(a) disclosesthat the armature rvinding complctely closcsol'titself and that in particulal the l'ave n-irrding has trvo alrnature paths lvith respectto the brushes. 'Ihc arrcwhcacls attachcd to ech coil side indicate the direction in rvhich the inducecl emf causes current to florv .lvhen a load is placed crossthe brushes. In the plan vierv of Fig. c-2(a) the direction of the emf for the direction of rotation shoivn is dorvnrvrcl bencath a north pole and uprvald berreath a south pole. lior clarity's sake the south pole is rcpeated once.;on the left side the upper coil sidesre specificallyiilustratecl, rvhile ou the right side the coil sides located in the lorver portions of the slots are shorvn. Also brush Bz is assumedto be resting on commutator segment4, and simultancously brush ,B1is assuuredto be in contact rvith commutator segment 8. I,lxamirration of the crircuitryat B2discloses that current couverges at this brush from trvo directious -- from coil side 2 ancl coil side 7. lir.rrtherinvestigation reveals that coil side 2 is associatedrvith a path that consists of for.rrcoils: 8-1s,6-l3, 'Ihese 4-11, and 2-9. coils are drau'n rvith solid lines in f,'ig. 6-2(a) and are denoted by small series-connected d-c sourcesin l'ig. 6-2(b). simiiarly coil side 7 is associated rvith the remainingfour coils:7-10,5-I4,8-12, and 1-10. These coils are represented in liig. 6-2(a) rvith brolien lines and in |ig. 6-2(b) by series-connected d-c sources. If attention is .directed solely at the fundamental component of the fluxdensity curve of lfig. 6-1(a), it should be clear that for thc time instant being considered thc values of the coil voltages are not the sime. Iiol example, the instantarreous values of coils 3-12, 4*1I,5-14, and G-13 are displaced from their position..of maximum value by 22i degreesrvhile the remaining coils are away by 67f degr:ees.A partial time histor.y of these coil voltages for various positions of the armature relative to the field distribution is clepicted in fig. 6-2(c). The instant represented in tiig. 6-2(a) is identified as lo. Note that each coil voltage over any full cycle appears as a rectified rvave becauseof the action of the commutator. 1,'urthermore,only the four coils on one side of the arrnature winding are depicted. The total induced voltage appearing betrveen the brushes Br and 82 at time o is the snrn of the instantaneous coil voltages (,8.), i.e., l,)"0: 2g^ cos 22|-+ 2E^ cos 67], rvhere ,L'- is the peah voltage induced in the coil. If the conditions leading to lrig. o-2(b) are analyzed for a time instant h - 22+ degreeslater then coils 5*14 and 6-13 rvill experience their peak values, rvhile the emf inclucedin coils 2*g and l-iO rvill be zero. The instantaneotts valttes of the induced emfs in the lenu'ining coils rvill be E* cos 45 degrees. The total contribution at time lr is therefore Eo1 : E^+ZE^ cos 45" f 0. This total is identified in Fig. 6-2(c) and is less than the value occurring at time 16. A glance at lrig. 6-2(c) malies it obvious thit an almost constaut voltage now appears between the brushes in contrast to the situation of Fig. 6-1(c).
'' F \:ii)

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DIRECT.CURRENT GENERATOR TYPES 287

The small ripple is attributable to the small numberof slots per pole. In practicalnrachines this nurnberis very lalge so that the ripple is hardly detectable evcn with sensitiveinstruments.

gap flux verslrs fiekl winding mmf. Horvever, in the d-c gcnerator rvhcre the rvinding constant K is knorvn and the speedn is fixed, the magnctization curve has come to represent a plot of the open-circuit induced armature voltage as a function of 'r,he fielclrvinding current. With K and n fixed, trq. (8-62) shorvs that @d and E" differ only by a constant factor. Figure 6-5 depicts a typical

6.2 DIRECT.CURRENI GENERATOR TYPES

Mognetizolion curve

The d-c machine functions as a generator when mechanical energy is supplied to the rotor and an electrical load is connected &crossthe rmature terminals. fn order to supply elect,ricalenergy to the load, horvever,a magnetic field must first be establishedin the air gap. The field is necessarybecauseit servesas the coupling device pelmitting the tlansfer of energy from the mechanical to the electrical system. There are trvo rvays in rvhich the field rvincling may be energized to produce the magnetic field. One method is to excite the field separately from an auxiliary sortrce as depicted in the schematic diagram of lig. 6-3.

bd

Fieldwinding current

Fig. 6-5. Illustrating the build-up procedure of a seif-excited shunt generator.

Seporote

D-Csotrce y'
Field

T^-] I Hilme ertme I mover I I I

Fig. 6-3, Schematic diagram of a separatelyexcited d-c generator.

LT:IJ
Fig. 6-4. Schematic diagram self-excited shunt generator. of a

But clearly this schemeis disadvantageousbecauseof the neeclof another d-c source. After all, the purpose of the d-c generator is to make available such a source. Therefore, invariably d-c generators are excited by the secondmethod lvhich involves a process of self-excitation. The rviring diagram appears in li'ig. 6-4, and the arrangeuient is called lhe self-erc'ited sh,untgenerator. The word shunt is used becausethe field rvinding appeel'sin plrallel u'ith the armature winding. That is, the ttvo windings form shunt connection. To understand horv the self-excitation process talies place rve must start with the aragnetiza"tion curueof. the lrchine. Sometimesthis is called Lhesaturq,tion cur'e.Strictly speaking, the magnetization curve representsa plot of air-

magnetization cllrve, vaiid for a constant speed of rotation of the armature. It is especially important to note in this plot that even rvith zero fielcl currerrt an emf is induced in the armatrire of vlue oa. .This voltage is due entirely to residual magnetism, which is present beeurse of the previous excitation hisiory of the rnagnetic-circuit iron. The linear curve appearing on the same set of axes is t'he.field-resi.stance line. It is a plot of the current car.rsecl by the voltage applied to the serieseombination of the field l'inding and the active portion of the field rheostat. clearly, then, the slope of the linear curve is equal to the sum of the field-lvinding resistanceIl and the active rheostat resistance /?,r.. The voltage Oo due to residual magnetisrn appcars acrossthe fielcl circit and causes a field current Ob to floiv. But in accordance rvitli the magnetization curve this field current aids the residual flux and thereby produccs a lalger iuduced emf of valrte c. In turn this increased emf causesan everr lergcr field culrent, which creates more flux for a iarger emf, etc. This processof voltage build-up continues until the induceclemf proclucesjust enough fielcl curr.ent to sustain it. This corresponds to poinl/in Fig.6-5. l(ote tirat in orderfor the build-up plocess to talie place thrce conditions must be satisfieci: (1) There must be a residual flux. (2) The field rvinding mmf must act to aid this residual flux' (3) The total fi,eld-circuit resistancemust be less than the critical value. The criticql Jeld resistance is that value rvhich makes the resistnce line coincide with the linear portion of the saturation curve. rn addition to the shunt generator there are the other generator trpes *

288

MAcHtNES DtREcT-cURRENT

chop. SCC. .3 DEMAGNETIZING EFFECT OT THE ARMATURE WINDTNG MMF 289

the compound generator and the series generator. A compound,generator is a shunt generator equipped with a serieswindin'g. The serieswinding is a coil of comparatively ferv turns lvound on the same magnetic axis as the field winding and connectedin serieswith the armature rvinciing. Consult Fig. 6-6. Because

n\ fPt'r.] | 'oue' [--7

B1 A

field Shunt winding

OutPut terminols

increased armature current flows, in order to neutralize the armature winding resistance drop as rvell as the voltage drops occurring in the feeder rvires leading to the load. In such casesthe gerrerator is usually referrecl to as a cumulatiuely compounded generator because the series held aids the shunt field flux. If the series field connection rvere reversecl,its flux rvould oppose the shunt field flux in which case the configuration is referrecl to as a d,!ferentially compounded generator. By imposing the appropriate constraint on the counection diagram depicted in Fig. 6-6(a), we can ideniify any one of the three modes of operation of the d-c generator. Thus in addition to the armature winding we have the following: ' compound generator: shunt and seriesfield windinEs shunt generator: shunt field rvinding seriesgenerator: seriesfield windinf since the series generator is rarely used except for speciar applications, all further treatment of generators is confined to the shunCarrdcompound modes.

field Series field Shunt

Ke ?d>
u, .-

6-3 DfA,IAGNETIZING EFFECT OF THE AR MATUREW'ND'NG MMF

The armaturewindingmmf produces two adverse effects: it cuses a net red.uction in the field flux, and it"makes it more difficult for the armature current in the coils to commutate. we turn our attention to the first tf thesehere;the problemof commutationis treatedin the next section. A glanceat Fig. 6-6(b) sliowsthat the flow of current in the armature winding produces an ampere-conductor distribution that makesthe armature behavelike a solenoid. The associated mmf is directeddownrvard. along the brush axis and in a positionof quadratureto the fielclaxis. If there wereno saturationof the iron present, the effectof this cross-arrnature mmf rvouldbe merely to cause a distortion of the flux. Horvever, in nrostpracticalmachines operationoccurs around the kneerrf the magnetization curve and asa resulta net demagnetization takes place. To understandwliy this happens, consider the situationillustratedin Fig. o-7which is that of a shuntgenerator delivering current to a load (thelatter not shorvn).lfhe armaturemrnf rvaveis assumed to be triangular. This is a valid assumptionrvhenever the number of surface armature c<nductors is large; otherwise it vouldbe a steppedtrapezoid.The flux-densitywaveproducedby this armturemmf is saddlc-shaped. because of the high reluctance of the interpolarspace. The resultantair-gap flux density is the sum of the B and the Bo curves. It should be noted. that the armature mmf acts to increasethe flux in the trailing half of the pole, while it causes a

ln Y

,'

Field rheoslot Oulput ferminols (b) Fig. 6-6. The cumulatirr"ly .o*pounded generator: (a) schgr rnatic diagram; (b) detailed diagrarn depicting location of series and shunt windings on pole structure.

the series field winding must be capable of earrying the full armature current, its cross:-qectional area is much gleatel thau that uscd irt the shunt licld tvind'Ihe purpose o{ the scries field is to provide additional air-gap flux as ing.

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DTREcT-CURRENT MAcHTNES

c h o p .

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coMMUTAnoN 291

shown on the abscissa axis of Fig. o-8 with someexaggerations for the sakeof clarity. The value of the resultant air-gap flux at the center of the pole is o. However, t the trailing pole tip the magnetizing action of the armature mmf
8,, resultont f l u xd e n s i t y mmf produced 8o,flux density mmf by ormcture Rolor direcfbn of rotoiion
g

Fig. 6-7. Effect of armature mmf on the air-gap flux density. Demagnetizationoccurs if the cross-hatched area to the left of the pole axis is greater than the double cross-hatched area to the right of the pole axis.

/a[,,, I (+nl k('f)]lk

o Ir Field,omp Fig. 6-8. Illustrating the demagnetizing mmf by means of he magnetizing curve.

diminution of flux in the leading half. If the increase of flux in the trailing half is equal to the decreasein the leading half, no net reduction in field flux takes place. If the increase in the trailing half is less than the decrease in the leading half, dernagnetization occurs. In },'ig. 6-7 the cross-hatched area representsthe amount of demagnetization that occursin the leading half of the pole, the double cross-hatched area denotes the amount of magnetization caused by the cross-nagnetizing armature mmf. When a net demagnetization of the field flux results, the former area exceedsthe latter. Becausemachines are operated in a partially saturated state, there often exists sonre degree of demagnetization. A measureof the amount of this demagnetization expressedin equivalent field amperescan be obtained from a knorvledgeof the magnetization curve and appropriate design data. The procedr.rre is graphicaiiy illustrated in ltig. 6-8. The air-gap flux per pole produced by the field rvinding acting alone is denoted by Q. Let p be defined as the ratio of the pole face width, bo, to the rvidth of a pole pitch, ro. That is, ' (6-1) 'o : b '
Tp

raises this quantity to (as is also indicated in Fig. 6-2), rvhereasat the leacling pole tip it drops to Q,. Area acd is a measure of the amount of d.emagnetization that occurs in the leading half of a pole; area qbeis a measure of the amount of magnetization that occurs in the trailing half of a pole. For machines tha exhibit a measurable degree of saturation atea qcd,is greater.than area abe. Hence demagnetization occurs. The value of this demagnetization is found. bv displacing line dae to that position d'a'e' such that area a'd'c equals area a'be7. The quantity oo' projected on the field current axis yields the desired result. Thus f a = a'at' measured. in field amperes

where /a is used to denote the demagnetizing effect of the armature mmf in equivalent field amperes.

Then the amountof armaturemmf acting at eithei'poletip is ZI" armature mmf at pole tip : n 2p; (6-2) .4 COMMUT ATION

whereZ denotes p is the number of polesand the total armatureconductorc, a denotes the numberof armaturepaths. The factor2 convertsconductors to turns. To express Eq. (6-2) in equivalent field amperes, it is necessary to divide by the numberof turns per poleof the fieldwinding,lrr.This quantityis

Good commutation is indispensable for the satisfactory operation of d-c machines. This matter is so important that it takes precedence in design considerationsover the problem of heat dissipation. Without proper com-

, j

--,E

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DTRECT-cURRENT MACHINES

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coMMUTATToN 293

mutation, deterioration of the carbou brushes and the copper commutator segmetttscan rapidly set in. This c&usesse\cresparking and thereby renders the machine useless. Even such an important characteristic as the maximum torque is limited by commutation rather than by heatiug.

l
J

t"4 al,

r^
r

-9

6 t

7{.) BA r/

commntation is concerned with providing a suitable transition of the armaturecurrentin a coil from a value*I"f a to a valueof -1"/a as it passcs beneatha brush from one pole to an adjacent pole. A glanceat Fig. 6-g(a) makesit evidentthat when coil 1-10 passes beneaththe brushesand occupies the positionnow beingoccupied by coil 15-8, the current in the coil rvill have reversedcomplctelyas inclicated by the cross-clot notation. Commutationof the current from coil 1-tr0 beginsto take placervhenbrush 1lr makescontact with commutatorsegment1 as sholvnin Itig. 6-g(b). Note that when this happenscoil 1-10 is actuall;' short-circuitedby brush Br through segmenis 8 and 1. All commutatorsegments are insulatedfrom one another by a suitable material. A similar situationoccursat brush 82 rvherecoil 2-g is being shtrt-circuited.Because of this and in the interestof preventinglarge circulating currentsin thesecoils,rvhichin turn can cause severesparking gs the circulating currentsare interrupted upon leaving the brush, the coils undergoing comrnutation should be free of voltage sources.The time instant de+ picted in lrig. 6-9(b)is 22f degrees later than that shorvn in lfig. 6-2(a). I,Ience coils 1-10 and 2-9 find themselves in the interpolarspace wherethe flux densifuod*+'. producedby the field mmf is zero. Accordingly,no Blu voltage is inducd&.in these coils from this source. However,the presence of the armature "Ud . causcs the resultantflux densityto have a finite value in the intcrpolar spae'tu as is evidentfron lfig. 6-7. sincethe polarity of this flr.rx is the s&me asthat of the main field pole rvhich the short-circuited coils are leaving, an emf is inducedthat actsto maintain currentflow in the sametiirectionas existedbefore commutation began. Thereforethis induced emf clueto the armature mmf acts to hinder commutation;it becornes more difficult for the coil current to reverseby the time it leavesthe brush.
fypes of commutstion There are tr,vo types of commutation possible: resistance cornmutation and voltage commui'ation. Nloreover, the latter may be divided irrto the two classesof undercommutation and overcommutation. The distinction between these types is depicted by the various commutation curves of Fig. 6-10. Curve a representslinear commutation, and it occurs only rvhen the brush contact resistance is the exclusive factor irrfluencing commutation. All induced emf's from whatever sourcesmust add to zero and the coil resistance must be negligible compared rvith the brush contact resistr,nce. Ilnder these conditions the current in the coil changes uniformly during the commutation period ?". The mechanism of commutation by tliis method is illustrated in Irig.6-11. rfigure 6-11(a) depictsthe situation just beforecommutation of the current in coil 2-9 is about to occur. Brush 1]2is resting on commntator segmert 4, and of the total armature current 1" florving through this brush cemes half from one armature path involving coil 16-7 and the remaining half comes

Fig. 6-9. Illustrating the commutation problem: (a) coil 1-10 must undergoa complete current reversalas it advances eounteciockwiseto the left sjde of lhe brush axis; (b) for the positir-rn shown, coil 1-10 is short-circuited through segmentsI and I by 81, and coil 2-9 is shcrt-circuitedthrough segments4 and 5 by /lz.

294

DTREcT-cURRENT MAcHtNEs

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coMMUTATToN 295

o 3

scgment5. The contactresislance of that part of thc brushsurfaccin conttct 'with segment 5 is three times aslargeas the resistance of the brush in corrtact rvith segment 4. Ilence divisionof the current comingfrom the trvo armtrrc paths takcsplacein accordu,nce rvith this ratio. Thus the current 1o/2conring from the righl sidedividesat junction o in the ratio of 3 : 1 so that the currcnt ' 1 1" I " 'fhc passing to .82 from segment 5 from this sour.ttis portiorr passing or 42 5. I-f to 82 throughsegment n *X*or! r". Similarly,the crirrent originating from the armaturepath on the left side splits, so that ?^'; *!
Leoding brushtip

1" flows to B,

throgh segment + ana

|*

"r 1" florvsfrom to to segment4 and thence

:'
t

Fig. 6-10. Commutation curve of coil 2-9 in Fig. 6-l). l)uring the commutation period the cur.veis a plot of the cirr:ulating current in the sholt-circuited coil undergoing cornniutation.

flom the secondpath involving coil 2*9. The direction of rotation of the arnature rvithrespect to the brushis towardsthe left. Depictedin rig. 6-11(b) 25 per cent of the brush is in contactrvith commutator i&fhe situationrvhere

to Bz. The net current that florvs from segmen t 4 to Bzistherefore l, + e ! ! R / t f or i 1", rvhereas the net currerrtto Bz from segmeut5 - is 1j * 1j or'-u. The -"+ 8 8-- 4 L O f 7 . Io rcsultarrt currentin coil rr - v i lflou's u \ r b rfrom rurro OL ( ,b t antl is equal 2-9 to a2 l" -- g f o , g -

consequently, one-quarter throughthe period of commutationthe current in csii 2-9 haschanged from to Iieen in mind that the commutationurve T . is a plot of the currentin the short-circuited coil asa function of time. Appearing in lrig. cli(c) is the dislributionof currentsthat prevailat a tirnemidrvay througli the commutationperiod. Note that now the current in the shortcircuitedcoil is zero. curve b in lig. 6-10 represents resistance commutatio'. It is the curve that resultsrvhenthe resistance of the short-circuitedccilis uot negligible comparedrvith the brush contactresistance.Note tht at the leadingbrush tip the slopeof curve is steeper tharrthat of curveo, u,hichindicates that the coil resistance enhances the currentreversal. This is apparentfrom an examinatiou of lrig. 6-11(b)rvhereit is seenthat at junction a the presence of coil resistance means that more currentflorvsto segment 5. I-Iorvever, at the trailing brush tip (or during the second half of the commutationperiod) thc coil resistance serves to retard the currentreversal. The current density,rvhichis represented b-vthe slopeof the commutationcurve,is thereforehigherat both the leadingand trailing brush edges for resistance commutation. The commutationcurve denotedas c in I'ig. 6-10 is described as und,ercommulat'ionIt is a form of voltagecommutationin rvhichcurrent reversal has beendelayedby the action of the errfof self-induction in the short-circuited coii or af lhe Blu vollageinducedin the short-circuited coil by the flux producedby the armature mmf or of a combinationof both. A decelerated commrttation of this kind is characterized by high ctirrentdensityat the trailing bmsir tip, rvhich can prornotea detelioration<lfthe brush material and also bring about undesirable chemical changes in the coppersegments of the commutator.

t6-7
3r 3r - 3r E rof E o-ao

Fig.6-ll. Illustrating linear commuttion in coii 2-): (a) conditions just before commutation begirrs; (b) conditions at a point one-quarter through the comnruttion perioti; (c) conditionsat e point halfway tlirough the commutation peliocl.

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sec. -4

coMMUrATroN 297

A schemethat is frequently used to neutralize this emf of self-induction and the effect of the armature mmf is the inclusion of small poles located on the brush axis ancl energizedby a coil carrying the armatnre current. Because of tlreir location ancl function, these poles are calledinterpoles or unnmutating poles. The use of armature-current excittion is dictated by the fact that both the emf of self-incluction in the short-circuited coil and the flux in the bmsh axis produced by the armature mmf are proportional to armature current. For generator ction the polality of the interpole must be the sarne as that of the field pole into rvhich the coil is moving. liigure 6-12 depicts the situation for a

current densityat the trailing edge of the brush. This situation is denotedby curved in lfig. 6-10. l(ote that the currentin the eoilundergoing commutation has alreadyreached its value of -1"/2 beforethe coil leal'esthe brush. This resultsin no sparhing at the trailing edgeof the brushand represents the most favorableconditionfor good commutation.

o o 6

c u c

Current densily

Fig. 6-13, Illustratingthe arc-typec<induction characteristics of carbon brushes.

Resultonl oirgopf luxdensity Fig. 6-12. The influence of interpoles on the resultant fluxdensity lvave of a d-c machine.

two-pole machine. It is helpful to compare the resultant flux-density curve here with that appearing in liig. 6-7. Note that the value of the flux density on tlre interpolar axis in Fig. 6-12 is opposite to that occurring in lrig. 6-T. rf the rnagnitude of the flux density produced by the interpole is adjusteclpropcrly, it can be made to neutralize the emf of self-induction completely. of course the effect of the armature mmf has already been neutralized in the representation of ltig. 6-12 becausethe resultnt flux density is shorvn to be of opposite polarity. with such an adjustment the type of commutation that prevails is linear commutation, provided that the coil resistancecompared to the brush contact resistance is incousequential. Othelwise resistance commutation takes place. A considerableimprovement in the commutation process can be achieved by increasingthe interpole flux to the poiut at u'hich, in addition to canceling the effectsof the emf of self-incluctionand the rrmaturemmf, there is incluced a voltage equal to trvice the bmsh voltage drop, 2I "Ra. Under these conditiorrs that special condition of ouercetmmutati,on results that leads to a r'llueof zero

The relationship between the contact voltage drop at a brush and the current density is shown in Fig. 6-13. For average carbon brushes the contact drop tends to remain essentially constant at about 1 volt. This is consistent with the fact that the conduction in the space betri'een the copper segments and the carbon brushes occurs in accordance rvith arc phenomenon. when d.c machines are uscd in applications that involve sevele cluty cyt:les (e.g.,steel mills), su'iftly changing loads and high overloaclscan cause breakdol'n of the air space bctiveeu commutator segmerrts. This breakclorv can spread raridly over the entilc commutat<ir, thus causing darnage to the cotnmutatot's rveli as a shot't circui on the d-c supply litres. Unfot'turrately, this situation (ian occur in spite of the presellce of ilterpoles. The most effective rvay to prevent this flashover condition is to ncutralize the arrnatu'e reaction that causes the sevcle pcaking of the air-gap flux derrsity that leads to breakdorvn. This is best achicvcd by the rrsc of a cotnpen'satingwinding embedded in slots distributed aloug the pole faces. By allorving armature culrent to florv through tlris pole-face rvindiug rvith a polarity opposite to that of the armature rvindirg and a -quitable number of ampere-turns, there cau result complete cancellation of the annatule reaction. The chief disadvantageof this method of eliminatiug or reducing the commutation problem is the high expenseof pole-face rvindings.

sec.-5

COMPUTATION OT GENERATOR PERFORMANCE 299

.5

COMPUTAT'ON OF

GENERAIOR PERFOR/r4ANCE Appearing in Fig. 6-14is the equivalent circuitof the compound generator.
The armature 'winding is replaced by a source voltage having the induced emf z" and a resistance 1?",rvhich representsthe armaNurecircuit rcsistance.t The

The porver-flow diagram for the d-c generatoris depicted in Fig. 6-15. Note the similarity it bearsto that of the synchronous generator. The field winding lossis included in the power flow directly because it is assumedthat

P(mechonicol)

Bor
'

=1- -1ff P.= EoIo

60

,----^----t
ISino*Pt

Pe=Vllt(electricol )

'

^ vrlr
Fig. -15. Power-flow diagramof lhe d-c generator.

Fig, 6-14. Equivalent circuit of the compound d-c aenerator.

seriesfield is replaced by its resistance .R.", and the samefor the shunt field. The governing equations for determining the performance are the folorvinq:
Do:#n:KrQn
OU mZ mZ

the generator is self-excited. of course,if the field rvinding is separately excited, the field lo-qses are not supplied from the prime mover and so must be hanciled separately. h{oreover, note that the field lossesare representecl in terms of the product of the field terminal voltage and the field current. 'fhis ensures that the field winding rheostat lossesare included as well.

(6-3)
(o-4., \o-D/

EXAMPTE.I magnetization curve of a 10-krv 2b0-volt d-c self-excited shunt generator driven at 1000'rpm is shorvn in Fig. G-16. Each vertical division represents 20 volts ancl each horizontal unit represents0.2 ampere. The arnatre circnit resistanceis 0.15 ohm and the field current is 1.64 amperesrvhen the terminal voltage is 250 volts. dlso, the rotational lossesare knorvn to be equal to b40 rvatts. Irind at rated loarl (a) ihe armature induced emf, (b) the developed torque, (c) the efficiency. Assume constant-speed operation. Solution: that 'rhe

f : #"- f o: KIQI" 2ra Vt: Il" - I"UI" + R,) I': It * I

(6-6)

These include the two basic lelationships for induced voltage and ele'ctromagnetic torque as developed in Sec. 3-4. Equations (G-S)and (6-6) are merely statements of I(irchiroff's voltage and current lal's as they apply to the equivalent circuit of lig. 6-14. ror the compc.rund generator the exprcssion for the air-gap flttx must include the effect of the seriesfielclisrvell as the shunt field. Thus
:tF"*Q"

(a) With the generator deliveringqated load current it follows 10,000 t," : f f i w a t t s : 4 o a m P e r e s

(6-z;1

where , denotesthe flux produced by the shunt field rvinding and e" denotes the flux causedby the seriesfield winding. l'or theshunt genelator, of coursc, , is zero in Eq. (6-7) and so too is 11"in Eq. (6-5). resistance includes the armature tThe armature-circuit windingresistance, interpole windingresistance, compensating s'indingresistance, plus the effectof the voltagedrop in the carbon brushes. summation is permitted fAlgebraic only rvhensaturation is negtigible.
298

Ilence from Eq. (6-6) the armaturecurrent is : 40 + 1'64 : 41'64amperes t,: "t' The inducedarmaturevoltagethen followsfrom Eq. (6-5): Eu : Vt + I"R" : 250+ 41.64(0.15) : 256.26 voits (6-8)

(b) To determine the developed torque it is first necessary to computethe power -E,1 l'hus electromagnetic : 10,700watts Eofo = 256.25(41.64)
r -

r d
;i:.,..., r;-: , .t ,, .' ,. . ,.. . , .

i!1

300

DTREcT-cURRENTMAcHtNES

chop"

sec. -

EXTERNAT GENERATOR CHARACTERISTIC. NOI..ITINEAR ANALYSIS 30I

fn this case

+ I\R"*VrI f losses:Prot
" Hence

: 540+ 261+ 410: 1211 warm

n:tl2ll - - 1?ll I id;mo 540 + ffi:

: o'8e2 1 - o'108

The efficiency is therefore8g.2per cent.

6.6

SXTERNA GENERATOR CHARACTER'5TIC. NON'NFAR ANAY5I5

'a The external characteristic of generator is a description of the manner in which the terminal voltage varies with armature current. A plot of the external characteristic of self-excited shunt generator is shorvn in tlie right half of !'ig. 6-17. The drop in the curve is attributable to.three factors: the

o'-1-?

Fieldresistonce

Fig. 6-16

The power-florv diagram revealsthat this power may also be found from EoIo: Po* IZR" * V,I : 10 kw + (41.64)10.15 + 250(1.G4) : 10 kw + 261+ 410 : 10,671 rvatts (6-O; which checkscloselywith the precedingcalculation. Hence the developed torque is

'l' ryt:

E"Io

10,7'm

ffi:

ffi

: 101.5 newton-meters (o-to

(c) The efficiency is found from Eq. (4-27), r'hich for the d-c generator takes the form

n:r-#+H;

Field currenf

Armoturecurrenl Fig. 6-1?. Derivation of the extelnal eharacteristicof a selfexcited shunt generator.

(6-11)

! ,

)l - "-,"

302

DTREcT-cURRENTMACHTNES

chop.

sec. -

EXTERNAI. GENERATOR CHARACTERISTIC. NONTINEARANATYSIS 303

effect of the arrnature circuit resistancedlop, the demagnetizing action of the armature winding mmf, and the decreasein field current causedby the resulting drop in terminal voltage associatedwith the first two factors. It is assumed that the generator is driven at constant speed. The preciseway in rvhicli these factors combine to yield a stabie operating point can be understood in the graphical represcntation appearing on the left side of ltig. 6-17. Assume that the following information is available: armatttre circuit resistance, field cicuit resistance, magnetization curve, and the equivalent field current that represents the demagnetization caused by the 'Ihe last item is available either from the design data armature mmf (i.e., 1). or an appropriate test. The intersection of the field resistance line with the nonlinear magnetization curve shor'vsthat at no-load the equilibrium field -[zo. When the current is 1o corresponding to the no-load terminal voltage load condition is such tha,t the armaturc current is 1or,the externrlcharacteristic shows that the terminal voltage has the value l'r. Extension of a horizontal line at the 7r level results in a point of intersection with the field resistance line identified as O'. The projection of O'onto the field axis disclosesthat the current florving in the field circuit is now I . A comparison with the value at no-load makes it ciear that a reduction occurs equal to

point b parallel to the field resistanceline anci intersecting the magnetization curve in two places. Triangle oab lnay then be translatecl to position o,ab taking care to lieep o' o' the field resistance rine ancl b on the magnetization curve' The terminal voltage is the ordinate val'e corresponclingto point a. -By repeating this procedure for various values of armature current the complete characteristic is obtr,ined. A similar procedure may be used to describe the external characteristic of the self-excitedcumulatively compounded generq,tor. very often the contribution of the seriesfield is respornible for a rising external characteristicl such as the one depicted on the right side of Iig. 6-lg. This characteristic can also be
Field resistonce

A I, :

I r o- r . '

(6-12)

for producingthe airTo find the net field current,rvhichin turn is responsibie gap flux that providesthe inducedarmaturg-rq.ltage Eo, it is necessary to subeffecttlg)of. the armature rnmf. Thus tract from /r the demagneiization
Irct: I1 Ia

(6-13)

this more generallyin terms of the field current existing at noOr expressing Ioad. we can write (6-14) f y net: Io - AI - La
The induced armature voltage for the specified load conclition Eol is then found on the nonlinear open-circuit characteristic corresponding to 1 out. This is representedin Fig. 6-17 by point b. Upon subtracting from Ea the armature circuit resistance drop Inr&", the terminal voltage yl results. The /orRo drop is denoted by line ab in Fig. 6-17. It should be noted that there is only one position in the vicinity of the upper portion of the magnetization curve where triangle Otab vtlllproperly fit, between the field resistance line and the magnetization curve. In fact it is this position that defines the equilibrium - ... ,.'. point that is being described. On the basis of the foregoing discussion it can be seen that the external characteristic can be derived from the magnetization curve, the field resistance line, and knowledge of.I a and 1?.. To frnd the terminal voltage corresponding value of 1o, first construct the triangle Oab at the origin as to any specified, shown in Fig. 6-17. Side ab is equal to I"Ro and side Oo is equal to the amount of demagnetization associated rvith the specified 1,. Then draw a line through

Arrnolure current Fig. -fB. Derivation of the external chartcteristic of abumul_ t i v e l y c o m p o r r n d e dg e n e r uI o r .

explained in terms of the sameinformation that is usecl for the shunr generator, but in rddition information about the series fielci contribtitiorr is requileci, usually expressed in terms of an equivalent liekl cu*e't. The Iast quantity is readily written as

= ftt" tr,

(6-15)

whereIn is the field current equivalent of the series field mrnf, -ly'* clenotes te number of turns of the series field per pole, N denotes the number of shunt field turns per pole,and 1" is the current florvingthrough the series fielcr winding. Often1" is equalto the arrnrtlrrecu'rcnt, brrt solretimes a portion of the
foften referred to as ouercompounng.

304

DtREcr.cuRRENTA,rAcHtNEs

chop.

armature current is diverted through a low resistance shunt (called adiuerter) placed acrossthe seriesfield winding in order to limit its contribution. At no-loadthe operating point is on the magnetizationcurye. The no-load field current as Ie. terminal voltage is identified as 7o and its corresponding It is helpful to think of this point as identical with the no-load point of the that load currentis allowedto flow self-excited shuntgenerator.Next consider 1o1,corresponding so that the armature current becomes to which the ter-!Zr minal voltagebecomes as shownin lig. 6-18. Wiih the assumption that (Vu I") is the new equilibrium point, it follows that the field current is greater by the amount A1 which yields a total current in the field winding of value I r : I s * AI . The plus sign for A1 always appearswheneverthe external with point O'on the characteristic is a risingone. The current1r is associated field resistance line. field as To the shunt field current must now be addedthe effectof the series by expressed by Eq. (6-15). This yields a total main axis excitation expressed

6.7

D'RECI-CURRENT A , I O T O RA N A [ Y 5 I 5

'a d-cmotoris a d-cgenerator with the power flowreversd. In the d-cmotor

electrical energy is converted to mechanical form. Also, as is the case of the generator, there are three types of d-c motors: the shuntmotor, the cumulatiuely compoundedmotor, and the seres motot Th compound motor is prefixed with the word cumulative in order to stress that the connections to the series field winding are such as to ensure that the series field flux a,id,s the shunt field flux' The series motor, unlike the series generator, finds wide application, especiallyfor traction-type loads. Flencedue attention is given to this machine in the treatment that follor,vs. The performance of the d-c motor operating in any one of its three modes can conveniently be described in terms of an equivalent circuit, a set of performance equations, a power-flow diagram, and the magnetization curve. The equivalent circuit is depicted in Fig. 6-19. rt is worthwhile to note that now

rt:It*F;r":r, *I,

(6-16)

The net field current, rvhich is responsiblefor the armature induced emf, is found by subtracting the demagnetizing effect of the armature mmf. Thus
Ioet: ft fn

(6-17)

Correspondingto 1 o"t is the induced armatre voltage Z'r. The terminal voltage is then found by removingthe armature circuit resistancedrop from by line ob in Fig. ,81o, which yields 7r. The I.r(R, * ft,) drop is represented 6-18. The externalcharacteristiccan be derived by following a proceduresimilar for the shunt generator. Construct triangle Oabat the origin. to that described is to Line ob equal the armature circuit resistancedrop for the specifiedarmature current. Line Oa is equal to the resultant of the magnetizingeffectof the effect of the armature mmf, i.e., seriesfield and the demagnetizing
,Oo:I"-fa

Fig. 6-19.

Equivalent circuit of the d_c motor.

(6-18)

line interscctingthe Then through draw a line parallel to the field resistance point from by b the 1,1(,R'+ R-) b. Dropping dowrt magnetizationcurve at gives A with the procedure voltage 7t. comparison drop the desiredterminal generator is placedon that the triangle Ool discloses employedfor the shunt is right side. This dictated by the the left side of the origin rather than the generator for compounded fact that the baseof the triangle the cumulatively represents a net magnetizationrather than a net demagnetization.

the armature induced voltage is treated as a reaction or counter emf. observe that the defined direction of .I" is reversed. fron the case for a d-c generator. The generated voltage is caused by the relative motion of the rotor with respect to the magnetic field, and its polarity is independent of the direction of armature current. By imposing constraints similar to those applied to the d-c generator, we obtain the correct equivarent circuit for the esired mode of operation. For example, for a series motor the appropriate -6_fS. equivaient circuit results upon removing .R from the circuitry of iS. The set of equations needed to cornpute the performance is listed below.
Eo: KnQn

T : KrQI"

Vt: Eo+ I"(n" + n,) j": rli

(6-1e) (6-20) (6-21) (6-22)

305

sec.6-7

306

DREcI-cURRENT M,AcHlNEs

c h o p .6

DIREcr-cURRENT MoroR ANArysts 302

The first trvo equations are identical with those used in generator analysis. Note, however,that the next two equations are modified to account for the voltageand as suchmust be fact that for the motor 7 is the appliedor source is equalto the equalto the sumof the voltagedrops. Similarly the line current, of the armature current and field currents. su'm ra,lher than the difrerence flow from that which ocThe power-florv diagram,depictingthe reversed cul's in the generator,is illustrated in Fig. 6-20. The electrical power input
t":V power Ir_: electricol input

Solution: (a) The torque can be cornputedfrom Eq. (6-10), but we first need.&'".Hence Also Eo: Vr - fo&o:230 - 73(0.188) :230 - lB.7 : 216.8 volts

: ZrrfilO]l : rzaradlsec '- : 2trn td t

Therefore , - _ Eoro_ 216.3(73) : 132 newton-meters
o)tu 120

(b) : #ol*": fr forrrsoi E,: KpQn

Io2t Ro+Rr VIr P.: EoIo: T.or: T (

: .'.@:8 ?l9fs0) 82(1150)

*I)

0.0128 weber

(c) From the power-flow diagram

- 74,920: 880 watts 15,800 (d) First find the sum of tlie losses. 'fhus
Po: To<lr: mechonicol poweroutput Fig.6-20. Power-flow diagram of the d-c motor.

P"ot : P* - Po : Eofo - 20(746) :

* P.ot + IZn"* V,I:880 + (78)r(0.18g) f losses + 280(1.6) :88b + 1000 :2248watts 86g +
Hence

?: 1-*#+
To : LPo:
0)m

vrr: t - #ffi: 0.86e

Q0 X 246): L24newton-meters

V tlz orignatingfrom the line suppliesthe field powerneededto establishthe flux fleld as rvell as the armature circuit copper loss neededto maintain the imbedded flow of 1,. This cnrrent flowing through the armatureconductors in the flux field causestorque to be developed. The law of conservationof power EoIobe equal to ?r,r^, that the electromagnetic energythen demands speed. Removalof the rotationallosses operating whereo- is the steady-state mechanicalpower yields the mechanical output power. from the derelopecl The use of the foregoing tools in computing motor behavior is illustrated by : the following exampies.

The efrciencyis 86.9 per cent. (e) #

The differencebetrveenthis torque and the electromagnetic torque is the amount needed to overcome the rotational iosses. : EXAMPTE .3 The shaft load on the motor of Example 6-2 remainsfixed, but the field flux is redtrced to 80 per cent of its valueby meansof the field rheostat. Determine the new operatingspeed. solution: Information about the speedis available from Eq. (6-19). However,in turn, knowledge of flux and armatureinduced emf E"is needed. By the statementof the problemthe new flux ' is related to the orieinal flux by iD' : 0.8i0

EXAMPTE -2 A 20-hp 230-volt 1150-rpmshunt motor has four poles,four parallel rmature paths, and 882 armature conductors. The armature-circuit resistanceis 0.188ohm. At rated speedand rated output the armaturecurrent is 73 amperesand the field current is 1.6amperes.Calculate:(a) the electromagnetic torque, (b) the flux per pole, (c) the rotational losses,(d) the efficiency,(e) the shaft loaci.

308

DrREcr-cURRENT MACHTNES

chop.

sec. -8

MOTOR SPEED.TORQUE CHARACTERISTICS. SPEED CONTROT 309

we must determinethe changein /", if any. To obtain information about.&'o, By the constant-torquecondition we have Kl":
Hence

KrQ'IL

I'":

,1"

: 91.3 amPeres Olr73

Consequently : 212.8 volts EL: V, - ILn": 230- 91.3(0.188) to Eq. (6-19)we cannowformulatethe ratio Returning

EL
Eo

Kt@'n' Knn

for the new operating speedbecomes from which the expression

: ffifrnso : I4t5 rpm "' : u$,,,

,6-8 . SPEED.IORQUE A,IOTOR C H A R A C fE R ' 5 I I C S . S P E E DC O N T R O I

of a shaftload? what is the the d-cmotorreactto theapplication How does by which the d-c motor adaptsitself to supply to the load the mechanism
to thesequestionscan be'obtainedby reasonpower it demands?The answers that appearon p. 305. Initially our equations ing in termsof the performance remarksare confinedto the shunt motor, but a similar line of reasoningapplies for the othe:'s. For our purposesthe two pertinent equations are those for torque and current. Thus
,T: and
to:

Kyfo V, - KEan
R,

(6-20) (6-23)

the manner in which the armature current is made to assume just the right value. In this expression Vr, Ro, Kn, and.iD are fixed. in value. Therefore ihe speed is the critical variable. If, for the moment, it is assumed that the speed has too l'w a value, then the numerator of Eq. (6-28) takes on an excessive " value and in turn makes 1. larger than required. At this point trre motor reacts to coruect the situation. The excessive armature currer,t produces a developed torque which exceeds the opposing torques of friction an windage. rn fact this excessserves as an accererating torque, which the proceeds r to increasethe speed to that level which correspondsto the equilibrium value of armature current. rn other words, the acceleration torque t".or,'". zero only when the speed is at that value which by lrq. (6-28) yields jus| the right i, needed to overcome the rotational losses. ' consider next that a load demanding rated torque is suddenly applied to the motor shaft. clearly, becansethe deveropedtorque at this instant is only sufficient to overcome friction and windage and not ihe load torque, the first reaction is for the motor to lose speed. In this way, as Eq. (6-28) reveals, the armature curre't can be increasedso that in turn the electromagnetic torque can increase. As a matter of fact the applied load torque "u,,."."th. motor to assume that value of speed which yields a current sufficient to produce a de_ veloped torque to overcome the applied shaft torque and the frictional torque. Power balance is thereby achieved, because an eq*ilibrium condition is reached whre the electrmagnetic power E,Io is equat to the mechanical power developed, ?c.,-. A comparison of the d-c motor with the three-phaseirrduction motor indi_ cates that both are speed-sentiue devices in response to applied shaft loacls. An essential difference, holvever, is that for the three-phase i'd.uction motor developed torque is adversely influenced by the porver-factor angle of the armature current. of course no analogous sit'ation prevails in,the caseof the d-c motor. on the basis of the foregoing cliscussio' it should be apparent that the speed-torquecurve of d-c motors is an important characte.isiic. eppearing in Fig. 6-21 are the general shapes of the speecl-torquecharacteristics as they apply for the shnt, cumulatively compounded, and series motors. l.or the sake of comparison the curves are drarvn through a common point of rated torqug and speed. An understanding of wliy the curves tahe t-he shapes and relative positions depicted in trig. 6-21 readilv follows from an exl,mination of Eq. (6-19), rvhich involves the speecr.I,'or tlie shunt motor the speeclequation can be written as

resultsfrom replacing E, with Eq. (6-19)in Eq. Note that the last expression is that which over(6-21). With no shaft load applied,the only torqueneeded at essentiallyconmotor operates the shunt losses. Since comesthe rotational is required current armature a (6-20) small that only indicates Eq. stant flux, (6-23) reveals Equation losses. furnish these to rated its value comparedwith

n:=!"

-V'-I"Rr
KnQ"n

KeQ-n

(6-24)

The only variables involved are trre speed n and the rmature cn'r.ent 1" and its effect /a. At ratetl output torque the armature cnrrent is et its rated

310

DIREcT-cunRENT MAcHTNES

c h o p .

sec. -8

MoroR $pEED-ToReuE cHARAcrERtsTtcs. spEED coNTRor 3ll

value and so, too, is the speed. As the load torque is renoved, the armature correspondinglysmaller,making the numerator term of Eq. current becomes (6-24) larger. This results in higher speeds. The extent to which the speed

/uuilrururvgry

compounded \ '\\\.-

Cumuloiively \\

\seres \ \ \

zeto. Both effects act to bring about an increasein speed. Therefore the speedregulation of the cumulatively compounded. motor is greater than for the shunt motor. Figure 6-21 presentsthis information graphically. The situation regardingthe speed-torque characteristicof the seriesmotor significantly differentbecause of the absence of a shunt-fieldwining. Keep -is 'in mind that the establishment of a flux field in the series motor comes about solely as a result of the flow of armature current,through the seriesfield winding. rn this connection, then, the speed equatiol for the seriesmotor becomes n '- . : Eo -Vr-r"(R'*R") KnQ, K,EI"

t.

(6-27)

Torque(o/orofed) Fig. G2I. Typical speed-torque curves of d*c motors.

drop is in depends upon how large the armature circuit resistanee increases It is usually comparison with the terminal voltage and the value of Ia. in around 5 to 10 per cent. Accordingly,we can expectthe per cent change speedof the shunt motor to be about'the samemagnitude' This changein regulaon. It is defined speedis identified by a figure of merit called the speed as follows: speed noload s-p-99:l--fgt-lgad (o-25) too regulationper cent of speed motor The speed equationas it appliesto the cumulativelycompounded takes the form (6-26) .where Qu denotesthe increase,influx produced by the seriesfield mmf' (Note that this is not a linear addition exceptwhen saturationis negligible.) for the shunt motor bearsout expression with the analogous A comparison trvo differences.One, the numeratorterm includesthe voltage drop in the- " that in the armaturewinding. Two, the denominafieldwindingbesides series field flux rD".Starting to accountfor the effect of the series tor term is increased at rated torque and speed,Eq. (6-26)makes it clear that as load torque is ta zerathere is an increasein the numerator term which is necesdecreased sarily greaterthan it is for the shunt motor. At the sametime, moreover,the iF"reduest<zero as the torque goesto because denominatorterm decreases

where K denotesa new proportionality factor which permits iD"to be replaced by the armature current 1". When rated torque is being developedthe current is at its rated value. The flux field is therefore abundant. Hwever, as load torque is removed iess armature current flows. Now since 1o appearsin the denominator of the speed equation, it is easyto seethat the speedwill increase greatly. In fact, if the load were to be disconnected from the motor shaft, dangerouslyhigh speedswould result becauseof the small armature current that flows. The centrigufal foices at, thesehigh speeds can easily damagethe armature winding. For this reason a series motor should never have its load uncoupled.Becausethe armature current is directlv related to the air-gap flux in the seriesnrotor, Eq. (6-lg) for the developed io.qrr" may be modified to read as T : KrQI": K|IZ (6-28)

Thus the developed torquefor the series motor is a function of the square of the armature current. This standsin contrast to the linear relatior,rshipof torque to armaturecurrent in the shuntmotor. of course in the compoundmotor an intermediate lelationsbipis achieved.rt is interesting to note, too, that as the seriesmotor reactsto developgreater torques, the speeddrops correspondingly. It is this capability which makes the seriesmotor so lvell-suited to traction-type loads.

Speedconfrol one of the attractive featuresthe d-c motor offersover all other types is the relative easewith which speed control can be achieved. 1.he varlous schemes availablefor speed control can be deduced from Eq. (6-2+),which is repeated here with one modifiiation:

V'-1"(R"*R")
KaQ

(6-2e)

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APPTICATIONS OF D.C MOTORS313

The modification involves the inclusion of an external. armature circuit resistance ,R". Inspection of Eq. (6-29)revealsthat the speed can be controlled by acijusting any one of the three factors appearing on the right side of the equation:Vr, R", or Q. The simplestto adjust is a. A field rheostatis used such as that shownin lrig. 6-19. If the field rheostatresistance is increased , the air-gap flux is diminished, yielding higher operating speeds. Generalpurposeshunt motors are designed to provide a 200 per cent increasein rated speedby this method of speedcontrol. However, because of the weakened flux field the permissibletorque that can be delivered at the higher speedis reducedin order to prevent excessive correspondingly armature current. A second method of speedadjustmentinvolvesthe useof an externalresistor .Ruconnectedin the armature circuit as illustrated in Fig. 6-22. The

performanceachievablewith this schemeis indispensable,as is the casein steelmill applications. Armature terminal voltage control is referredto as the Ward-Leonard system. SeeChapter 12 for further details. 1.

.9 t

A P P L I C A T ' O N SO F D_C ^4OIORs

Shunt f ield winding

Fig. 6-22. Speed adjustmint of a shunt motor by an external armature-circu it resistnce.

size and cost of this resistor are considerablygreater than those of the field rheostat because E, must be capableof handling the full armaiure current. Equation (6-29)indicates that the larger E" is made, the greater will be the speedchange. Frequently the external resistor is selectedto furnish as much as a 50 per cent drop in speedfrom the rated value. The chief disadvantage of this method of control is the poor efficiencyof operation. tr'or example,a 50 per cent drop in speed is achievedby having approximatelyhalf of the terminal .[/ voltage appearacross8,. 'Accordingly, almost 50 per cent of the line input power is dissipatedin the form of heat in the resistor/,. I{onetheless, armature circuit resistance control is often used- especiallyfor seriesmotors. A third and final method of speedcontrol involves adjustment of the ap-- " 1"' plied terminal voltage. This.scheme is the most desirablefrom the viewpoint of flexibility and high operating efficiency. But it is also the most expensive because it requiresits own d-c supply. It meanspurchasinga motor-generator set with a capacityat least equal to that of the motor to be controlled. Such expenseis not generally justified except in situations where the superior

causeof its high degreeof flexibility and easeof control. These featurescannot easilybe matchedby other electromechanical energy-conversion devices. The d-c motor offers a wide range of control of speed nd torque as well as excellentaccelerationand deceleration. For example,by the irisertion of an appropriate arrnature circuit resistance,rated torque can be obtained at starting with no more than rated current flowing. Also, by special design of the shunt-fieldwinding speedadjustmentsover a range of 4 :'1 above rated speedare readily obtainable. {f this is then combinedwith armature-voltage control, the range of speedadjustment spreadsto g : 1. rn some electronic control devicesthat are usedto provide the d-c energyto the field and armature circuits, a speedrange of 40 : 1 is possible. Th size of the motor being controlled, however,is limited. Table 6-1 lists some of the salient characteristicsand typical applications of the three types of d-c motors. rt is interesting to note ihat the maximum torque in the caseof the d-c mctor is limited by commutation and not, as with all other motor types, by heating. commutation refers to the passage of current from the brushesto the commutator and thenceto the arature winding itself. The passage from the brushesto the commutator is an arc discharge. Moreover, as a coil leaves a brush the current is interrupted, which causes sparking. If the armature current is allowed to become e*""..i.r", the sparking can become so severeas to causeflashoverbetweenbrushes. This rend.ers the motor useless. Another point of interest in the table is the considerablyhigher starting torque of the compoundmotor in compariso^rvith the shunt motor. This feature is attributable to the contribution of the seriesfield winding. The same comment is valid as regards the maximum running torque. rn each case,of course,the limit for the armature current is the same.

The d-cmotoris often called uponto do the reallytoughjobs in industrybe-

Toble-l
Sarting torque
to/\ \ /ot

CHARACIER,S7.CS AND
Max. running torque, momentary (/)

,APP'CAT'ONS OF D-C /OTORSf

Speed-regulation or characteristic Speedcontrol Typical application and general remarks Essentially for constant-speedapplications requiring medium starting torque. May be used for adjustable speed not greater han 2:1 range. For centrifugal pumps, fansr.blowers, conveyors, woodworking maclfines,machine tools, priningpressei Same as above, for applications requiring adjustable speed conrol, either constani torque or constant outout For drives requiring high starting torque and only fairly constanl speed;pulsating loads with flywheel action. For plunger pum-ps, shears, conveyors, crushers, bending rolls, punch presses, hoist For drives requiring very high starting torque and where adjustable, varying speed is satisfactory. This motor is sometimes called the traction motor. Loads must be positively connected,not belted. For hoists, cranes, bridges, car dumpers.To prevent overspeed, lightes load should not be much lessthan 15 o 20 per cent of full-loacl toroue

Type

(%)

(%)
Increase up to 200 by 6eld control; decreaseby armaturevoltage control

Shunt, constant speed

Medium - usually limited to less than 250 by a starting resistor but may be increased

UsuaIIy limited to about 200 by commutation'

Shunt, adjustable speed

Same as above

6:1 rangeby field control, lowered below basespeedby armature-voltage control Higher than shunt-up to 350 Va' 'ing, depending Not usually used but or'.degreeof commay be up to 125 by pounding-up to field control 25-30 Widely variable, high at noJoad

Compound

High - up to 450, depending upon degree of compoundittg

Very high - up to 500

By seriesrheostat

tBy permission from M. Liwschitz-Garik and c. c. whippte, Erectric Machinery, vor. f (Princeton, N. J.: D. Van Nostrand Co., Inc., 1g46,.

6.IO

STARTERS AND CONTROT.I.ERS FOR D-C 'UOTORS

, ^+ q4 tt*Jta | | I I | *| '
fieldwinding Shunt

The limitations imposed by commutation as well as voltage-dip restrictions as set forth bythe eieclricutility companymake it necessary to on the source use a starter or controller on all d-c machines lvhoseratings exceed2 hp. A glanceat Eq. (6-23)discloses that at starting (n : O) the armature current is limited solely by the armature circuit resistance. Hence, if full terminal-..-.,.'; armature currents will flow. This is especiallyso voltage is applied,excessive gets smallthe armature resistance wherelargemachiles are involved because er as the rating increases.fn addition to limiting the armature current, controllers fulfill other useful functions as describedin Sec. 4-10. Depicted in Fig. 6-23 is a simple line starter which is used for small d-c motors. The operation is straightforward. Pushing the start button
3ll

Fis. 6-2s. Line starte

rvD.puwur

u_c rno[or

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AND CONTROUERS STARTERS FORD.C MOTORS 3I7

the main contactorsM and the interthe main coil which then closes energizes voltageis appliedto the locli 111..Note that, 'whenthe main contactorsclose, armature winding through the starting resistor I? and simultaneouslyto the prevents "shock" starting because some freld winding. This arrangement, beforethe field flux is fully established.Note, too, fhat this time is needed for removingthe starting resistoroncethe motor has starter hasno provisions and speed. In smallmotors this is of liitle corrsequence attained its operating starter. However,the starter resistorin this case it makesfor au inexpensive doesserveanotherpurpose. When the motor is stopped,the field winding is from the line, The energystored in the magnetic field then disdisconnected chargesthrough the starting resistor,preventing possibledamageto the field winding. Three tyttes of magnetic controllersare in use today for controlling the of characteristics starting current, the starting torque, and the acceleration d-c motors. One type is the current-l:imitcontroller, which works on the principle of l*eepingthe cument during the starting period betrveen specified minimum and maximum limits. It is not too commonly used becauseits depends upon a tricky electricalinterlock arrangementwhich must be success is kept in eicellentoperatingconditionat all times. No further consideration type which is illustrated given to this type. The second type is the counter-emf in Fig. 6-24. Trvo kinds of relays are used in this controller. One is a light, relay (AR). The other is the strong, fast-acting unit called an aecelerating

Lt

Fig. 6-24. Counter-emf magnetic controller for a d-c motor.

heavy-duty type previously discussed. The acceleratingrelays appearing acrossthe armature circuit in Fig. 6-24 are voltage-sensitivedevices. They a presetvalue. are designed to closewhen the voltageacross the coil exceeds For the controller under discussion the accelerating relay tAR is usually adjustedto "pick up" at 50 per cent of line voltageand 2AR is adjustedto closeat 80 per cent of line voltage. interlockMo coil M, which then closes Pressing the start button energizes and the main contactovs M. Sincethe armature is initially stationary, the accelerating relaysare de-energized so that both stepsof the starting resistor an inducedemf are in the circuit. As the armaturegainsspeedand develops closingcontactors exceeding 50 per cent of line voltage,coil lAR snapsclosed, closingcontactors1A, which short out the lAR. In turn coil lA.is energized, increased voltageto the first sectionof the starting resistor. This then applies armature,which furnishesfurther acceleration.When the armature induced relay 2AR closes. This 80 per cent,of line voltage,accelerating emf exceeds excitescoil 2A, which shorts out the secondsectionof the starting resistor. speed. to its full-voltageoperating The motor then accelerates The counter-emfcontroller has the advantageof providing a contactor closingsequence which adjustsitself automaticallyto varying load conditions. in a manner that maintains uniform acFurthermore,this is accomplished celeratingcurrent and torque peaks. There can be no question about the however,thereis one disadvantage. desirabilityof suchstarting performance; that the motor will is based The contactorclosing sequence on the assumption operationscannot start on the first step. If it fails to do so, all subsequent take place. Furthernore, the starting resistor is in dangerof burning up. To general-purpose d-c motop are most often equipped avoid suchoccurrences the schematic diagram tme-l:imitcontrollers. Figure 6-25 sho'ws wilh defi.nite of such a controller. After a relay coil is energized,the correspondingconof a preset time delay. The time delay is tactors do not closeuntil the elapse achieved either by means of magnetic flux decay, a pneumatic device, or a mechanicalescapement. iuterlock M" and the coil M and closes Pressingthe start button energizes main contactors M, thereby applying voltage to the armature winding through the starting resistor. A definite time after the armature of relay coil of whether the contactorsIr in the control circuit close,regardless M closes, contactors1A and coil 1A, which closes rotor is turning or not. This energizes thus shortsout the first seetionof the starting resistor. At a preset time delay energized, contactors?r close. Coil 2A becomes after coil 1A is energized, removing the entire starting resistor. The motor then assumesits normal speed, opera,ting In the definite timelimit controller the preset time intervals betweenthe closing of contactorsare adjusted to obtain smooth accelerationand uniform current peaks for average load conditions. If a heavy starting condition occursand the motor fails to start on the first step,the first accelerating(time-

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(b) Directingattentionsolelyto the fundamentalcomponent of the flux density in the air-gap, compule the voltage value appearingat the brushes. RepeatProb. 6-2 for the caservhereslot 1 lies to the left of the interpolar axis 6-3 by 15". of the armatureinducedvoltage of Prob. 6-2drawthe variaion 6-4 I'or the machine is the angular rotor velocity. measuredat the brushesas a function of c,r,fwhere c,., Dealing only with the fundamentalcomponentof the flux density curve, show the variation of eachcoil voltage as well as that of the total. Compute the maximum and minimum valuesof the coil and total voltages. 2-poles, 6-5 RepeatProb. 6-1 for a d-c machinewith the following specifications: 6 slots, full-pitch, wave-woundarmature winding having two coil sidesper slot. 6-6 For the machineof Prob. 6-l sketchthe variation of lhe emf induced in eachcoil whereco" is the rotor angular as a function of co"l, voltageas well as betweenbrushes of the air-gap flux velocity. Direct attention solely to ihe fundamental component density. Indicate the maximum and minimum values of coil and brush voltages. 6-7 Fig. 6-25. Definite time-limit controllerfor a d_cmotor. delay) contactors closeanyway. This allorvs an increased starting torque to be developed. Thus the motor is made to "work harder,, if it does not start on the first step. Accordingly, whenever a controiler must be selected for a general-purposemotor, it is wiser to prescribe the definite timeJimit type. The reason is that as a rule for general-purposeapprieations the starting conditions are not well known. Explain your answer to eachpart: (a) Can a separately excitedd-c generatoroperatebelowthe knee of its magnetizationcurve? (b) Can a d-c shunt generatoroperatebelow the kneeof its magnetizationcurve?

PROBI.EA,IS

drivenat a constantspeed of curvefor a d-c shunt generator 6-8 The magnetization 20 volts; eachhoriin Fig. &16. Each vertical division represents 1000rpm is shorvn 0.2 amp. zontal divisionrepresents (a) Computethe critical field resistance. (b) What voitageis inducedby the residualflux of this machine? (c) \Yhat must be the resistance of the field cirtuit in order that the no-Ioad terminal voltagebe 240volts at a speedof 1000rpm? (d) Determine the field currentproducedby the lesiduaiflux voltagewhenthe has the value found in part (c). field circuit resistance (e) At what speedmust the generatorbe driven in order that it would fail to of part (c)? build up when operatingwith the field circuit resistance curvegivenby Fig. 6-16,whereeach hasa magnetization 6-9 A d-c shunt generator unit is set equal to 0.2 amp ordinateunit is madeequal to 20 volts and eachabscissa is 156ohms. of rotation is 1000rpm. The field circuit resistance and the speed brusheswhen the generatoris operatedat a Determinethe voltage inducedbetween of 800rpm. educedspeed that hasbeen to reverse 6-f0 It is desired lhe terminalvoltagepolarity qf a generator -cumulative compoundgenerator. The rnachineis stopped. operatingproprly s a the shunt field and sepadisconnecting is reversed by ternporarily Residualmagnetism are then restored exactly as rately exciting it with reversedcurrent. The connections they were before. (a) Doesthe terminal voltagebuild up? Explain. (b) If answerto (a) is yes, will the compoundingbe cumuiative or differential? Explain.

6-l rhe rotor of a 2-pole d-c machinehas 12 slots. The wave-wound, fuil-pitch arm-ature winding has two coil sidesper slot. There are 12 commutator segments. show a planviewof the windinglayout. cleariy identify the position of the brushes on the commutator and relativeto the poles.Also showthe directionof the induced emf for a counterclockwise n the coil sides rotation of the rotor6'2 Therotor of a 2-poled-c machinecarriesa wave-wound armature winding having two coil sides per slot in its 12 slots. The winding is fuli_pitch. (a) Draw the schematic diagramthat showsthe two armature paths existing betweenthe two brushes. Representeachsuitably marked coil vortageb| with properlyidentifiedpolarities. consider that instant , smalld-c souces whenslots 1 and Z are locatedexactly between the poles.

320 orncr.cuRRENT MAcHINES

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PROBLEMS 321

rt 6-rr A 2-pole d-c machine is equipped with a wave winding having 240 armature conductors.The pole facesspan70 per cent of a polepicharid the net windinghas 210 turns. This machineoperates rvith a fixed fierd currentof 1.6 amp. The magnetization curveis depicted in Fig. 6-16wheneachordinatunit represents 0.1 rveber andeachabseissa unit represents 0.2amp. Assume d : 120,,/: 10b0 At rated load thc armaturecurrentis 40 amu. (a) Determinethe emount of demagnetization of the field flux caused bv the a lm a t u r c mm[. (b) What is the value of the air_gap flux underload.? (c) \Yhat is the value ol flux at the leadingpole tip? 6'12 In a lap-wound'armature winding there are as many brushes as therearepoles. Hence,for a 4-poled-c machine it is customaryto usefour brushes, with eachpair of bushes beingresponsible for conducting one-halfof the total u.-uir.. current. Showthe distribution of currentin the coils undergoing commutationfor two injust before stances: undergoing commutation and five+ighthsthroughthe commutation period. Assume resistance commutation throughout, { 6-13 The noJoad characteristicof a 1O-kw,250-volt, d-e self-excited shunt generator driven at 1000 rpm is shon'nin Fig. 6-16. Each verticalunit denotes 20 volts,and each hoizontal unit represents 0.2amp. The armaturecircuitresistance is 0.8 ohm,and the field circuit resistance is set at 157ohms. Determine: (a) The oitical resistance of the shunt field circuit. (b) The changein voltagefrom no-load lo full-load. I.{eglect armature demagnetization. (c) The shunt field current under rated load conditions. 6'14 RepeatProb. 6-13(b) and (c) for the casewherethe armature demagnetizing efrectI is known to be 0.2 a,mpexpressed in terms of equivalentfield current. 6-15 The machine of Prob. 6-18operates with a field windingresistance of 148ohms. (a) \Yhat is the no-load voltase? (b) When the generatordeliverspower to a specified load, the terminal voltage is found to drop to 220volts anclthe corresponding demagnetization effect of the armaturemmf is known to be 0.2bequivalent field.amperes.Determine the armaturewindinecurrent. (c) what is the value of the fierdcurrent at the load conditionof (b)? (d) find the armaturewindingemf under load. Y 9-1.6 The noJoadcharacteristicofa 5-kw, 125-volt shunt generatordriven at 1000rpm is shownin Fig. 6-16. Each ordinateunit represents 10 volts, and eachabscissa unit represents 0'1 amp. The armaturecircuit resistance is 0.2ohm,and the field circuitresistance is 157ohms. \\'hen the generatordelivers rated armature current, the armature induced emf is ll6 volts. (a) Find the terminal voltaEe. (b) \\hat is the value of the demagnetization of the armature mmf expressed. in equivalent field amperes? (c) What is the field current? (d) How much poweris delivered to the load?

6-L7 The noJoadcharacteristicof a d-c shunt generatordriven at a speedof 800 rpm is approximatedin its useful rangeby the equation o 300I Z*It

where-Eis armatureinducedemf and 1 is the field current. The armature circuit resistance is 0.1ohm. The field windingresistance is 20 ohms. The demagnetizing effect of armaturereacLion may be neglected, (a) The terminal voltageis to be 225 volts when the armature current is 150 amp. The generator is driven at 800 rpm. Find the resistance of the field rheostatfor this condition. (b) Change the field rheostatsettingto l0 ohms.Let the load be disconnected and the speed reducedto 720rpm. Find the terminalvoltage. (c) Return to the conditionsof part (a). Assumethe rotational losses to be 2 kw. Fiqd the output porver,the efficiency, and he shaft inpu torque from the prime mover of the generator. 6-f8 The noJoad characteristicof a d-c machine in its useful operating range and driven at 1500rpm may be approximated by
_ l7a : 4Q0It
l--,-i o -T rl Or 1 :
fz o

400- E"

This machineis operatedas a d-c shunt generatorwhosefield circuit resistance is 50 ohms. (a) Compute the no-load terminal voltage when .the generator is driven at 1,500 rpm, indicating any necessary assumptions. (b) What wili be the terminal voltage at no-load when the speedis reducedto 750rpm? Account for the largedifference. d 6-19 The magnetization curve of a d-c shunt generator is represented in tr'ig.6-16, provided that eachordinate unit is multiplied by 40 volts and eachabscissa unit by 0.5 amp. lb.earmature circuit resistance is 0.4 ohm, and the field winding resistance is (a) This machineis madeto deliveran armaturecurrentof 60 amp. Find the resistance of the field rheostat (in seriesrvith the field winding) so that the terminalvoitagewill be 520volts at a speedof 1000rpm. (b) With the field rheostatsetas in part (a) find the terminal voltage at no-load and 1000rpm. S 6-20 A cumulative-compound generator driven at 1000rpm has the magnetization curve shorvn in Fig. 6-16,providedthat eachunit of the ordinateaxis is multiplied by 20 volts and eachabscissa unit is multiplied by 1 amp. The armature circuit resistance is 0.06 ohm. In addition: Series turns per pole (N") : 20 Shunt turns per pole (Nr) : 1000 Armature-reactiondemagnetizingeffectat 1" of 100amp : 600 at per pole The field circuit resistance is 45 ohms. (a) Deterrninethe no-load terminal voltage.

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(b) Find the terminal voltage when the load is such that it causes 100amp to

flow through the armature winding.

(c) Find the new value of the field current. (d) wha,t is the value of the armature induced emf at the specifiedload.

6-21 Repeat Prob. 6-20 for the casewhere the field circuit resistanceis reduced to 31.5ohrnsand the numberof series field turns per pole is increased to 40. The armature currentremains at 100amp. -z 6'22 A cumulative-compound generatorhas the magnetization.,,.r" .ho*n in Fig. 6-16,whereeachordinateunit is 20 volts and eachabscissa unit is I amp. Determine t'herequiredfield circuit resistance that allows the generator to operateat a terminal voltageof 240volts when the armaturecurrent is 100amp. In adition: Armature circuit resistance drop : 10 volts Series field turns per pole : 2b Shunt field turns per pole : 1000 Armature demagnetizing at per pole : g00 6'23 A 10-hp,230-voltshunt'motor has an armature circuit resistance of 0.5 ohm and a field resistance of 1i5 ohms. At noload and ated voltagethe speed is 1200 rpm and the armaturecunent is 2 amp. If load is applied,the spee dropsto 1100rpm. Determine: (a) The armature current and the line current. (b) The developed torque. (c) The horsepower output assuming the rotationallosses are 500 watts. Neglectarmaturereaction. ' 6-24 A 230-volt, 50-hp, d-c shunt motor delivers porverto a load drawing an armature currentof 200amp and runningat a speedof t ioo rpm. The magnetization curve is given by Fig. 6-16'whereeachverticalunit represents 20 volts and eachhorizontal unit represents 2 amp. Neglectarmaturereaction. Also B, : 0.02 ohrr. (a) Find the value of the armatureinducedemf at this load condition. (b) Computethe motor field current. (c) Compute the value of the load torque. The rotationallosses are tj00watts. (d) At what efficiency is the motor operating? (e) At what percentage of rated power is it operating? 6-25 Refer to Prob. 6-24,and assume the load is reducedso hat an armatufe current of 75 amp flows. ' (a) Find the new value of speed. (b) \4'hatis the nervhorsepower beingdeliveredto the load? t-' 6:26 The magnetizationcurve of Fig. 6-16appliesto a where ?80_vqlLl*b.:bp_optor, eachordinateunit represents 20 volts and eachabseissaiil r"p..r"ni,0.2 amp. At no-load,the field circuit drarvsa currentof 1.9amp from the line, while the armature current is negligibly small. no-log,d, 1000rpm. i_s_ !$pged a-b A mechanicalload is the;pplid to ihe motor shaft. The measuredarmature currentis found to be 40 amp, causiug an armaturecircuit resistance drop of 16 volts. Moreover,the demagnetizing effectof the armature mmf is found to beQrlgguive+eq field amperes. (a) compute the load speedin rpm, neglectingthe demagnetizingeffect of the armaturereaction.

load when the demagnetizing effectis ac{ (b) Find the speedfor the specified i countedfor. (['Iint: The procedure is similar to that outlined for generator ' behavior,except that norv the voltage equationfor the moior is used in placeof that for the generator.Also, keepin mind that the magnetization curve is valid only for a singlespeed,so that adjustmerttsare needed.) (c) Compute the percentageof changein speedfrom no-load to full-load for parts (a) and (b); compareand explain the difference 6-27 A 230-volt,15-hp,d-c shunt motor has the magnetization curve shownin Fig. 20 volts and eachabscissa 6-16,whereeachordinateunit represents uni represents 0.2 amp. This curveis.valid for operation at 1000rpm. (a) Ratedvoltageis appiiedto this motor, and at no-loadthe speedis found to be 900rpm. Negligiblearmaturecurrent flo'ws a this condition. Find the total field circuit resislance for this point of operation. (b) Load is appliedto this motor, corresponding to an armature current of 40 amp. If the armaturecircuitresistance drop is 16volts and the demagnetizing effectof the armaturemmf is 0.3 equivalentfield amperes, determinethe nervspeed in rpm. 6-2B A 115-volt, 15-hp, d-c cumulative-compound motor has the magnetization curveshownin Fig. 6-16,whereeachordinateunit represents 10volts and eaqhabscissa ui represents1 amp. The mtor speed at ntr-load and rated voltage applied is (a) Assuming negligiblearmaturecurrent at noJoad,find the field circuit re- / point. sistance for this operating (b) The motor deliverspor,ver consistent with an armaturecurrent of 100amp, whichis alsomadeto flow throughthe series field rvinding. The magnetizafield is represented tion effectof the series by 3 equivalentfield a,mperes. The demagnetizing effectof the armaure rvindingis denotedby 0.7equivalent field amperes. The armatwe circuit resistance drop (including the field) is 6 volts. Find the speedunder load. series

*-*--:-""_{00j&*:''---.

4-pole,d-c shunt molor has a total of 620 con6-29 A 20-hp,230-volt, 1150-rpm, in trvo parallel pathsand yielding an armaturecircuit resistance ductors arranged of 0.2 ohm..-'WFnil delivers rated porverat rated speed,the motor draws a line current of 74.8 amp and a field current of 3 amp. Compute: (a) The flux per pole. V (b) The developed torque (c) The rotationallosses. (d) l'he totai lossesexpressed as a percentageof the rated power. Assumenegligiblearmature reaction. 6-30 A 230-vol, 10-hp,d-c seies motol drarvsa line currentof 36 amp rvhendelivering rated powerat itsrated speed of 1200rpm. The armaturecircuit resistance is 0.2-' field winding resistance ohm, and the series is 0.1 ohm. The magnetization curvemaV/ linear. Effectsof armaturereactionmay be neglected. be consiilered / (a) Find the speedof this motor rvhen it dran's a line current of 20 amp. [,/ (b) What is the developed torqueat the new conditions? , (c) How doesthis 'iorque comparewith the original value? Why? V 6-31 A 250-volt, 50-hp, 1000-rpm,d-c shunt motor drives a load tha requires a

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chop. 6

ROBTEMS325 (b) Specify the nameplate holscporvel and steed r.atings of the individunl motors to be purclg!-e4_todo thesejobs. ,\ssunie that at 500 rpm the torque for both load.llsJEsame, and equal to 1050 lb-ft.

constattorqueregardless of the speed of operation. The armaturecircuit resistance is 0.04 ohm. \\Ihen this motor deliversrated power, the armature current is 160 amp. (a) If the flux is reduced to 70 per cent of its originalvalue,find the nervvalue of armatule current. (b) \\hat is the nervspeed? 6'32 \\rhena 250-volt,50-hp,r000-r1rn.r, d-c shunt motor is usedto supply rated output po\4er to a constant-torque load, it drarvsan armaturecurlent of 160amp. The armature circuit has a resistance of 0.04 ohrn, and the rotational losses are equal to 2 kw' An external resistance of 0.5ohn'r is insertedin series rvith the armaturervinding. For this condilioncompute: ' (a) The speed. (b) The developed power. (c) The elciency assuming the field loss is 1.6kw. Armatureleactionis negligible. 6-33 A d-c shunt motor has the magnetization curve shownin Fig. 6-16,rvhere one verticalunit represents 20 voltsand onehorizontalunit lepresents 2 fi"eld amperes.The armafurecircuitresistanceis0.0bo h\n i .s P e c i f i e c i l o a d a n d a s p e e d o f l 0 0 0 r r , , . , , ta 'the fieldcurrentis found to be 12amp rvhen a terminalvoltageof 245 r,oltsis appliecl to the motor' The rotationallosses a'e 2.5 krr.,and a.'ratu'e .eactioni-s negligible. (a) Find the arrnalule current. (b) Computethe developed torque. (c) l\'hat is the efficiency? 6-34 A 230-volt, d-c shunt motor is usedas an adjustable speed d.ive overa rangeof zeroto 2400 rpm. Speeds from zeroto r600rpm a'e obtained by adjusting the armature terminalvoltagefrom zero to 280 vorts, rvith the field culrent iept fixed at full field value. speeds from 1600.pm to 2-100 r'pm a'e obtainedby incr.singthe fieid current,with the afnature telminal voltagemaintainedat zaOvnlts. Ignore machine losses and armaturereactioneffects. (a) The torque requiredby the load remainsconstantover the entire speed range. Show the generalform of the culr.e for armature currentr versus speed, over the full speed range. (b) Instead of keepingthe road torque constant,suppose that rhe armatur.e current is not to exceed a specified value. show the generalform of the curvefor allou'able loadtorqueve'susspeec, o'er thelntire speecl range. 6-35 A customer is interested in buyirrg a d-c shunt motol to supplya loarlrequiringa constan torque of 525 lb-ft continuously, over a speedrange of 500 to 2000rpm. (a) List three rvaysthat this job can be done. (b) Iior eachmethod of part (a), specifythe basespeed . and horsepower rating of the motor. (c) List lhe outstanding advantage associated rvith eachmethod of control. 6'36 Tlvo adjustabie-speed, shunt d-c motors have maximum speeds of 2000rpm and minimuur speeds of 500rpm. llotor i\ clrives a ioacl requilingcinstant horsepo*-er over the speed range. Jfotor R drivesonerequiringconstant torque. Neglect all losses and armaturerection. (a) If speed adjustmentis.obtained by fielcicontlol an<iif the horseporver outputsareequalat 500r'prn and the armaturecur.ents a.e eachr00 amp,com_, pute the armaturecurrentsat 2000rtrn.

6-37 Figurc l'6-37 sho*'s a d-c selics rnotor', rvith a rheostat in palallel with the field winding. The lesistance of this rheostat is equal to tn'o-thilds of the field winding re-

Fig. P6-37 sistance.The motor is opelating in the steady-state. rvith the lheostat srvitchopen. The terminl voltageis 250 voits, the almature cunent 40 amp, the speed700 rpm. When the load tolque is tttglgglgd_by 50 pel cent and the rheostatswiich is closed, find the nervsteady-state valuesof speed and armatur,e current. Given values: Armatureresistance 0.2 ohm, series field resistance 0.15ohm, Neglectsaturation,armatule reaction, and rotational polverlosses. molor runs at 300rprn,and dras'sa currentof 75 arnp from the 500V O-gA -\ d-c selies volt line. The total resistance of the armalureand ficld cicuitsis 0.4 ohm. Find the nervsteady-state vaiuesof armatureculrent and speed if the line voltage is increased from 500 to 600 volts. Assumethat the developed torque is to remain constant. carefully,and correctany wrong statementthat fJ O-S Read the following sentence you may find in it: A d-c shunt motor operates undel load in the steady-state. At the time I : 0, the field rheostatresistance is reduced;this increases the flux and therebythe torque. So the motor accelerates and reaches a nervsteady-state speed which is higher than it rvasbefore. 6-40 A d-c shunt notol dl'aws10.0arnpfrom its 220-voltsupplyline. The resistance of its armaturecircuit (includingbrushes, brushcontacts andinterpoles) is /?" : 1 ohm. The field windinglesistance is R : 300ohms. (Thereis no field rheostat.) The rota(hysteresis, tional losses eddy currents,fliction and rvindage) are l0 per cent of the outpu po\Yer. Find the efficiency,as accurately as the given information and the use of a slide rule pelmit. 6-41 A d-c shuntmotor is lated at 3 hp, 115 voits, 1000 rpm. At raedoperatingconditions, the elTiciency is 82.5 per cent. The armature resisance (including brush contact) is 0.44ohm, the field circuit resistance is 145ohms.

326

DrREcr-cURRENT MACHtNEs

choP' chop.

PROBTEMS327

(a) Calculate the value of the induced voltage,0" at r.atedoperating conditions. (b) If this motor is tested at no-Ioatl,, rvith the supply voitage adjusted to the value calculated under'(a) and the specd kept at 1000 rpm (so that therotatonal lossesremain the sar'e as al full load), horv much is the armature culrent under this condition? (Aoler The loro drop at noload can be ncglcctcd.) 6-42 Trvo identical d-c machines are tested in "orposition" as shorvn (armatures in parallel, shafts coupled, lossessupplieclfrom an erectlical source). The letters G and, xI stand for generatorand ntotor. (a) \\'hich machine has the higher annatul.e copper losses? (b) \\'hich machine has the higher. field copper losses? (c) \\'hich machine has the higher core losses? To each nswer, add a blief explanation.
R1 R2 R3

Fig. P6-44

Fig. P6-42 6-43 The magnetization curve of Fig. 6-16 shows the no-ioad charaeteristic for a d-c shunt generator at 900 rpm, rvhere each abscissa unit represents 0.b amp and each ordinate unit represents20 volts. The armature circuit rcsistanceis 0.2 ohm, the field circuit resistance (rvithout field rheostat) 30 ohms. The effect of armature reaction is equivalent to four demagnetizing ampere-turns per pole for every ampere of armatul'e current. The field rvindins has 1250 turns per pole. (a) Find the resistanceof the field rheosta (in serieswith the field winding) for the machine operating as a generator driven at g00 rpni and carrying an armature c'rrent of 12b amp at a terminal vortage of 220 vorts. (b) The field rheostat remains as for part (a). The load is now disconnected. The speed remai's unchanged. what is the new value of the terminal voltage? (c) Find the field rheostat t'esistance for a noloadvoltage of 420 r,olts at a speed of I800 rpm. Depictc'din Fig. P6-44 is the reversing controller circuitry for a cl-eshunt motor. 9'44 Identify the unrnal'kedarmature eontacts and explain the leversing operation. Explain, too, rvhy the auxiliary interlock contacts ro and 8. are rlacedin seriei with the Rev and Frvd switches. y-45 A current-limit type controller for a cl-c shunt motor is shorvn in Fig. p6-45. The accelerating relays (AR) respond to armature current. These relays havc lighta

weight armaturesothathey easilypick up and opentheir contactsrvhenever the armaprocedure,describe the rated value. By meansof a step-by-step ture current exceeds the operation of this controlier. Be careful to identify the proper closiag and opening in series. whenevertwo or more contactorsa,ppea,r sequence

*bt

Fuse

R3 Armolurr

1A 9"
Shuntfield

3AR

OLR

lstort
Stop
Mo

\,./ M 1AR
y't

f.1
\7

2^F ) -------"|---t7-

1l'

t#
Fig. P6-45

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tL