The Impact of Cultural Issues in Relation to Training and Development Within the Private Sector in Saudi Arabia

By

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to The University of Wolverhampton Business School In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

[enter here your degree title]

2013 1

A Dissertation Entitled The Impact of Cultural Issues in Relation to Training and Development Within the Private Sector in Saudi Arabia By [Student name]

'I declare that this Dissertation/Research Project, in its entirety, my own work, and that it has not previously been presented in whole or part, for any other award, or published in whole or in part elsewhere.'

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Abstract

The study began with an introduction to the research subject to enable the reader to acquire a brief overview of the research question, the purpose and importance of the study and an overview of how training and development of Saudi nationals had evolved to date. This was followed in Chapter Two by a review of the published literature on learning and development including how cultural norms might affect the design and outcomes of its implementation. Chapter Three was intended to describe the methodology employed in conducting the research that ensured it achieved what it intended to achieve and had high levels of validity; it included an outline and justification of the research philosophy, data collection and analysis, ethical implications and the limitations of the study. In Chapter Four the analysis and discussion of the data collected was presented and the findings compared with the prior research studies. In the final chapter conclusions were drawn as to how well the research question had been answered and how the findings aligned with and differed from the published knowledge on this subject. At the end of that Chapter, suggestions were made for further research in this subject area.

Acknowledgements

TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Abstract Chapter 1 Introduction 3 7 7 7 8 9 9 11 11 11 17 24 26 28 28 28 29 32 32 33 33 35 35 35 37 49

1.1 Background 1.2 Objectives of the Research and the Research Questions 1.3 Importance of the Research 1.4 Methodology 1.5 Summary Chapter 2 Literature Review

2.1 Introduction 2.2 Defining the Learning and Development Initiatives 2.3 Measuring the Outcomes from Learning and Development Programmes 2.4 Cultural Considerations in Design and Implementation of Learning Interventions 2.5 Summary Chapter 3 Research Methods

3.1Introduction 3.2 Research Methodology 3.3Data Collection and Analysis 3.4Reliabilty and Validity 3.5 Ethics 3.6 Limitations of the Research 3.7 Summary Chapter 4 Findings and Discussion

4.1 Introduction 4.2 Secondary Research Findings 4.3 The Primary Research Findings, Comparison with Prior Studies and Secondary Research 4.4 Summary

Chapter 5

Conclusions and Recommendations

50 50 50 53 54 55

5.1 Introduction 5.2 Was the Research Question Answered? 5.3 Reflection on the Study and Its Limitation 5.4 Areas for Further Study 5.5 Summary and Reflections

References

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Appendix A Interview Questions and Questionnaire Appendix B Summary of Findings from Survey Questionnaire Appendix C Summary of Findings form Manager Interviews

FIGURES AND TABLES Figures Figure 2.1 Learning Interventions Employed by Companies Figure 2.2 The Training Interventions Most Preferred Figure 2.3 The Training Interventions Least Preferred Figure 4.3 (a) Age Profile of Participants Figure 4.3 (b) Length of Service Figure 4.3 (c) Regularity of Assessment by Department 18 19 20 38 38 41

Tables Table 1: Comparative Effectiveness of Training Methods Table 2: National Cultural Dimensions Table 3: Processes Used to Assess Skill/Knowledge Levels 22 25 42

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1.Background The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia historically relied on the services of expatriate foreign workers in the commercial sector, owing to the poor level of skills and knowledge of Saudi nationals. Over the last decade, there has been a significant shift to encourage training and development of the local population, underpinned by Government policy and centred particularly on the private sector. This has been supported by an employment policy called Saudisation, which forced the Saudi employer to employ local rather than expatriate personnel (Sfakainakis, 2011) and by the Manpower Council, which provided funds for extension and investment in training and development of Saudi citizens (British Council, 2007). As a result, Human Resource processes and policies have evolved rapidly across government sponsored vocational training and design and implementation of training and development programmes within private organisations (Alzalabani, 2002). There were significant cultural issues in relation to how these initiatives were planned and implemented that also affected the quality of the outcomes and firm s performance. The cultural issues varied across Arab states; a study by Soltani and Liao (2010) conducted in Iran found that perceptions of training between employees and organisations did not align and that outcomes were frequently contradictory to expectations.

1.2. Objectives of the Research and the Research Questions

The aim of this study is to appraise the impact of culture on the design and outcomes of learning initiatives in Saudi Arabian private sector firms.

The objectives of the research are to:

a) Appraise the goals that medium-sized Saudi firms perceive to accomplish by implementing HRM development within their organisations b) Identify the range of training and development initiatives that are employed within medium sized firms in Saudi Arabia

c) Pinpoint the national cultural barriers that impact on the quality of outcomes achieved by the initiatives, including religious perspectives d) Assess the gap between the actual and intended level of outcomes from initiatives e) Identify the learning interventions that would be most effective in supporting the accomplishment of organisational goals.

The research question is:

To what extent do national, cultural issues impact on the capacity for existing training and development initiatives, implemented by firms in Saudi Arabia to, meet the expectations of employers?

The research question is broken down into sub-questions to ensure that all the appropriate aspects are appraised:

1. What are the key goals that employers expect to accomplish from the training and development initiatives that they implement?

2. How are training and development needs assessed and evaluated within the workforce/management?

3. How far do the training and development interventions employed and implemented match the national cultural norms of Saudi nationals?

4. To what extent do the measured outcomes from training and development compare with the employers expectations and goals?

5. What adaptations could be made to the current training and development design and methodology to enhance the outcomes for employer and employee? 1.3 Importance of the Research The British Council (2007) report intended to assist firms to identify the skills and knowledge training that would be required to enhance the current Saudi Arabian

working age population so that they were equipped to meet the needs of the private sector employer and to reduce reliance on expatriate skills. The changes in legislation and funding for training Saudi nationals since then forced the private sector to take the necessary action to substantially enhance the skills of local workers (Sfakainakis, 2011; EIC, 2011). However since there was so little commitment to in-house investment in the early stages, the performance of private sector firms declined (Al Dosary and Rhaman, 2005). Hence if the private sector is to meet its performance goals, it is essential that the training and development implemented produces the desired level of skills and knowledge in the local workforce. This study is important not only for the survival of those firms but for the growth of diversified economy (EIC, 2011)

1.4 Methodology

The research philosophy employed is bridged interpretivism, an approach that facilitates an objective viewpoint enabling the findings to be assessed against a theoretical framework, whilst including the beliefs/values of the participants (Richie and Lewis, 2010). The primary data for the study was gathered by means of questionnaire survey of employees, a methodology employed frequently in business research (Saunders et al. 2009). The survey was complemented by semi- structured interviews with two senior managers; to strengthen validity of the study (triangulation) (Saunders et al. 2009) A mixed methods approach was employed.(Saunders et al. 2009; Miles and Hubermann, 1994).

1.5 Summary

This Chapter described the study in outline, stating the issues regarding learning and development of staff employed in firms in Saudi Arabia and the reasons why the situation had evolved. It also described the vital nature of a change required for the Saudi Government were to achieve the goal that companies employed Saudi nationals rather than expatriate staff. This introduction enabled the reader to establish what the research comprised, how it would be conducted in terms of methodology so that it would add a valuable contribution to the existing knowledge. The next stage was to identify and outline the existing published research relevant to

providing a theoretical framework for the research and which was recorded in the next Chapter.

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CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

This Chapter was used to explore the findings of relevant published studies, which would enable the research question to be refined and suitable sub-questions to be shaped, which would ensure that the appropriate theoretical framework could be applied to this study. This review provided an overview of the rationale that companies had for providing employee learning and development programmes including: the expected outcomes; how the organisation determined exactly what training and development should take place; the range of training and development interventions available and the reasons why specific ones might be chosen; ways in which the effectiveness of the outcomes was measured. In addition the influence of national and organisational culture on the design and delivery of the learning and development programme was appraised.

2.2 Defining the Learning and Development Initiatives

2.2.1 Definition and Purpose of Organisational Learning and Development

The learning and development that occurred in organisations was often referred to as Human Resources Development, since this inferred that the employee was regarded as one of the firms resources in the same way as finance or machinery. It was suggested that a firm could differentiate itself from its competitors by identifying its key resources and continually developing them to adapt to changes in the external environment so that the individuals and the firm possessed unique skills that increased its chances of outperforming its rivals (Barney, 1991). A similar idea was put forward by Hamel and Prahalad (1994) that a firm developed core competences, which evolved with changes in circumstances and that enabled the organisation to retain competitive advantage, since other firms could not replicate them easily. However it was difficult to define those human resource characteristics, which were most likely to add value to the organisation; the included the ability to learn, cognition and dexterity (Boudreau 1993, in Kamoche 1994). However Kamoche (1994) stated that the employees behaviour was of vital concern, since this was a competence discernible in his/her actions. Hence valuing the human resource over a

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period of time involved appraising the enhancement of the combination of skills, knowledge and ability; measuring those factors that represented identifiable expertise. In other words evaluating the increase in skills, knowledge and abilities, which enabled the organisation to adapt to changing markets and to develop products/services by use of innovative practice. The manner in which the human resource was viewed and managed within the organisation was found to have an impact on the learning and development methods employed. Human Resource Management (HRM) could be defined in a number of ways, but two distinct definitions were relevant in this study, hard and soft HRM (Torrington et al. 2008). In the hard model the workforce was viewed as an operational cost that must be minimised and managed. The rationale, according to Gill (1999), was related to scientific management models. since the workforce was regarded as an inert entity lacking creativity. As a consequence employee skills, qualities and knowledge were measured on an individual basis, against what was needed by the firm. In contrast the soft version of HRM focused on communication, motivation and leadership. Employees were believed to exhibit proactivity and were competent individuals who would collaborate with the company to accomplish organisational goals (Kaye, 1999). In this model the employee added value to the business and shared the interests and concerns of the business owners. Hence the selection of employees was based on identifying the most talented people who could be developed as required by the firm, and compensated for their loyalty and efforts (Drucker, 1996). The two approaches represented extremes that reflected the management theories X and Y (Mc Gregor, 1960, in Mullins, 2010). In theory X, which aligned with hard HRM the typical employee was considered unwilling to work and must be controlled heavily, persuaded to reach goals and penalised for not doing so. This individual was only interested in job security and not career progression, since he worked at the lowest motivation levels. In Theory Y, which embraced a similar philosophy to soft HRM, the employee relished being at work and worked without heavy controls, was committed to helping the company to meet its objectives, through adopting a creative, problem solving approach and progressing in his career. On-going research suggested that the majority employees cannot be strictly categorised as perceived by Mc Gregor (1960) and Mullins (1985) supports this argument by suggesting that managers adapt their approach to the context or period in which HR policies were created.

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When management of human resources was integrated into the firms corporate strategic goals, then the term Strategic Human Resource Management (SHRM) was applied. This was described by Salaman et al. (2005) as a specific approach to employment management, which intended to achieve competitive advantage through the strategic deployment of a highly committed, capable workforce through a variety of cultural, structural and personal practices including: human resource planning, employee selection, learning and development and performance appraisal. However Kayes (1999) study suggested that, rather than soft HRM being employed widely, the predominant policies employed in SHRM placed emphasis on management objectives rather than human employee standpoints, and were of the 'hard' form. The implication was that performance objectives would be met in the short term but had very negative effects on employees in terms of job security and lower job satisfaction, and Kaye (1999) suggested that if HRM was to successfully integrate with business strategy, the form of SHRM employed would need to be broadened. Reinforcing this view, Johnson et al. (2008) suggested that the use of a hard SHRM model without integration of the soft aspects regarding behaviour, would make the outcomes less effective. These factors would be achieved by employment of suitable learning interventions that would improve employee competences and complement the unique soft or cultural behaviours of the firm (Kinnie, 2008); employ hard (resource) and soft (human) as Kaye (1999) urged. This theme was also investigated by Truss et al. (1997), who linked it directly to Mc Gregors X and Y theories of management of tight control (hard model) and Y employee commitment (soft model), respectively suggesting that the model, which an organisation employed impacted directly on the employee learning and development interventions preferred by the firm. As a consequence, companies were forced to choose specific types of learning and development interventions around the preferred policy. The findings of the in-depth study of eight UK organisations, of which five generated the highest profit levels, found that the development initiatives employed most often were hard HRM, in direct conflict with published company statements that proposed individual employee development as the fundamental HR goal. In other words, the focus was on short term goals and strategic control, which the authors suggested had serious implications for performance outcomes. In contrast the concept of high performance working focused on strategies which could be categorised as: high commitment management (HCM) (Wood 1996, in Boxall and Purcell 2008), which was based on gaining employee

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commitment; high involvement work systems (HIWS) Lawler (1986); high performance work systems (HPWS), which used the HRM best practice model (Boxall and Purcell, 2008).

The theories of high performance working were the universal model, strategic fit and the resource-based view. The universalist approach considered that work should be conducted in a standardised manner and guidelines must be adhered to; there were four policy goals. Firstly an SHRM approach of full integration of strategic and HRM goals, which managers implemented with their teams. Hence, employee involvement motivated individuals to be highly committed, achieve organisational goals, and to work in a flexible manner. The employees were described as likely to be multi-skilled and empowered, and quality would be assured as a consequence of adherence to the rules (Guest, 1989). The approach was employed for several decades; best practice employee selection and performance appraisal techniques believed to be effective (Boxall and Purcell, 2008). An example of best practice proposed by Pfeffer (1998) embraced seven HR initiatives, which in combination, were believed to generate employee commitment and improved organisational performance; job security, effective recruitment, empowered teams, high pay linked to set targets, training/development, undifferentiated status levels and information sharing. Strategic fit related to practices that were appropriate a specific organisations culture and or industry setting. The model had an external/ vertical approach plus a complementary internal/ horizontal one. The external focus was on competitors and often employed Porters (2008) generic strategy to design HR practices. Schuler and Jackson (1987) suggested that HR policies and practices, that matched the specific generic strategy employed by the organisation, for example a differentiation strategy, would imply HR policies encouraging innovation but for cost leadership, it would be imperative to minimise costs and maintain high quality. Hence the shape of best fit HR policies and practices altered to align with the stage in the organisations life cycle; informal structure at early life cycle stage and more formal as the firm matured (Boxall and Purcell, 2008). The internal part concentrated on the HR policies developed to ensure that there was a logical, integrated process that would generate desired outcomes. This commenced with recruitment; effective employee selection led to high performance and was supported by appropriate rewards linked to performance appraisal and training; a rational pathway to achievement of

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organisational objectives that accomplished the employee behaviours, defined as appropriate by the firm (Torrington et al. 2008). However weaknesses in best fit strategy were its individualist approach and it was contrary to working practices in cultural settings in less developed countries, in which teamwork was the cultural norm (Boxall and Purcell, 2008); Hofstede et al. 2010).

The resource-based approach regarded employee competences as highly valuable, difficult to replicate and, according to Barney (1991) and Hamel and Prahalad (1994), the most successful firms possessed specific competences that gave them competitive advantages. Hence if an organisation recruited and developed talented human resources, this would leverage performance; the concept of talent management evolved from this base (Collings and Mellahi, 2009). A study by Akhtar and Mak (2003) extended this principle by comparing the employee value to technology; employee competence was difficult to replicate, had to be adapted to the changing external environment and should be retained within the organisation, whereas technology could be purchased and disposed of readily, with potentially little impact on the firm's performance. Hence this theory increasingly stressed the importance of employee retention strategies in SHRM policy.

Human Resource Development (HRD) had many definitions but Taylor (2010 ) suggested that this was the process by which talent was developed as a long term strategy, in contrast to learning that was a narrow, self-directed, work-based process that enhanced employee capability to adapt to different circumstances (Taylor, 2010) although Oxford Dictionaries online (2012) described learning as the process of acquiring knowledge or skills by means of one or all of study, experience and or being taught, and training as the process of teaching a specific skill or behaviour. These words were frequently used interchangeably although huge variances in meaning existed. The HRD process employed a variety of formal and informal learning interventions that enabled employees to acquire a range of skills and knowledge in a planned manner over time; its focus was long term in contrast to learning, which had short term orientation. Definitions of HRD were appraised by Hamlin and Stewart (2011, p 210), who considered that overall there were four purposes for its use: improving individual or group effectiveness and performance improving organisational effectiveness and performance

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developing knowledge, skills and competencies enhancing human potential and personal growth

This broader context was used by firms, which instigated professional long term programmes to plan strategies and content (Garavan, 1991).

2.2.2 Determining Training and Development Needs

Training Needs Analysis (TNA) was defined by Clark (2003) as the procedure used by an organisation to collect data with the purpose of helping it to improve its performance through development of the skills and/or knowledge of its staff. This process should be conducted systematically if it were to be effective, according to Boydell (1976); it must be completed before any training began and linked to corporate objectives so that areas of weak organisational knowledge or skills be minimised. The CIPD (2011) description similarly stated that TNA was a structured process to establish where there were deficiencies in employee knowledge, skills, attitude and behaviour, which Kamoche (1994) suggested was vital to valuing the human resource. CIPD (2011) emphasised that the purpose of TNA was to meet the existing and future knowledge and skill needs of the business and it should be shaped by the corporate strategy. TNA was the start of a cycle of training that moved from design, to delivery and finally evaluation of the outcomes (Bowman and Wilson 2008); interpretation of TNA was very broad as were opinions of what it could accomplish. However Sloman (2003) proposed that such an approach was over-prescriptive and that learning was a continuous process, in which individuals needed to take responsibility for their own learning rather than rely on their employer.

The connection between learning, development and company performance emphasised by academic studies was reinforced by ODonnell and Garavan (19 97), especially in the context of rapidly changing technology and globalisation. However the authors suggested that organisational culture would have a significant impact on conducting the TNA but establishing what the beliefs and values were was difficult. The identification of the firms perceptions, attitudes and values were needed to plan the learning and development required to meet future external challenges. Human Resource professionals must proactively align people development with corporate strategy to develop practices and policies appropriately. A framework of nine HRD

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characteristics was devised by Gaaravan (1991) to link the two; these included HRD policies that started with the organisations mission and vision and ended with evaluation of interventions. The support of senior management and scanning the internal and external organisational environment were considered vital to effective training design and outcomes.

The changing interpretation of TNA was demonstrated by the findings of Ibqual and Khan (2011); TNA had traditionally signalled the starting point for training design by a HR specialist but it was now a concern of all proactive managers to shape a range of solutions, appropriate to individuals and groups, which supported them in achieving their work tasks. The authors literature scan of TNA produced interpretations such as need, needs assessment, needs analysis, training needs assessment, and training needs analysis. However the goals of TNA had changed from learning programme design to accomplishment of corporate goals that were often linked to identifying non-training initiatives, such as highlighting areas in which management decisions were required.

According to Kaufman (1994), the process of needs assessment was that in which needs were established and then placed in order of priority on the basis of the implementation cost versus the consequences to performance of ignoring that need. TNA could be summarised as a vital process, which identified gaps in organisational skills and knowledge that inhibited accomplishment of corporate goals and competitiveness in an environment of advancing technology and globalisation.

2.3: Measuring the Outcomes from Learning and Development Programmes

2.3.1: Employee v Employer Evaluation of Appropriate Training Interventions

The success of organisational learning and development initiatives was dependent on the impact the employers choices had on the employees; how much they motivated the recipient to learn and apply new ideas and skills that enhanced individual and firm performance. The degree of improvement was a key factor in levering competitive advantage (Barney, 1991: Hamel and Prahalad, 1994). Employers could gather employees opinion to critically evaluate the interventions offered, to assess those implemented and to plan future HRD strategies. The CIPD

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(2008) employee survey, the most recent that included comparison between employer and employee views, was conducted in public and private sector organisations of various sizes employing telephone interviews with 751 individuals. The findings showed that 92% of participants considered the training received in the previous year successful. The most frequent training interventions were classroom training, on the job training and desk based learning, with the e-learning employed by 69%, and regarded as self-taught (figure 2.1). The employer survey CIPD (2012) revealed that the most popular employer generated training had changed significantly; in-house training remained the most frequent and was increasingly used, coaching by managers was the second choice but used less than previously and on the job training was third preference with substantially increased use. The reasons for these changing trends was the recession and companies resorting to inhouse resources.

Figure 2.1: Learning Interventions Employed by Companies

Source: CIPD (2008) The most popular forms of training were those in which there was interpersonal interaction and more managers training employees than reported in the previous similar CIPD survey, in 2002. Managers initiated training most often (49%) followed by HR/training department and employee self-initiation, which implied that high

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involvement of employees in selection of training interventions. In CIPD (2008), 68% of all feedback on training employed was received by managers but this statistic provided no useful data on the proportion of companies using systematic evaluation procedures and CIPD (2012) recorded just 11% of the participants suggesting that training evaluation was likely to increase. The increasing role of managers as employee trainers was demonstrated by CIPD (2012) and greater emphasis on integration of the learning and development initiatives with organisational development was found, suggesting a growing commitment to SHRM and driven by the need for return on investment. The most (figure 2.2) and least effective (figure 2.3) interventions, reported in CIPD (2008) were also determined. On the job training and coaching were most preferred with learning from books, the internet and classroom training being the least popular amongst employees. Figure 2.2: The Training Interventions Most Preferred

Source: CIPD (2008)

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Figure 2.3: The Training Interventions Least Preferred

Source: CIPD (2008)

The CIPD (2008) survey suggested that less educated employees those from lower socio-economic backgrounds received fewer learning opportunities, particularly in smaller organisations, however age was not found to be a deciding factor in such cases. The CIPD (2012) survey provided no updated information on these factors.. The studys findings strongly suggested that, where the organisation promoted mutual learning rather being concerned only with what it felt most appropriate to meet organisational objectives, learning and development interventions were more effective; preferences of individuals in particular roles were shown to be an important consideration, for instance managers preferred external coaching whereas nonmanagers methods in which close contact with others employees was preferred. (CIPD, 2011). The research findings all suggested that when employers relied on learning interventions, which failed to match employees learning preferences, the expected organisational performance improvements were not accomplished. Whilst CIPD surveys provided valuable insights into UK based companies, the generalisability even within the UK perspective, was treated with caution since response rates to the surveys tended to be low, for instance CIPD (2012) online survey had a 3.6% response rate. Hence reference to the findings of other studies was vital. However, although a variety of written materials was available to training professionals, academic studies seemed to be very limited.

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A study by Carroll et al. (1972) revealed that a significant issue for employers attempting to critically evaluate the comparative effectiveness learning and development interventions suggested little had changed regarding differing opinions on learning methodology between employer and recipient since then. The research participants, 200 training directors in 500 large companies, provided opinions of effective learning interventions, which the researchers compared with the existing published literature. They found that prior studies were directed at college students rather than the workplace environment and different findings were to be expected. The study compared nine training methods and six specific objectives using a survey questionnaire; 59% were completed and analysed. The average effectiveness ratings given to the training methods for each of six objectives were compared using a t test. The methods compared were shown in table 1. In all cases the learning objectives were: to acquire knowledge, change attitudes, acceptance by the participant, retention of knowledge learned, development of interpersonal skills and development of problem solving skills. Carroll et al (1972) reported that the Training Directors considered 50% of the learning interventions would be effective for a particular training objective whereas the others were not. Significant agreement was detected between the findings of their study and earlier research, except regarding lectures, since this method was considered a less effective intervention for several of the objectives by the Directors but was this was not the case in other studies.. According to Carroll et al. (1972) bias was present in the Training Directors responses, since participative methods had become more fashionable and non specialists could use the lecture method. The researchers commented that business games were rated less highly in earlier studies than by Training Directors and that lecture, conventional and TV lectures, and sensitivity training were generally rated higher by previous studies that by the Training Directors.

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Table 1: Comparative Effectiveness of Training Methods to Meet Learning Objectives

Training Method/ Objectives Programmed Instruction Case Study Knowledge Acquisition Most Effective but limited Superior to lecture Least effective Change in Attitude Not Effective Effective Participant Acceptance Effective Retention of learning Effective Develop Interpersonal Skills Not Effective Develop Problem Solving Skills

Most Effective

Effective

Some Effectiveness Not Effective Some Effectiveness Most Effective Most Effective Not Effective Not Effective Not Effective

Highest with Some Effectiveness

Lecture with Questions Conference /discussion Role Play Sensitivity Training TV Lecture Movie Films Business Gaming

Not Effective Effective Effective Most Effective Not Effective Not Effective Not Effective

Most Effective Effective Effective

Not Effective Effective Effective Effective Not Effective Not Effective Effective

Some Effectiveness Some Effectiveness

More effective than lecture Superior to lecture

Effective Most Effective

Some Effectiveness

Adapted from Carroll et al. 2007

Overall huge gaps regarding comparative learning methodology effectiveness were revealed. Although the study pre-dated some training interventions that could be employed today, the findings were useful since they focused on the importance of aligning particular development objectives with the training methodology used. In addition the opinions of training managers were at variance with those of employees receiving training found by CIPD (2008). These findings represented crucial points for HR and management personnel to consider when applying the TNA to the learning intervention in organisations and seeking to maximise outcomes. Clifford and Thorpe (2007) proposed that formal training courses were best used for skills development which had practical application, in agreement with some of Carroll et al. 1972 findings, for instance to: deliver a consistent message to a large audience; provide factual knowledge and skill based learning; update organisations/individuals on changes such as legislation or systems and procedures; cover a wider range of material in a short time. However this study also highlighted the formal course as suitable to enable learning on techniques such as customer service/sales skills, involving interpersonal skills development but emphasised that this would be further developed after the formal training, which although concurred with in principle by Fitzpatrick (2007), it was stated by the latter that the follow up training rarely happened inferring that skill development

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was limited by this factor . Clifford and Thorpes (2007) research also demonstrated that formal classroom training did not represent the most cost effective returns but it was a popular management choice, since it meant that managers did not have to deliver the programme, but indicated support for employee development; the process fulfilled a political agenda. Another strategy for favouring use of this intervention was that employees training in new legislation could be proven; a legal obligation and insurance for firms against claims that could be made as a result breach of new laws, reinforced by CIPD (2009). The effectiveness of formal methodology for legislative purposes or other factual input was expressed in CIPD (2008), which suggested that employees only partially retained the aural information in formal training and that this represented a distinct weakness of the method; concurring with Carroll et al. (1972).

Studies indicated that organisations were limited in what was achieveable as a result of learning and development interventions, since the methodology employed frequently related to accomplishment of short-term goals rather than developing longer term individual plans to holistically enhance the skills and knowledge of employees and often those who developing long term development plans lacked the requisite vision (CIPD 2011; Truss et al. 1996). The shortcomings in the capacity of individuals or groups selecting training to make effective, appropriate choices, may have influenced the findings of academic research, which often suggested that investment in training was far from maximised regarding enhancement of organisational performance.

2.3.2 Organisational Evaluation of the Impact of Employee Training

The learning interventions implemented by organisations most often failed to optimise performance because they were not evaluated, according to Kirkpatrick (2007). He suggested an evaluation framework: the manager should continually monitor the learning programme and assess the employees skill levels regularly so that individual training needs could be determined; the employee and employer should jointly plan the training programme to provide the employee with insight as to the performance levels expected and the mutual benefit to him/her and the organisation; joint objectives agreed before training commenced; joint manageremployee evaluation of progress as the learning programme continued and agreement of amendments to leverage skills in the areas where gaps became apparent (Kirkpatrick, 2007). The evaluation must be evidence based, according to

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Nunn (2011). A model developed by Kirkpatrick (1959) had a four stage evaluation framework; firstly obtaining employee feedback on the experience; secondly appraising the extent of learning; thirdly measuring performance improvement as a direct result of the training; finally measuring enhancement in company performance, for example, productivity. The studies by Kirkpatrick (2007) and CIPD (2006) demonstrated that the third step was rarely measured and only 20% of companies attempted to measure the return on their training investment.

2.4 Cultural Considerations in Design and Implementation of Learning Interventions Culture was described by Hofstede et al (2010, p5) as the collective programming of the mind and explained the differences in how individuals from different origins felt, thought and acted; therefore culture distinguished employees according to the norms held. Culture had several layers: national, derived from the native country; gender male or female; religious/ ethnic background; social class, consequential on educational/professional experience and the organisation in which the individual worked (Doole and Lowe, 2008). National cultures had four dimensions Hofstede et al. (2010); Power Distance (PDI), Uncertainty Avoidance (UAI), Collectivism (IDV) and Masculinity (MAS). PDI related to the distribution of power within a group; members might have significant power (large PDI value) while the majority had little (low PDI value). IDV related to the extent to which individuals looked after themselves (high value IDV) or preferred close groups that made decisions jointly and looked after joint interests (collectivism or low IDV). MAS, referred to distribution of values; it was associated with behaviours such as assertiveness, power, being self-centred, suggested as male. Female traits, were exemplified by caring. UAI implied the degree to which regulations were imposed to minimise shocks; nations low on UAI were more tolerant of opinions that were dissimilar to theirs, manifested by an unwillingness to express emotions and having few rules. Later research by Hofstede et al. (2010) resulted in addition of two dimensions; long term versus short term orientation (LDV) and indulgence versus restraint. LDV inferred that the national traits was focused on future rewards, which meant adapting to change as it occurred, in contrast to short term orientation in which the past was held in high esteem, exemplified by national pride and saving face. The term indulgence suggested a society that believed enjoying life was more important than being held

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back by social norms, as represented restraint. Saudi Arabias dimensions; rating in table 2, according to Hofstede et al (2010); comparisons with USA and UK were provided since published research accessed in this literature review was frequently conducted in those countries and reflected their cultural norms. Table 2: National Cultural Dimensions Saudi Arabia Saudi Arabia PDI IDV MAS UAI LTD 95 25 60 80 no score

USA 40 91 62 46 29

UK 35 89 66 35 25

Source: Hofstede et al. (2010)

The power-distance dimension for Saudi Arabia compared with USA/UK indicated that the employees would generally not wish to interact with the trainer of a formal programme but expect to be given knowledge and skills and little feedback. Managers, particularly senior managers, by contrast might not be influenced by what the person(s) conducting the learning intervention suggested. Hence both the individual(s) delivering the training intervention and the employee level concerned would have to be carefully balanced in terms of power distance to encourage effective interaction and real learning. The low individuality of Saudi nationals inferred a preference for group learning (with their peers owing to PDI preference) and decision making when training. The success of the learning intervention would be based on group performance; hence if individual performance outcomes were required the learning specialist would need to assess them within a group environment. Some interventions might be difficult to implement, for instance individual presentations. MAS scores were similar for all three nations; hence Saudis would be expected to be quite assertive and wish to learn for their own purposes (self-interest). However introduction of aspects of the training that might surprise or concern could prove to be an issue; policies, procedures and boundaries around the training would explained to delegates before the training programme took

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place.

A study by Rao (2011) concerning the impact of national culture on learning

and development methodology and the nature of the delivery in India, which had an even higher PDI score than Saudi Arabia, reinforced the need for the trainer to be perceived as having expert status and that high UAI cultures such as Saudi Arabia would find e-learning methods too high risk, since they would fear that the culture would let them down. In addition an e-learning method, where the employee worked alone, would be unsuitable for national cultures with low IDV such as Saudis had; this study substantiated the suggestion of group based activity.

This appraisal indicated that the national culture of the employees must be carefully considered by those developing learning and development programmes for organisations; the specific values and beliefs of the staff, the most effective learning modes and organisational culture (Berger, 1998). Practical aspects of the training programme in Saudi Arabia were of key importance, religious and cultural beliefs should be carefully considered so that those delivering training understand them to ensure that no offence is given in gestures, language or learning arrangements. In addition the Muslim religion, for example, must be accommodated by ensuring the schedule prayer breaks during the day and separated male and female facilities such as washrooms

2.5 Summary

This literature review indicated the key factors to be explored when conducting field research to establish the impact national cultural issues would have when designing, implementing and evaluating learning and development in private companies in Saudi Arabia. Generally organisations implemented training and development

initiatives to improve employee performance levels and therefore to make the company more competitive, profitable and able to survive in the longer term. In order to ensure that the training and development was effective, several factors needed to be considered; training needs were established in a rigorous manner that matched corporate objectives and employee preferences; employees and managers agreed specific learning initiatives of mutual benefit; the new skills were applied successfully in the job role; extent of improvement of the employees skills assessed and any weaknesses observed so that further training could occur; improvement in employee and organisational performance measured to provide feedback on the effectiveness

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of training received.

However all of these aspects required development in the

context of national cultural preferences to ensure that employees were motivated to participate fully.

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CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODS

3.1 Introduction The Literature Review refined the research question and shaped the sub questions that would ensure all aspects of it were adequately studied. The subject matter of this research was concerned with the theoretical aspects and with the people who would provide and receive the training; employer and employee. Hence the research methodology was selected that enabled f acts as well, as opinions and beliefs to be considered; an interpretivist philosophy employing qualitative methods (Ritchie and Lewis, 2010). The purpose of this chapter was to present and justify the rationale behind the selected research methodology employed.

3.2 Research Philosophy An interpretivist philosophy was considered the most appropriate for this research since a positive approach that linked cause and effect was required to appraise the facts and compare them with the theoretical framework derived from the Literature Review. In addition objective aspects regarding the values and beliefs of the organisations concerned and their employees was a required; interpretivism allowed both aspects to be evaluated simultaneously. If a positive view alone had been taken, the research would have lost valuable insights into how decisions were, how these impacted on the individuals employees and on performance outcomes; a less significant contribution made to understanding the impact of culture on learning/development design and outcomes. This enabled the researcher to link the objective facts with the outcomes that were based on each individuals unique understanding of them that had resulted from their personal set of values (Johnson et al. 2009). The origins of this philosophy were attributed to Kant (1781) in Ritchie and Lewis (2010); Kant (1781) perceived that a persons environment was determined by two key factors; what s/he observed directly and what his/her senses suggested the observation to mean. The influence of the individuals beliefs and values when s/he reflected on what s/he had seen, affected the interpretation and it was this second part of the interpretation that led to divergence between opinions of different individuals because each person used his/her own moral freedom to make a decision on meaning and so made the outcomes of interpretation uncertain. Individuals linked their historic, social and cultural experiences with observations (Dilthey 1860-70s, in Ritchie and Lewis 2010) and in the workplace context of this

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study this was an entirely appropriate suggestion since it considered cultural influences on the manner that learning and development improved organisational performance. Since this study also used a theoretical framework to assess the impact of a number variables on the outcomes of training interventions the underlying philosophy was bridged interpretivism with positivism (Weber 18641920, in Ritchie and Lewis, 2010). The consideration of participants views and beliefs was reinforced by Saunders et al. (2009; the researcher using this approach should attempt to imagine him/herself as an employee in the participants workplace; empathise to gain greater insight into contemporary management issues which focused on understanding complex, unique contexts and factors that existed at a particular time. An empathetic approach was represented by conducting the appropriate literature review, which assessed cultural differences, carefully worded questions to encourage opinions to be given about any information the participant wished to include.

3.3 Data Collection and Analysis The study employed primary and secondary data and used a mixed methods approach. The primary data was collected using two survey instruments, questionnaires and interviews, a method frequently used in collection of primary data: it was cost effective, in terms of time required for participants to complete the document and the researcher to design it; minimum financial resources were required; standard questions were asked of each participant; administering and collecting the questionnaire responses could be conducted in a variety of ways, for instance by email (Ritchie and Lewis, 2010, Saunders et al. 2009). The questionnaire was composed of open and closed questions, which enabled concerns to be gathered that were interpreted later and led to greater understanding of the links between culture, performance outcome levels and the nature of learning and development initiatives designed and implemented (Creswell, 2008). The questionnaire was structured in a logical sequence, used standard questions so that participants had the same opportunities to provide facts and opinions (Johnson et al. 2009). The questionnaire survey was acknowledged to be a relatively simple data collection method, although acknowledged as being difficult to design effectively, leading the researcher to follow the advice of research methods experts, for instance Saunders et al. (2009) and Ritchie and Lewis (2010). The semi-structured interviews held with two managers were used to support data collection; these were intended to

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enable a comparison of the responses with those collected in the questionnaire, with the degree of alignment representing a measurement of the studys validity through triangulation (Saunders et al. 2009).

The secondary data relevant to the Saudi Arabian context and culture was accessed from academic texts, peer reviewed journals, publications by respected institutions and quality press; EBSCO and library facilities used for this purpose. Search words such as learning interventions, human resource development, evaluating learning, were entered into the databases. Google was employed to search for quality newspaper articles and to identify academic journals (Saunders et al. 2009; Hart, 2010).

Population Sample The questionnaire participants represented a purposive, non-probability sample of fifty individuals, employed in a small private Saudi firm of fifty people, the sampling frame, justified as representative of the whole population. The researcher was aware that, owing to work constraints and self-selection, in which some employees could decline to participate, it might not possible to survey all employees.

Data Collection Methods A mixed methods approach, using qualitative and quantitative data, was employed. The quantitative aspect was used to present the strength of opinions, whereas the qualitative data embraced all responses to the questionnaires and to the interviews. The qualitative methods formed the predominant approach and a means to encourage participants to provide personal views. The researcher was able to reflect on the words and phrases the participants used and the emotions and behaviour observed. In the semi-structured interviews, participants permitted use of a voice recorder so that the researcher had accurate recall of what had been said than taking notes(Saunders et al. 2009). As a consequence the researcher was able to reflect on the conversations and look repeatedly for patterns and themes (Creswell, 2008) that could be grouped together in tables and/or matrices as suggested by Miles and Huberman, (1994). The research instruments were tested before use to ensure that they could not be misinterpreted or lead the participant to provide a specific answer; amendments were made on the basis of comments made during proofing the

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documents and increased the reliability of the study (Saunders et al. 2009). Data collection took place over a very short time period, a snapshot of views and practices occurring at that moment. Questionnaire Design The design of the questionnaire was proven as a vital factor in increasing reliability and validity of the data gathered as well as encouraging participants to answer all the questions (Ritchie and Lewis (2010; Johnson et al. (2009). The instrument was structured carefully, arranged in an attractive, easy to follow, coherent format so that one question linked to the previous one and headed with a statement explaining the purpose of the study. All questions were short statements to reduce the tendency for ambiguity. Three question types were employed; category questions in which one answer was possible; rating questions to collect varying views; open questions that explored specific issues in more depth and provided opportunity for free expression. Category questions were used to provide a profile of the respondents their role in the organisations; very few were used as too many questions of this type deterred respondents from completing the questionnaire or led to a quick lack of interest (Johnson et al. 2009). The ratings questions enabled respondents to select one of five possible responses and were used to discover attitudes and how they were framed The open questions were used with ratings questions to uncover more detail and to gather feelings, or were used alone to explore a particular topic (Creswell, 2008; Saunders et al. 2009; Ritchie and Lewis, 2010). Data Analysis The survey questionnaires were collected and checked for completeness, the number of responses was recorded and the percentage completed calculated. The responses were transferred, question by question, to an Excel spreadsheet, which was a template enabling the researcher to record the frequency with which the same or a similar response was given; this enabled patterns to be detected. A separate Word document was opened to record responses to each open question and to group remarks reflecting similar themes, which formed the basis of the discussion

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and conclusion chapters (Miles and Huberman, 1994). The voice recording were transcribed onto a Word Document, the responses to individual questions copied and pasted into one document per question. Some data was expressed as charts and graphs, to enable the reader to identify trends easily and to create greater interest (Johnson et al. 2009).

3.4 Reliability and Validity The level of reliability was detected by the consistency in responses made by the participants and the employment of a pilot study prior to distribution of survey instruments. However the survey was conducted over a short time period, which could have had implications for its replicability since the organisational environment and its ways of dealing with performance are subject to frequent change (Ritchie and Lewis, 2010). interviews. The validity as dependent on the extent to which the findings aligned with the research objectives. Validity was assessed in two ways, measuring the internal and external validity. The study findings were used to answer the sub questions recorded in Chapter 1. The construct validity was considered in question design, since the questions were constructed on the basis of the literature review, improving construct validity. A high degree of convergence of the findings with those of previously research would also indicate high study validity (Ritchie and Lewis 2010; Miles and Huberman, 1994). Another sign of high validity would be similarity of responses made by managers and those recorded in the questionnaires; triangulation of data was the measure of internal validity. Since just one company was used for the survey, the generalisability of the findings was low; there was no guarantee that same findings would result if other companies in Saudi Arabia had been used. However use of thick description in the discussion provided enhancement of the generalisability since it could assist future researchers to set a context for their work (Ritchie and Lewis, 2010). The chances of high reliability were enhanced by translating documents into the local language and a native speaker conducting the manager

3.5 Ethics The study did not commence until the company had been approached to obtain permission to conduct the survey with employees. Employees were then invited to

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participate in the research and were assured that any information gathered from them would remain confidential. They were informed that the report would be structured so that no individual could be identified from comments made. The managers were asked to agree (or not) to having interviews recorded on a voice recorder. The participants were asked to read the header paragraph that explained the purpose of the survey, the confidentiality their responses would receive, prior to commencing the survey, and then asked to sign and confirm their willingness to go ahead. The participants were assured that they could withdraw from the survey at any time and, could omit any question as appropriate (Saunders et al. 2009; Ritchie and Lewis, 2010).

3.6 Limitations of the Research

A core limitation of this study was time, since this impacted on the number of participants and made the generalisability limited to the single company that participated in the research. The participants might not have always been totally honest in their responses, as a consequence of personal agendas. The researcher was aware of his inherent bias owing to interest in the subject area and his personal values and beliefs, which had influenced the design and would influence the interpretation of the questions and answers. However there was little published research on this important subject area; the findings would enhance current knowledge levels.

3.7 Summary This chapter set out the methodology used in the research and provided a robust structure that enabled others to replicate the work and to judge its validity. It also assisted the researcher to enhance the level of validity since it enabled a definite focus so that the research accomplished what it set out to achieve. Chapter Four recorded the findings of the study that employed these research methods and discussed what emerged.

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CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Introduction This chapter presented the primary research findings and documented relevant, available secondary research derived from publicly available, reliable data sources. The findings discussed in this Chapter enabled the researcher to draw conclusions and make recommendations in Chapter 5. The secondary research findings were recorded first, so that the relevant studies could be aligned with primary research findings that followed. The findings of both surveys commenced with a profile of the participants and outline of the Company, followed by a report and discussion of the responses, as related to the sub questions stated in Chapter 1. The findings were compared with those of prior research as presented in Literature Review.

4.2. Secondary Research Findings

The growing trend for Saudi Arabia to reduce its dependence on foreign labour and encourage higher levels of employment of Saudi nationals, as a result of government policy and intervention, has been the subject of considerable attention (British Council, 2007; EIC, 2011; Sfakainakis, 2011;Madhi and Barrientos (2003). As the Country expanded economically with the aid of foreign investment, it recognised the need to ensure the long-term employability and development of its own population, if it was move away from dependence on the oil and gas industry. New legal frameworks for worker protection and delivery of basic rights, for instance annual leave, health and safety and working hours, had also been introduced by the government to support this development (Mellahi, 2007). Despite these actions progress had been slow, as indicated by Kasim (2009) who reported the poor skills of the local people and the dearth of training that occurred. The Saudisation programme highlighted the need to employ HRM practices such as training, development, remuneration and reward, in order to redress this issue (Rees et al. 2007) and to align these with the overall strategic focus. The Saudisation policy intended to transform the employment market away from dependence on expatriate workers (Mellahi and Wood, 2001; Sheehan, 2005). However, as Williams et al. (2011) noted, there were significant challenges for private sector Saudi firms in employing higher numbers of Saudi employees and meeting their strategic goals.

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Many nationals considered the wages offered to be too low, the level of qualification too high, and the fact that English was frequently a requirement, as inappropriate. These factors were combined with the lack of job security and a deficiency of on the job training and management concerns about loss of competitive edge as a consequence of employing local talent (Sadi and Al-Buraey,2009). A further difficulty, highlighted by Al Dosary (2004), was the high level of government intervention, in regards to providing vocational or technical education and training courses, which led many firms to fail to perceive the need to develop and implement in-house training and development. The opinion of Saudi nationals was that the private sector was unwilling to make the necessary investment in the human capital of the organisation, resulting in high turnover of Saudi nationals. These factors of failure to invest, poorer skill levels of Saudi nationals compared with expatriate staff and staff turnover impacted negatively on economic performance in the private sector (Al-Dosary and Rahman, 2005).

The Saudi government objectives were to increase the overall competence levels of its national labour force through a combination of government education and commercial human resources development practices but there have been a number of issues (Achoui, 2009). A study conducted by Fadhel (2007) examined 52 companies in the Country and found that, whilst 63.5% had a Human Resources Department and structure, of these only 40.4% had a defined development programme. It was also noted that most training was conducted on the job rather than through a defined, incremental process. This was combined with a view that over half those organisations participating in the study did not feel that outsourcing training and development was a viable option: there was no consistency in measurement of any training provided and no clear indication of variation in regards to how employees were selected for training. Despite this, there was growing recognition of the importance of training in private firms, motivated by government intervention and incentives, although as Baqadir et al. (2011) indicated, there remained a substantial gap between the skills required by private sector organisations and the abilities of the potential workforce.. As Ajarimah (2001) remarked, this change was likely to have a major impact on the importance of human resources to overall accomplishment of strategic aims for Saudi firms in the future; this situation remained unchanged a decade later (Forstenlechner et al. 2012). The academic research also indicated that Saudi firms needed to understand how the

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Countrys cultural environment impacted on the acceptance and delivery of company training and development programmes (Mellahi and Wood, 2001; Al-Dosary and Rahman, 2009) and, as observed by Moideenkutty et al. (2011), HRM had an effective role to play in strategic effectiveness for firms where there was a strong national or cultural /religious impact.

4.3 The Primary Research Findings, Comparison with Prior Studies and Secondary Research

4.3.1 Introduction The survey consisted of an employee questionnaire and interviews with two senior managers. The number of survey questionnaires intended to be distributed was 48, however a number of employees did not wish to participate and the number completed was 25 or a 52% response rate. The Company employed a total of 50 people including senior management and had been in business since 1976. Its sector was import and wholesale distribution of foodstuffs as well as live animals and birds for hunting. Of the fifty employees, five were Saudi nationals. Ten staff were employed in the office and the other forty were non-office staff. The company had four departments: administration, sales, accounts and warehousing and wholesale distribution. The low number of Saudi nationals mirrored the findings of the secondary research that, despite seven years of the Saudi Governments Saudisation policy, progress in meeting these objectives had been slow (Kasim, 2009).

4.3.2 Profile of the Participants The 25 questionnaire survey participants were all male, their age ranges varied from 26 to over 55 years as shown in figure 4.3 (a), the largest group were in 36-45 year range, representing 40% of the group.

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Figure 4.3 (a): Age Profile of Participants

0ver

55 7%

Age Profile

18-25 0%

26-35 33%

46-55 60%

The length of service spanned the complete range from less than one year to over twenty years although the largest group had been employed for between 11 and 20 years (Figure 4.3 (b)). Figure 4.3 (b): Length of Service

Length of Service
More than 20 years 11-20 years 6-10 years less than 5 years less than one year 0 5 10 15 number

The participants comprised three non-managers and two managers. Those who had received training since joining the company represented 36% of the participants; 64% experienced no training. The senior managers interviewed had been in management positions for 35 years and 20 years respectively. The Companys employment pattern could therefore considered a structured workforce with a high degree of employment stability and employees across the whole age range, with most having a length of service of over five years

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4.3.3: Employer Expectations for the Training and Development Initiatives Implemented The employees were asked to state their main job objectives and how the skills and knowledge development received was linked to them. Their responses were: to work effectively as a team, as well as on an individual basis; to cooperate with each other; to be able to give credible feedback to the manager. They also suggested that a key objective was to be motivated. The employee participants believed that skills and knowledge development was intended to support the company to obtain its objectives and to find solutions to organisational problems, as well as to satisfy the employees development needs. The first manager stated that the Company's objectives for providing training and development was to increase the skills and productivity of all employees and therefore to increase company revenues. The second managers perspective was different proposing that development initiatives intended to motivate the employee and to provide him with external English language since this expertise was required by the company. The responses indicated that the employees did not fully understand the term objective, as a goal, and expressed behaviours perceived as expected as a consequence of the development initiatives. It was evident that employees understand what the desired effects were, and that these were to drive company performance and to consider the employees personal development needs and, by doing so, encourage them to enhance work performance. While the managers' comments did reinforce and add validity to the study regarding training to ensure accomplishment of company goals through encouraging certain behaviours, they did not state that employee needs were considered. The secondary research suggested that there was a need for private Saudi firms to employ HRM practices such as training and development and align these to strategic goals (Rees, 2007). The objective of managers appeared to align with Barney (1999) that the employee was a resource of the firm, underpinned by the mention of developing English language skills which would aid its competitive advantage and with Hamel and Prahalad (1994), in that the company was adapting to changes in its external environment to compete. If the employees view and that of manager two were taken into account, there was some evidence of employee behaviour as a concern that underpinned the objectives of developing the workforce, as suggested by Kamoche (1994). The findings confirmed an SHRM approach being taken by the Company, since training and development was employed to ensure

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performance goals were met (Salaman et al, 2005), that this practice concurred with Saudi economic objectives and that the employees and one senior manager perceived a 'soft' form of SHRM as employed, in which the employee needs were taken into account (Kaye, 1999; Torrington et al. 2008) and Theory Y management approach (McGregor1960, in Mullins, 2010). The second managers perspective reflected the hard form of HRM, in which the accomplishment organisations goals was the underlying reason for staff development, aligning with Truss et al (1997) and suggesting that his approach to employee management was closer to theory X, the employee being persuaded to reach goals (Mc Gregor 1960, in Mullins, 2010). Consideration of the views of all participants implied similarity to Kinnies (2008) model of learning interventions, which combined the hard (resource) and soft (human) elements as recommended by Kaye (1999) and in direct conflict with the idea that both forms were unlikely to be employed in a firm concurrently as proposed by Truss et al (1997). There was evidence of the resource-based view, high performance working approach, as indicated by managers and employees remarks about improving performance by enhancing skills, partly as a response to external environmental changes. However these responses also indicated some aspects of a strategic fit model (Boxall and Purcell, 2008; Torrington et al. 2008) existed in the Company since there was external focus on competitors, in the implementation of English language training, some integration of development needs and organisational revenue targets and need to motivate workforce to attain higher levels of performance. The employee comments also suggested that several of the seven elements of strategic fit, suggested by Pfeffer (1998) were in existence, specifically, job security demonstrated by lengths of service, information sharing through encouragement of team working and collaboration/communication and training and development. The purpose of HRD, employed by Hamlin and Stewart (2011) was strongly reflected by the findings; improving individual and group performance, improving organisational performance, developing skills and competences. Hence the study found that the employers key goals underpinning training and development in this organisation were to motivate employees to accomplish enhanced performance, to remain competitive and, possibly to satisfy employee needs for self-development. This was accomplished through an SHRM approach, which combined hard and soft forms of the model and a high performance working approach that reflected elements of the resource-based and strategic fit models.

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4.3.4: Assessment and Evaluation of Training and Development 4.3.4.1 Assessing Training Needs The second section of the employee questionnaire concerned skills and knowledge in the company, including how and when this was assessed. The office staff participants stated that their skills and knowledge was tested four times a year and the warehouse twice a year. The answer revealed that the participants in which departments the participants were employed (4.3 (c)); all ten of the office staff (100% of office staff) responded to the questionnaire and fifteen warehouse personnel, 60% of the participant group. This assessment frequency was somewhat confirmed by the managers; one manager stated every three to six months, indicating when it was appropriate, and the other every three months, indicating a potentially different assessment approach. The manager responses mirrored the potentially diverse management styles highlighted in previous section Figure 4.3 (c): Regularity of Assessment by Department Numbers

16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 office warehouse number of participants assessment regularity annually

The next question concerned the ways in which skills and knowledge were assessed, findings recorded in Table 3. Office and warehouse staff all had informal meetings with their manager, the most frequent method employed. In the office, 60% of individuals experienced observation while working, whereas all the warehouse staff were subjected to this assessment type. Three warehouse employees received feedback data that related to their performance, inferring that it had been measured; 20% of the warehouse staff and just 12% of . However eight employees (32%)

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stated that their manager measured their performance, 5 warehouse and 3 office personnel, and just five warehouse staff were supported to improve their performance by their manager. Interviews with HR, formal appraisal meeting and agreeing objectives were not experienced. Table 3: Processes Used to Assess Skill/Knowledge Levels
Process On job observation Formal appraisal with manager Informal chat with manager Interview with person from HR Meeting to agree objectives before I go on training programme Response O-6 W-15 0 O-10 W-15 0 Process Meeting after training to discuss how much I felt I had learnt I receive data to see how well I am doing? My manager measures my performance? My manager helps me to improve performance by seeing objectives to improve Other: Please specify: Response O-2 W-5 W-3 O-3 W-5 W- 5

Key: O = office W = Warehouse The initial question to managers with regard identifying the process for assessment of training needs, was not understood and instead responses concerned training interventions. This suggested either a lack of knowledge concerning the technical difference or the translation of the question into Arabic and/or the re-translation back into English were not effective. However another question provided some details of the processes involved. One manager stated two processes; the observation of employees working with customers and listening to the Assistant Manager who was responsible for assessment of skills, however no details was given of what that process entailed. When specifically asked who was responsible for assessment of employee skills/knowledge, this manager stated HR Manager and Sales Manager, which appeared to conflict somewhat with Assistant Manager in the earlier response. The second manager suggested it took a long time to make an assessment of each employee, as he needed to have significant knowledge of them and also suggested that the employee assessed himself. In addition, this manager stated that employee skills and knowledge could be assessed by the level of bonus, which in turn reflected their motivation. The response to the specific person involved in the assessment also confirmed HR Manager as well as 'another power manager' in the firm; the identity of the second manager involved was not evident but inferred a senior manager. The secondary research suggested that, since this company had an HR Manager, it was similar to the majority (64.6%) of Saudi companies, as found by Fadhel (2007). The

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findings from senior manager interviews and the employee survey were in reasonably close agreement, since managers mentioned on the job observation and inferred discussions with managers. However the employees specified informal chats with managers but did not indicate, in any case, that this was a HR manager. Verification of HR or Sales Manager involvement was not possible but the fact that no sales people participated, might account for this. The wording of the question six in the questionnaire may have had some bearing on the response since the respondent may have had an informal chat with HR manager and not what they perceived as an 'interview'. As a consequence, the findings confirmed by one of the managers and employees, stated that on the job observation and chats with managers were the two major methods of assessing training needs. The findings implied that forms of HRD defined by Taylor (2010) were not in operation but training needs assessment was similar to the definition of learning, narrow, work based and self-directed (Taylor, 2010), as suggested by the second managers comment about employees assessing themselves, and that level of bonus indicated degree of enhancement of skills, in other words work based. The regularity of the assessment process suggested a somewhat systematic approach as recommended by Boydell (1976) but not the type of in-depth knowledge gathering that either Clark (2003) or CIPD (2011) described. The second manager's comments about assessing the behaviour over a period of time, seemed to reinforce his earlier comments that linked to Kamoches (1994) statement that valuing the human resource in the assessment process was a vital factor to its effectiveness. The organisational culture did appear to affect the TNA, as suggested by the findings of ODonnell and Garavan (1991), and there was some evidence in these first two section of the perceptions, attitudes and values of the firm being integrated into this process; for instance, the need for English and for using training as a means of enhancing motivation. However the degree to which nine characteristics of HRD (ODonnell and Garavan, 1991) were integrated was very limited; it had scanned its external environment to some degree and regularly looked inwards in what appeared to be a rather informal manner. The mode of TNA was very similar to Ibqual and Khan (2011) needs assessment, intended to achieve individual work tasks for the accomplishment of organisational goals, which reflected the changing interpretation based on context rather than being a more sophisticated model described by Kaufmann (1994).

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4.3.4.2 Recording Knowledge and Skills Data The managers were asked how skills and knowledge levels of each employee were recorded. The first manager stated that the Assistant Manager provided periodic reports, in which the levels of performance, new skills, productivity and interaction with customers were recorded. However the second manager did not state that any formal record existing, merely that every department had a manager whom he trusted and that each departmental manager had a deputy who possessed all the skills that his manager had, inferring some attempt at succession planning but no formal records of employee skill levels. These responses re-affirmed different management styles and ideas, as well as inferring that there was no standardisation regarding learning and development within the organisation. Hence the baseline from which to measure increasing levels of skill (Kamoche, 1994) was not robust and the HRD employed could not be regarded as planned or have a long term perspective, as envisaged by Taylor (2010) and Garavan (1991). The secondary research confirmed these facts, since Fadhel (2007) found that only 40% of Saudi organisations had any developed learning programme and Baqadir et al (2011) that there was a skills gap in what existed compared with what was required by Saudi firms to meet national economic goals. In this case it was the management skills gaps of robust skills audit and training needs analysis that aligned with the secondary research, as well as confirming the researchers prior statement that HRD was not present in a developed format.

4.3.4.3 The Evaluation of Training

The evaluation of training was not investigated in any detail with the employee questionnaire but some insight was obtained. Of those who had received training, two office staff and five warehouse personnel had undertaken a formal meeting with their manager to evaluate what had been learnt. The managers were specifically asked how the completed training and development initiatives were evaluated for effectiveness. The first manager stated that its positive impact was shown in the increase in revenue levels and customer satisfaction, which he considered to be a good indication of the level of learning enhancement. The second manager did not understand the question; the response had no relevance. The first manager reconfirmed that the Assistant Manager conducted the evaluation but the second

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manager stated that he carried it out with his Deputy Manager since the owner of the company trusted him to do so. The responses to the last question on evaluation required information on how the evaluation results were used within the firm, and elicited a response as to who used the information but not for what purpose; they agreed that managers and deputy managers used it. The managers responses to this section reinforced the facts given by employees, that evaluation did take place to some degree but most of the descriptive content given by the managers implied that their management skills in the HRM field were not well developed, which aligned with the findings of secondary research that there were huge skills gaps in knowledge in private firms in Saudi Arabia (Baqadir et al 2011; Achoui, 2009; Fadel, 2007;) The positive aspect was that some evaluation was occurring, whereas Kirkpatrick (2007) and CIPD (2006) found that this was rarely the case and that improvement in skill levels was not benchmarked in any way, and certainly not directly against measurable outcomes. However, there was evidence here, of the informal use of a model similar to Kirkpatrick (1999) and Nunn (2011), where some feedback was obtained and evaluation made against the increase in revenues and customer satisfaction.

4.3.5 Training and Development Interventions Implemented and Alignment with Cultural Norms of Saudi nationals

4.3.5.1: Training and Development Interventions Implemented

Several questions were posed to employees and managers regarding selection of interventions and preferences. The employees preferences for specific training interventions were on average in the following order Feedback sessions Career Planning Advice Job Rotation Group Project Teamwork Mentoring Secondments E-learning

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No votes were registered for classroom training, learning at further education institutions, internal knowledge sharing or use of audio-visual learning aids. When asked why certain choices were preferred: coaching was mentioned as being first choice since it improved skills in interacting with customers; group project work since it helped in collaboration with others and how to communicate with them; career planning advice since managers were good at giving this. These responses inferred significant lack of understanding of the terms used in the questionnaire, owing to the differences in the order of the preferences listed and the rationale for them. Mentoring was used but coaching referred to and career advice may have been confused with learning from the manager. The employees did not like learning English but it was acknowledged as necessary for the company development. Formal classroom training was least preferred but also stated as most important and knowledge sharing not acknowledged but attitudes to it were positive in a question that followed. The degree of ambiguity and confusion in the responses inferred that they were of little value to increasing the academic knowledge in this area of study and that, either the terms used were not understood, or the knowledge of employees about training interventions was limited; the latter would tend to confirm secondary research findings of Kasim (2009) about the dearth of training and low skill levels reported by Baqadir et al (2011). The responses to questions relating to knowledge sharing of knowledge demonstrated a positive attitude this and comment that some managers were more willing to share their skills than others, but no managers appeared to avoid sharing. The employees were generally positive about the training and development they had received at the company. The discrepancy between these remarks and the data in the initial question, which revealed that 60% had received no training, were confusing and led the researcher to wonder if the participants were giving the responses they perceived management or he wished rather than a description of the actual situation. The managers stated that they chose training interventions based on the company requirements and particularly the need to train those with low skill levels, as well as the needs of the company at the time. The first manager again linked the training intervention with the income requirement. The second manager added nothing of any meaning, since the question appeared to have been misinterpreted. Both managers both stated that employees chose whether they wished to participate in any training implemented by the company and, if they wished to attend their manager would need to sanction it. The training that was of an on-going nature was specified as formal lectures that took place in a 'hall'

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dedicated for that purpose, and which represented instruction in matters, such as how to work effectively with customers including telephone work. The second manager also mentioned external training. When asked for personal views on the most effective type of training, the answers demonstrated lack of understanding of the purpose of the question, since responses included motivation, co-operation, support for the company, rotation, trust and bonus. The value of the responses to this question were therefore mainly considered of low value increasing the researcher's belief that the secondary research studies conducted in Saudi such as Kasim (2009), Fadel (2007) and Baqadir et al (2011) were consistent with his findings here.

Although the findings were ambiguous there were some points that could be compared with previous studies. For instance the formal instruction to initially impart skills concurred with findings of Carroll et al. (1972), CIPD (2008) and Clifford and Thorpe (2007). The preference for a lecture type arrangement being preferred by management, matched the findings of Carroll et al. (1972), CIPD (2008), CIPD (2012) and Clifford and Thorpe (2007). The implication that the employees preferred interventions in which there was contact/training with managers and groups of colleagues and contrary to what decision makers preferred, was in agreement with CIPD (2008), Carroll et al , (1972). However the managers indicated employees with low skills levels were included in training initiatives, contrary to the findings from CIPD (2008). There was also considerable evidence to support Truss et al (1997) that competences of those making decisions about training were questionable.

4.3.5.2 Cultural Adjustments The managers were asked the actions they took to allow for national cultural norms, in the nature of training intervention and practical aspects of its delivery. The first manager implied that attention was paid to the fact that most employees communicated in a different way to us, inferring us to mean Saudi nationals. The second manager stated that training different to how it had been in the past and the inference was made of gaining government support by doing a different type of training. The poor communication levels in these answers and so the difficulty in confirming the meaning of them, were apparent in the text (Appendix 3). The managers made other references to interventions by the Saudi government such as, the Government learning about training and development practices from the

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experiences of other countries. An additional remark appeared to refer to the assessment of the huge majority of non-nationals employed by this firm, which was likely to link to their being allowed to remain employed by the Company, rather than being forced to recruit Saudi nationals. The secondary research reinforced these views (British Council, 2007; Stakainakis, 2011; Ajarimah 2001; Mellahi and Wood, 2001; Al Dosary and Rahman, 2009). The remarks made in these two sub-sections, when compared with Hofstede et al., 2010 demonstrated some degree of agreement that collectivism was an employee preference, from the positivity about group projects and knowledge sharing but there was no concrete evidence for or against individualism when it came to bonus, since the managers inferred this was an individual reward but not verified. Power Distance, which Hofstede et al. 2010 suggested was high in Saudi Arabia, was only inferred in an earlier statement about 'power manager' in the statement of the second manager, no other evidence to reinforce that was elicited and, in fact, the employees being able to choose whether or not to attend a training intervention, would suggest PDI was not as high as expected. There was also little evidence on which to base a judgement of whether degrees of masculinity or uncertainty avoidance were typical of a Saudi culture. In fact, since the majority of employees were not Saudi nationals, if the trends shown had strongly agreed with Hofstede et al. 2010, this would have appeared as a potential anomaly. 4.3.6. Degree to which Outcomes Compared with Employer Expectations 4.3.6.1. Barriers to Effectiveness of Interventions Employees provided two fundamental barriers to developing their skills. The first one was practical and external, in that owing to cultural differences in the days forming the working week, enabled only three days when they could contact clients overseas, which reduced scope to practise and improve. The second barrier was internal and involved the time taken to decisions on training and development implementation, since the senior managers were slow to make decisions partly because they were overseas. The first manager suggested four main barriers to effectiveness of learning and development interventions: employees were not motivated to work; there was no suitable time for training; training costs were high; employees did not attend the training courses arranged. The second manager also stated the cost was too high and the employees did not get enough experience of training. The findings of secondary research of Al Dosary and Rahman (2006) were interesting since they

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converged with the managers' comments over the perceived high cost being a barrier and the slow decision making highlighted by employees. The first managers information tended to reinforce earlier conclusions that there was no standard, developed training strategy as was found by secondary research (Achoui, 2009; Fadhel, 2007; Mellahi and Wood, 2001; Al Dosary and Rahman, 2006). 4.3.6.2 Potential Improvements to Existing Practice The employee participants did not provide any specific ideas of how the training could be improved merely comments that is was needed so that they would know how to solve issues that arose. The managers responded in a similar manner implying it was necessary to implement initiatives correctly within a reasonable time frame and cost level to obtain good results. This lack of creativity in being able to critically appraise the existing situation and suggest pathways for improvement concurred with the secondary research findings that structured, robust learning and development initiatives in Saudi Arabia were still generally in absence in private firms (Kasim 2009; Rees et al. 2007) 4.4 Summary The research findings research were recorded and discussed in this Chapter and then compared with the previous academic research. The primary research findings strongly reflected those of other prior studies in Saudi Arabia, and were often in good agreement with previous studies elsewhere, although there was some conflict with other findings and little evidence of any cultural differences as expected from Hofstede et al. 2010. The discussion in this Chapter has enabled a brief summary of what has been found, conclusions drawn, recommendations for further research and limitations of this study to be recorded in Chapter Five that follows.

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CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 5.1 Introduction This Chapter began by examining whether the study accomplished what it set out to achieve, by summarising the main findings relating to each sub question and concluding on the extent to which the research question was answered. It then reflected on the positive and negatives of the study process itself and what should have been conducted in a different way. The Chapter concluded with a summary of the study and of the researchers reflections on his learning.

5.2 Was the Research Question Answered? 5.2.1: Key Employers Goals The employer goal was stated as improving revenues by motivating employees and increasing productivity. In addition, the needs of employees were stated as taken into account, by both employees and one manager. The employees appeared to link the training and development to achieving their objectives. The findings tended to match theories of SHRM that integrated Human Resource Development with strategic goals (Salaman et al. 2005) and a combination of hard and soft HRM models in operation (Kinnie, 2008; Kinnie, 2009). However, when barriers to effectiveness of training and development were discussed, the degree of veracity that these responses represented was questionable. This view was strengthened by the different management styles and lack of robust HR knowledge, which inferred that SHRM existed at a basic level. The manager interviews reinforced the employee data and therefore added validity to the findings. 5.2.2: Training Needs Analysis Training Needs Analysis did appear to take place, although not formalised or standardised. Different managers used diverse practices and employees did not mention the involvement of HR Manager or Sales Manager, but the managers interviewed did so. This discrepancy may have been a consequence of the wording used in the questions but was also partly a reflection of sales people not participating in the study. The lack of process standardisation was strengthened by recording of employee skills/knowledge data, which appeared to be formal in one managers case and non-existent in the others practice. Regular assessment of employee skills took place informally, confirmed by both sets of interviews and concurred with the findings

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of prior studies in Saudi Arabia that formed secondary research, for instance Fadhel (2007). The findings related to the academic theory in the literature review suggesting that HRD as defined by Taylor (2010) or Clark (2003) did not exist in the firm but a mode of TNA similar to thats described by Ibqual and Khan (2011) was operating; needs assessment to achieve individual work task for accomplishment of organisational goals. Evaluation of training took place, stated by managers and employees ,so that the evidence had greater validity. The managers also stated that the way effectiveness was measured was by means of detecting increased revenues and customer satisfaction, which suggested informal process similar to that of Kirkpatrick (1959) and Nunn (2011); this was not the case with many firms (CIPD, 2012) Since the baseline from which increasing levels of skills were measured (Kamoche, 1994) was not robust, overall, the HRD employed could not be regarded as planned or have a long term perspective as envisaged by Taylor (2010) and Garavan (1991).

5.2.3. Degree of Amendment of Training Interventions to Match Saudi cultural norms The training and development interventions preferred by employees did not tend to mirror those preferred by managers as previous studies by Carroll et al (1972) and CIPD (2008) discovered. Managers stated that formal training of the instruction type was used and employees appeared to dislike this method. However for initial training of skills both Carroll et al 1972 and CIPD (2008) agreed this method was effective, if followed up by on the job training, which appeared to happen in this company. Employees preferred training interventions in which they interacted with each other and stated that knowledge sharing was a normal practice, viewed positively tending to imply a collectivist cultural rating (Hofstede, et al. 2010). However the degree of ambiguity and confusion in the responses from managers and employees inferred that the responses were of little value to increasing the knowledge in this area of the study and confirmed secondary research findings of Kasim (2009) about the dearth of training and low skill levels in private Saudi firms. The managers indicated that employees with low skills levels were included in training initiatives contrary to the findings from CIPD (2008). There was also considerable evidence to support Truss et al (1997) that competences of those making decisions about training were questionable. The adjustments to interventions in either design or practical delivery appeared to be non-existent, in the practical aspect, because the employees were all

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male, and concerning the design the only remark was a general one that the training programme was different from previous ones, owing to Government influences, making reference to the Governments strategies to learn about business management and training from practices employed overseas. In addition, assessment of the huge majority of non-nationals employed by this firm, which was likely to link to their being allowed to remain employed by the company, rather than recruiting Saudi nationals was also referred to. The context was that the training was adjusted to produce more positive outcomes. The secondary research reinforced these cultural adjustments to comply with economic policy in Saudi Arabia (British Council, 2007; Al Dosary and Rahman, 2009). The remarks made in these two subsections, when compared with Hofstede et al., 2010, demonstrated some degree of agreement but little evidence on which to base a judgement of whether Hofstede et al. 2010 values of the four factors, typical of a Saudi culture, were in operation. Since the majority of employees were not Saudi nationals, agreement with Hofstede et al (2010) would have appeared anomalous.

5.2.4. Degree to which Outcomes Compared with Employer Expectations and Recommendations for Improvement in Practice Employees stated two barriers to developing skills; cultural differences in the working week enabled limited client contact, reducing scope to practise and improve. The second barrier was senior managers slowness in making decisions regarding learning and development initiatives. The managers suggested four main barriers to effectiveness of learning and development interventions: employees not motivated to work; no suitable time for training; high training costs; employees did not attend the training courses arranged. This might have had some bearing on 60% of employees stating they had never received any training from the Company. The findings of secondary research (Al Dosary and Rahman 2006) also highlighted perceived high cost being a barrier in private Saudi Arablian firms. The information tended to reinforce earlier conclusions that there was no standard, developed training strategy as prior studies in the country had suggested (Achoui, 2009; Mellahi and Wood, 2001). Neither group of participants could provide any specific ideas of how the training could be improved, which implied a lack of creative and problem solving skills to enable new pathways for improvement, concurring with the secondary research

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findings that learning and development initiatives in Saudi Arabia were still generally low level in private firms (Kasim 2009; Rees et al. 2007) 5.2.5. The Research Question The research question was: To what extent do national cultural issues impact on the capacity for existing training and development initiatives, implemented by firms in Saudi Arabia, to meet the expectations of employers? As far as this firm was concerned, the study suggests that organisational cultural issues combined with the lack of learning and development culture in private firms in the Kingdom impacted considerably on the potential of employers to maximise performance in the firm, to enhance competitiveness and increase revenue streams, as this firm wished. The responses suggested that the organisation realised that employee development would assist it in leveraging its it to happen. The secondary research, which focused on findings of prior studies in the country highlighted this as a national cultural issue, which the Government attempting to change.

The organisation should employ a dedicated, experienced strategy consultant to conduct an objective study of the company and to make recommendations as to how a long term strategic approach could be implemented that would raise skills and knowledge and hence allow the firm to maximise its competitiveness.

5.3 Reflections on the Study and its Limitations The positive aspect of the study was that it added to the knowledge about training, development and strategic management practices in Saudi Arabia. However the researcher should have been more aware that the firm employed so few Saudi nationals, which would have caused him to focus the questions in a different way. He should also have known the cultural backgrounds of the employee groups. The fact that the salesforce was not represented was another weakness, since the managers made references to practices that could not be authenticated. The validity of some aspects of the study was high since the managers, employee and secondary data all aligned, the study met the objectives set at the outset and there was a reasonably high correspondence between the findings of this study and previous studies. However, the inability of the participants to understand the questions reduced the reliability of the responses. Language difficulties in comprehension and possible translation back and forth also reduced the reliability.

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The researcher should have checked back with the participants to clarify points, which would have strengthened the reliability. There was a lack of consistency and hence low reliability regard information received from the managers. The greatest limitation was the low number of participants and the small size of the firm so that the generalisability was limited to this firm.

5.4 Areas for Further Study This research inferred that there was considerable scope for further research into training and development interventions in Saudi Arabia, not only because the prior studies were limited in number but because private industry in the country was attempting to transform itself. Hence more studies of this kind, employing a larger number of firms from different sectors of the economy, would add much to the sparse literature that currently existed.

5.5. Summary and Reflection

The purpose of this study was to assess the impact of national cultural values on the current learning and development initiatives employed by private firms in Saudi Arabia to meet the expectations of employers. It enabled the researcher to critically review the existing literature from western countries as well as that conducted in Saudi Arabia and to compare it with practice in one small private Saudi firm. The study confirmed that the low level of business management skills and knowledge of robust HR practices prevented the company from maximising its opportunities. However the study also developed the learning skills of the researcher, particularly so far as question design and the issues of communication across two languages were concerned. The researcher learnt that, in order to support his findings, more studies would need to be conducted.

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