The Institute of Administrative Management

The dynamics of leadership (Unit 602) whre is the introduction for this assignment?

The Role of Leadership

This observation is one of the thousands shared by the 300 C-suite executives, who participated in a series of candid discussions spearheaded by a group of Ivey faculty over the past year. Our basic purpose in bringing together these executives was to find out if better leadership could have made a difference in preventing the financial meltdown that led to the recent global economic crisis. We found out that good leadership could have and certainly did make a difference, especially with respect to risk management. Many of the business and public sector organizations which emerged unscathed from the meltdown did see the dangers looming on the horizon. It was apparent that their people understood the potential impact and wider implications of these problems and took immediate steps to circumvent them. Essentially, these organizations had cultures attuned to potential risks with the ability to manage the dynamics effectively. By contrast, those who suffered the most during the crisis did not seem to anticipate the risks or problems ahead, especially those that could reverberate across markets and borders. For instance, when people speak about the banks, brokerage firms and investment companies which fared so poorly during the crisis, some of the biggest questions revolve around risk. How could they not have known the risks? And if they did know, why didnt they do something sooner? Were they too timid to tackle the problems, hoping they would just go away? Why didnt they understand the ramifications of their actions? Could they not foresee how their decisions would inevitably ripple across companies and countries to affect others? Did they even care that investors could lose money? Based on my experience, as a former CEO and as educator of business leaders, the executives leading these organizations should have known about the risks. They should have acted and acted quickly. And they should have felt compelled to act, basically because it was both the right and the smart thing to do. As the business leader from Montreal quoted above believes, policies and procedures are not enough. It is the leaders responsibility to manage risk effectively. How do business leaders achieve effective risk management? Fundamentally, I believe they do three simple things well. Clearly, some very complicated investment products were developed at the height of this bubble. Many executives and board directors admitted that they did not understand the mathematics or the economics behind many of these products. But as we found during our research, the effective leaders probed the experts about how these products were designed. Consequently, they learned that the underlying assumptions supporting these products were wrong. Or if they did not understand them, they chose not to offer them. By contrast, the worst failing exhibited by some leaders before, during and after the crisis, is that they just did not care about what might happen to other people. Some knew that their companies were building a deck of cards destined to collapse. They must have realized that people could get hurt, and that some investors could lose their life savings. Nevertheless, it didnt seem to matter. In summary, policies and procedures for predicting, evaluating and managing risk are important. But if leaders dont ask the right questions, if they dont seek out a diversity of opinions and perspectives, and if they dont act with integrity, these rules wont make any

difference. And when that happens, the blame for the damaging consequences rests solely with leadership. how does it the ans of leadership roles and responsibilities?

Leadership Process
The leadership process is the ongoing relationship between leaders and followers to accomplish company goals. Leadership is basically the influence of a leader in achieving shared goals through followers. The process of leaders and followers working together is different for each business. Some companies value and incorporate leadership development programs into their company culture. They nurture leadership at every level by providing activities such as team building workshops. The concept of a team is extremely important in the leadership process, as the focus should be on the followers as well as the leader. Company, or organizational, culture can be seen as a workplace environment shaped by its leaders and embodied by its followers. Followers become a part of the leadership process starting when they are hired. How satisfied the follower is with the leader often relates to how well he or she becomes motivated to achieve success in and for the company. Yet, the leader's assessment of the follower determines his or her future in the firm. Many companies have a performance review system for assessing employees. A performance review may be given to the follower by the leader every few months or yearly, depending on company policy for this part of the leadership process. Typically, a written review is prepared by the leader who then discusses it in a private meeting with the follower. If the leader notes that the follower needs improvement in some areas of his or her work, then more leadership coaching will be needed. If instead the leader has found the follower to have exceeded workplace expectations, the employee may be rewarded with a pay raise or a promotion. Assessment of company leaders is often done informally as well as formally by upper management. A president or chief executive officer (CEO) assesses company leaders at least partially by how well the leadership process motivated employees to achieve set goals such as increased sales or a successful new product development. Although there are different styles of leadership, every leader has to motivate and inspire others to work toward the realization of common goals. Some common and effective leadership techniques for inspiring and motivating employees include leading by example and rewarding initiatives. Leading by example means that leaders set effective guidelines by acting as they expect their followers to; this type of leadership often garners respect as well as inspires motivation. Rewarding employee initiative can mean downplaying mistakes during the leadership process, but giving attention to accomplishments.

Sources of Power
Power refers to the possession of authority and influence over others. Power is a tool that, depending on how it's used, can lead to either positive or negative outcomes in an organization. In 1959, American sociologists John French and Bertram Raven published an article, "The Bases

of Power," that's regarded as the basis for classifying power in organizations. They identified five sources of power, namely: coercive, referent, legitimate, expert and reward power.

Legitimate Power
Legitimate power is also known as positional power. It's derived from the position a person holds in an organization's hierarchy. Job descriptions, for example, require junior workers to report to managers and give managers the power to assign duties to their juniors. For positional power to be exercised effectively, the person wielding it must be deemed to have earned it legitimately. An example of legitimate power is that held by a company's CEO.

Expert power
Knowledge is power. Expert power is derived from possessing knowledge or expertise in a particular area. Such people are highly valued by organizations for their problem solving skills. People who have expert power perform critical tasks and are therefore deemed indispensable. The opinions, ideas and decisions of people with expert power are held in high regard by other employees and hence greatly influence their actions. Possession of expert power is normally a stepping stone to other sources of power such as legitimate power. For example, a person who holds expert power can be promoted to senior management, thereby giving him legitimate power.

Referent Power
Referent power is derived from the interpersonal relationships that a person cultivates with other people in the organization. People possess reference power when others respect and like them. Referent power arises from charisma, as the charismatic person influences others via the admiration, respect and trust others have for her. Referent power is also derived from personal connections that a person has with key people in the organization's hierarchy, such as the CEO. It's the perception of the personal relationships that she has that generates her power over others.

Coercive Power
Coercive power is derived from a person's ability to influence others via threats, punishments or sanctions. A junior staff member may work late to meet a deadline to avoid disciplinary action from his boss. Coercive power is, therefore, a person's ability to punish, fire or reprimand another employee. Coercive power helps control the behavior of employees by ensuring that they adhere to the organization's policies and norms.

Reward Power
Reward power arises from the ability of a person to influence the allocation of incentives in an organization. These incentives include salary increments, positive appraisals and promotions. In an organization, people who wield reward power tend to influence the actions of other employees. Reward power, if used well, greatly motivates employees. But if it's applied through favoritism, reward power can greatly demoralize employees and diminish their output.

Influence of source

Abstract Hypotheses derived from expectancy theory suggest that applicants will select an organization that has the most attractive package of job features. Hypotheses derived from attribution theory likewise suggest that applicants will select the most attractive job, but that perceived attractiveness may be influenced by information source credibility and the credibility of the information content. We conducted a 2 x 2 job preview experiment with one betweensubjects factor and one within-subjects factor. The between-subjects factor was information source in which the 134 participants (80 women and 54 men) were presented job information from either professional recruiters or job incumbents. The within-subjects factor was information favorability. Each participant received two previews. One preview contained only positive information about the job, whereas the other contained some negative information about the job. After exposure to the two job previews, participants completed an expectancy (job attractiveness) index for each job, a source credibility scale for each preview, and were asked their job choice intentions. We found support for the expectancy and attribution-based hypotheses. That is, participants selected the job for which the preview included some negative information more frequently than they did the job for which the preview included only positive information. Furthermore, both job attractiveness and source credibility were significantly related to job choice. However, information source was not related to perceived attractiveness of a job, source credibility, or job choice. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed. The manner in which individuals process information about organizations when selecting an employer has important implications for both recruiters and job applicants. Recruiters may benefit from enhanced knowledge about the selection process by understanding what factors lead to greater effectiveness in attracting and retaining employees. Applicants may also profit from such knowledge if they are better able to select an employer who will meet their job-related needs. For these reasons, organizational choice has been a topic of interest to researchers over the last several decades. Expectancy theory (Vroom, 1964) is the dominant theoretical basis for most research on organizational choice. Vroom posits that people prefer certain outcomes over others and that they anticipate feelings of satisfaction should they attain these outcomes. As discussed below, Vroom suggested that the model predicts various outcomes, including occupational choice, turnover decisions, and effort on the job (Mitchell, 1974). Although studies of organizational choice based on expectancy theory have yielded impressive results, they have been limited in the sense that they usually treat the information that respondents use in decision making (e.g., descriptions of outcomes and reported probabilities of these outcomes) as objective information. Respondents are assumed, then, to accept the information as factual input for processing according to expectancy theory (i.e., assessing instrumentalities and assigning valences depending on how well the described outcomes match their preferences). A potential limitation of the ability of expectancy theory to predict behavior concerns its assumption that people are rational utility maximizes. A number of organizational behaviors that have been posited as outcomes of rational decisions have also been explained by attribution theory, which suggests that individuals make decisions on the basis of very subjective perceptions. Examples of attribution approaches to organizational behaviors include the perception of leadership, self perception, reactions to persuasive communications and organizational choice; Expectancy and attribution theories make different assumptions regarding how information is processed during an organizational choice episode. According to expectancy theory, individuals will select the organization that presents the best package of alternatives, as determined by the assessment of probabilities (instrumentalities) of various outcomes, and the desirability of those outcomes (valences). Alternatively, proponents of attribution theory suggest that, although expectancy type

decisions may ultimately be the basis for choice, subjective perceptions of source and message credibility will affect the assessment of probabilities. The purpose of this paper is to determine whether attributions of source credibility account for additional variance in organizational choice beyond that accounted for by expectancy theory predictions. Expectancy Models of Organizational Choice One aspect of expectancy theory is an explication of how individuals choose from among several courses of action (Wanous, Keon, & Latack, 1983).

Different personalities of organizational leadership

Observing the behavior of people, we can see that people behave differently. What someone considers right or a golden opportunity might be considered wrong or a threat by someone else. Indeed, there are thousands of ways in which people differ from each other. One way in which people differ and which is very useful in studying organizational behavior is personality. The personalities of people are in some ways unique; each person has a different patter of traits and characteristics that is not fully duplicated in any other person. This pattern of traits tends to be stable over time (Greenberg & Baron, 2003). There are two basic determinants of personality (Pierce & Gardner, 2003): our heredity and past interactions with our environment. Psychologists indeed have termed these determinants as nature and nurture. On the one hand, nature stands for the belief that personality is shaped largely by heredity, that is to say, much of our personality is inherited in birth. While there is no personality gene research at the University of Minnesota suggest that as much as 50% of our personality is genetically determined. On the other hand, nurture stands for the belief that personality shaped mainly by life experiences, especially those from the cradle. Indeed, there is no accurate answer to the issue of how much nature and nurture affect and shape our personalities. However, our genetics make up sets of lower and upper limits for our personalities and our life experiences will determine where within that range we will fall. Knowledge of personality is one of many tools in the managerial and leadership tool kit for more effective managers or leaders (Pierce &Gardner, 2002). Personality refers to the characteristics of the person that account for consistent patterns of feeling, thinking and behaving (Pervin et al., 2005). It is surprising to know that we may think of 17953 words to describe others personalities. That number was found in a study of personality related words found in a search of an English language dictionary in a study, which was conducted over 60 years ago. After words with similar meanings had been combined, the list contained 171 distinct traits (Greenberg & Baron, 2003). We may wonder if we need to consider that huge number of traits to fully understand the role of personality in organization behavior. In fact, only five dimensions are to be considered as these dimensions have emerged in so many different studies conducted in different ways. The broad dimension of Extraversion includes a variety of specific traits such as talkative, energetic, and assertive. Daft (et.al.2005) mentioned that extroversion dimension also includes the characteristic of dominance. Extrovert people are often quite self-confident. They seek out positions of authority, and are competitive and assertive. They like to be in charge of others or have responsibility for others. Carly Fiorina, CEO of Hewlett-Packard, Daft gives an example, appears to have a high degree of both dominance and extroversion. She enjoys being on stage Speaking before is a crowd, meeting new people in HP plants around the world. Farina also clearly enjoys being in a position of authority and influence. However, examples for the opposite of extraversion dimension were clear in the world of business. For example, Doug Investor, who served for a short time, as CEO of Coca-Cola seems to have a low degree of both dominant and

extroversion. Investor was known to be very reserved in many situations. In addition, he did not appear to have a great desire to influence others, preferring to focus on details and strategy rather than the brightness of interpersonal relationships. Indeed, he sometimes came off as high-handed because he made and implemented decisions without trying to persuade others of his viewpoint.

Agreeableness
This dimension includes traits like sympathetic, kind and affectionate. Daft, (et.al.2005) defined agreeableness as the degree to which a person is able to get along with others by being goodnatured, cooperative, forgiving, compassionate, understanding, and trusting. Daft (et.al.2005) added that a leader who scores high on agreeableness seems warm and approachable, whereas one who is low on this dimension may seem cold, distant, and insensitive. He added that people high on agreeableness tend to make friends easily and often have a large number of friends, whereas whose low on agreeableness generally establish fewer close relationships.

Conscientiousness
People high in Conscientiousness tend to be organized, thorough, and planning. Daft (et al.,2005) defined conscientiousness as the degree to which a person is responsible, dependable, persistent, and achievement-oriented. A conscientious person is focused on a few goals, which he or she pursues in a purposeful way, whereas a less conscientious person tends to be easily distracted and impulsive. This dimension of personality, Daft (2005) added, relates to the work itself rather than to relationships with other people. Indeed, many entrepreneurs show a high level of consciousness. For example, Jari Ovaskainen gave up a high-paying consultant job and sold his beloved Mercedes 300CE coupe to pursue his dream of starting a business. Ovaskainens conscientiousness and hard work helped Iobox, the Helsinki-based company he confounded, jump to an early lead in the market for wireless Internet service. Ovaskainens high degree of conscientiousness is also reflected in the workplace. Unlike many Internet companies, Iobox doesnt have foosball tables or other diversions for employees: We dont believe in mixing work life with play time, Ovaskainen says. He wants people focused on the goal of making Iobox the next Yahoo.

Emotional Stability
Emotional Stability (sometimes called Neuroticism) is characterized by traits like tense, moody, and anxious. Daft (2005) refers to this dimension as the degree to which a person is well adjusted, calm, and secure. A leader who is emotionally stable handles stress well, is able to handle criticism, and generally doesnt take mistakes and failure personally. In contrast, leaders who have a low degree of emotional stability are likely to become tense, anxious, or depressed. They generally have lower self-confidence and may explode in emotional outbursts when stressed or criticized.

Openness to New Experiences

Openness to experience (sometimes called Intellect or Culture) is the dimension, which includes having wide interests, and being imaginative and insightful. Daft, 2005 defines this dimension as the degree to which a person has a broad range of interests and is imaginative, creative, and willing to consider new ideas. These people are intellectually curious and often seek out new experiences through travel, the arts, movies, reading widely, or other activities. People lower in this dimension tend to have narrower interests and stick to the tried-and-true ways of doing things. For example, one researcher found that early travel experiences and exposure to different ideas and cultures were critical elements in developing leadership skills and qualities in leaders like John Quncy Adams, Frederick Douglass, and Jane Adams. there is nothing realated with questions to be asked?totally copy and paste from the internet.

Development and effectiveness of their teams especially when leading

The model in Fig. 1 specifies that the leader performance functions described earlier alter team processes that contribute to team effectiveness. For example, leader information search and meaning making can result in defining the frame of reference that team members use to understand and complete their collective tasks. The performance strategies used by team members are most likely to emerge from leader planning and coordination activities. Likewise, their motivation and choices regarding team effort should be influenced in part by leader exhortation and encouragement. In the next sections, we describe key team processes in more detail and specify how leadership functions may act to facilitate these processes

Team cognitive processes

A significant development in the recent teams literature has been the increasing application of cognitive theories and models to understand team performance. For example, Cannon- Bowers et al. have argued that effective team coordination and performance depends upon the emergence of accurate shared mental models of requisite team strategies and interaction tactics among team members (Cannon-Bowers, Salas, & Converse, 1990, 1993). Such team models help team members anticipate each others actions and reduce the amount of processing and communication that is required during team performance. The result is better coordination and more efficient collective responses to immediate task requirements (Minionis, Zaccaro, & Perez, 1995). In addition, other theorists have recently argued that met cognitive and self-correction processes in teams are critical for team performance, especially in situations requiring teams to adapt quickly to dynamic environmental circumstances (Blickensderfer, Cannon-Bowers, & Salas, 1998; Kozlowski et al., 1996).

Team mental models

Mental models have been defined as mechanisms whereby humans are able to generate descriptions of system purpose and form, explanations of system functioning and observed system states, and predictions of future system states (Rouse & Morris, 1986, p. 351). Mental models organize information about systems, the environments within which they operate, and the response patterns required of systems with respect to environmental dynamics (Veldhuyzen & Stassen, 1977). With respect to a team, such mental models developed by

individual team members represent knowledge and understanding about the purpose of the team and its characteristics, the connections and linkages among team purposes, characteristics, and collective actions, and the various roles/behavior patterns required of individual members to successfully enact collective action. With well-developed team mental models, team members may be better able to anticipate each others actions and reduce the amount of processing and communication required during team performance. These characteristics of mental models have led several researchers to argue that effective team coordination depends upon the emergence of a shared mental model (Cannon-Bowers et al., 1990, 1993; Klimoski & Mohammed, 1994). Shared mental models refer to common understanding established through experience among team members regarding expected collective behavior patterns during team action (CannonBowers et al., 1990, 1993; Kleinman & Serfaty, 1989; Levine & Moreland, 1989). When such models are shared among team members, they may be better able to anticipate each others actions and reduce the amount of processing and communication required during team performance. Cannon-Bowers et al. (1993) suggested that four different kinds of mental models encoded by team members were applicable to team coordination and performance. One includes knowledge about the equipment used by the team in the acquisition of information from its environment or in the monitoring of its own functions (equipment model). This model also includes equipment information necessary for the conduct of collective action. Another model contains knowledge about the purpose of the team and more specifically the task requirements related to this purpose (task model). This model includes task procedures, strategies, and how the task changes in response to environmental contingencies. A third model represents knowledge about team-member characteristics, including their task knowledge, abilities, skills, attitudes, preferences, and tendencies (team model). The final model, and the one that is perhaps the most significant in terms of regulating team action, encodes information with respect to the individual and collective requirements for successful interactions among team members. Cannon-Bowers et al. (1993) argued that to be effective, team members: must understand their role in the task, that is their particular contribution, how they must interact with other team members, who requires particular types of information, and so forth. Related to this, they must also know when to monitor their teammates behavior, and when to step in, and help a fellow member who is overloaded, and when to change his or her behavior in response to the needs of the team ( p. 232). Team information processing The most proximal cognitive influence on team coordination and performance is the collective information processing that occurs when teams confront task and problem situations. A complete review of group inform action processing models is beyond the scope of this article; interested readers are referred to Hinsz et al. (1997). However, some basic processes include (a) developing a shared understanding of team problem parameters and processing objectives, (b) utilizing individual and shared knowledge structures to define solution alternatives, (c) evaluating and reaching consensus on an acceptable solution, (d) planning and implementing actions that form selected solutions, and (e) monitoring the implementation, outcomes, and consequences of selected solutions (Forsyth, 1999; Moreland & Levine, 1992). Collective metacognition represents a form of team information processing that is critical for team performance in complex environments. Metacognition refers to reflection upon the cognitive processes used in problem solving; in essence, it represents knowledge and cognition about cognitive phenomena ( Flavell, 1979, p. 906). Sternberg et al. also define metacognitive processes as executive functions that control the application and operation of cognitive abilities and skills (Davidson, Deuser, & Sternberg, 1994; Sternberg, 1985).

Collective metacognition refers to individual and collective reflection upon how members constructed team problems, evaluated possible solutions, and implemented selected solutions. To achieve a high level of expertise that promotes adaptation in a dynamic operating environment, team members need to set aside time to consider, individually and collectively, the consequences of their strategies, how they considered and arrived at a team solution, and how they worked together to implement selected solutions. This is a difficult process to initiate and to complete successfully. When teams have succeeded at a task, members may not see the need for reflecting upon collective information processing and interaction patterns; likewise, when they fail, they are more likely to engage in such reflection, but it may be focused on fixing blame, with negative consequences for subsequent team cohesion and efficacy.

Leadership and team cognitive processes

Extends the leadership team process is model by specifying in more detail the leadership performance functions that influence key components of team cognition. Leader information search and structuring activities provide the grist for meaning making and sense giving to team members, allowing the development of more comprehensive and effective team mental models. In addition, leadership processes likely contribute to the quality and efficacy of collective information processing especially met cognition. We cover these relationships in more detail in the subsequent sections.

Leadership and team mental models

A major responsibility of the team leader is to facilitate for team members an accurate shared understanding of their operating environment and how, as a team, they need to respond. There has been little, if any, research linking team leadership to the development of effective team mental models. However, shared mental models of expected team and member actions serve as key mechanisms by which leaders structure and regulate team performance. Leaders inculcate in team members an understanding of the teams mission, the action steps necessary to complete the mission and the role requirements for each member in collective performance. In essence, team leaders convey their own understandings and mental models of the problem situation as derived from their boundary spanning activities. Thus, leadership processes and the quality of a team leaders mental models become key determinants of subsequent team mental models. Further, team mental models mediate the influence of leadership on team coordination and team performance. Leadership and collective information processing Team leaders are also responsible for facilitating the information processing activities engaged by the team as it accomplishes its task. The most potent leadership processes that foster collective information processes include encouraging and coaching team members to engage in problem identification, diagnosis, solution generation, and solution selection activities (Kozlowski et al., 1996). Early in the teams development, team leaders may need to model and structure these activities for team members (Kozlowski, 1998, Kozlowski et al. 1996). Kivilighan (1997) demonstrated that leader structuring behaviors were more important early in the groups tenure; consideration and relationship behaviors become more effective as groups become more efficient and experienced on the group task. As teams mature and move from a training / learning focus to a more action or performance orientation, leader roles shift to fostering team selfmanagement, particularly in terms of problem-solving activities. Kozlowski, (1998) argues that

as teams enter performance environments, leaders are not so much responsible for directing specific team actions as they are responsible for developing the underlying individual and team capabilities that enable teams to self-manage their actions (p. 134). Tannenbaum, SmithJentsch, and Behson (1998) note that leaders can foster team learning in discrete performance episodes by facilitating team planning activities and the metacognitive processes that should follow team performance. Recent conceptual models, then, emphasize the role of participative leadership in facilitating several phases of collective information processing. They also highlight the coaching, modeling, and encouragement activities of team leadership, rather than directive or structuring activities. Thus, team leaders encourage the team members to take over a number of team leadership information searches, structuring, and utilization activities noted in Table 1. The leader can often take back several of these processes, including problem construction, the definition of solution alternatives, and implementation planning when team performance environments become particularly complex and multifaceted. In addition, research has shown that team information processing becomes more centralized (i.e., localized in the leader), when teams are under stress, threat, or are operating under conditions of temporal urgency (Argote, Turner, & Fichman, 1989; Gladstein & Reilly, 1985; Isenberg, 1981). However, even these conditions do not obviate other team members from information processing responsibilities. Indeed, in constructing team problems, deriving solutions, and planning their implementation, team leaders draw heavily on the functional expertise and diversity within the team. In effect, they coordinate the contribution and combination of team knowledge and information resources; where gaps occur, they make interpretations and decisions that move the team along (Hinsz et al., 1997; Kozlowski et al., 1996). A number of recent studies have documented the importance of participative leaders in fostering effective collective information processing. For example, Kahai, Sosik, and Avolio (1997) found that team leaders who engaged in participative leadership had team members who generated more problem solutions than team leaders who displayed directive leadership. They also found, however, that these effects were true for moderately structured tasks, but were reversed on highly structured tasks (i.e., directive leadership resulted in more solution generation among team members). This suggests that leadership effects on team information processing will depend in part on the nature of the team task. Forms of participative leadership also facilitate other aspects of collective information processing. Larson, FosterFishman, and Franz (1998) reported that leaders who shared problem-solving responsibilities fostered more information sharing among team members than directive leaders. Tesluk and Mathieu (1999) found that when team leaders encouraged team self-management, team members engaged in more problem management actions / strategies to reduce performance barriers than members of teams in which leaders did not encourage self-management. These action /strategies included such information processing as problem diagnosis, solution generation, and implementation; Tesluk and Mathieu found that such actions/strategies were significant determinants of work crew effectiveness. Existing theories of leadership and team dynamics tend to minimize the contributing influences of each of these processes on the other. Such minimization leads to a less than complete understanding of collective decision making and performance. In teams such as military units, or those in more traditional organizational forms, which are typically organized in a strong hierarchical structure, a major portion of the variance in performance may reside in factors associated with leadership. The failure to understand this relationship can limit the training and development of such teams and leaders, respectively. Alternatively, as many organizations move from a traditional hierarchical structure to a more

team-based one, team processes have an increasingly important influence on leader and organizational effectiveness. Such influences need to be considered more carefully and modeled in theories of organizational and strategic leadership. these are not the the activities to develope the leadership skills of the managers

Organizational change
Organizational change is often an overwhelming challenge for business leaders. The need for change or changes may be the result of market shifts, economic environment, technology advancements or changing work force skill-set demands. But what does a leader do when all of this happens within a brief period of time? How a leader manages this collision of change can make the difference between organizational success and failure. I recently discussed this with Bill Stamats, vice president at Stamats Communications. He understands the magnitude of change as it affects various aspects of his business all at the same time. Stamats was established in 1923 as a marketing services company. Since then, the business has expanded many of its services to include research, print and marketing consultation and production for its customers, primarily colleges and universities. Consider this: The print industry is becoming more digital and continues to move away from traditional direct mail, catalog strategies, typesetting artistry, and offset printing. Today, college and university recruiting is more about research, data mining and targeted online marketing with customized/personalized collateral. On-demand four-color products with complementary electronic deliverables for measurable results are the norm. Todays prospective students and their parents have different expectations when they research various colleges and universities, and Stamats has had to adjust change for these differences. When I asked Bill how he helped managed his organization through these changes, I expected a turnkey formula to solve all things related to change. Instead, what he shared was in line with the old French adage: The more things change, the more they remain the same. As Bill pointed out, and I agree, the fundamentals of business remain the same despite perceptive changes in our environments. For example, the four Ps of Marketing product, price, placement and promotion are still relevant. What changes is how the four Ps are deployed, and who deploys them.

Five fundamentals
Bills approach to Change includes five fundamental components. 1. Create and maintain an environment for open dialog and transparency to exchange information with customers and employees. 2. Keep an open mind, really listen and pay acute attention to your customers as well as their customers. 3. Pay attention to employees. They, like customers, can be harbingers of business and industry change.

Employees are in the trenches, often with customers, so they really know whats going on as the market adjusts to remain relevant, and as subsequent demands shift. 4. Continue to modify and update the strategic goals and vision of the organization. Long-term plans and vision should be evolutionary and flexible to adjust as the internal and external environment changes. Conversely, organizational rigidity can often lead to irrelevance. 5. Corporate culture and innovation are strongly influenced by its leadership. Encourage customer service and be forward thinking. When personal and organizational change is required, we sometimes can be our own worst enemy. Dont panic and dont make change complex. Embrace change as inevitable, but remember the fundamentals of good organizational leadership shouldnt waiver: Establish and maintain open communications with employees and customers Adjust long-term strategies and plans to remain relevant Focus on data-driven decisions and results-based practices Celebrate evolutionary success.

Leadership style to respond to different situations Different people respond better to different styles of leadership. To be a truly skilled leader, become aware of the needs of your staff and adapt your leadership style to nurture the most productivity in your workers.

Step 1
Identify your own intrinsic leadership style. Three main categories of leadership styles are autocratic, democratic and laissez-faire. Autocratic leaders tend to maintain control and tell workers what to do. Democratic leaders support a sense of teamwork and listen to worker opinions before making a decision. Laissez-faire leaders are very hands-off, almost not leaders at all. Laissez-faire leaders, however, are usually available when their help is requested. Knowing and understanding your own natural leadership style is the first step toward adapting your behavior to the needs of your workers. Step 2 Recognize the pros and cons of the three main leadership styles. Autocratic leaders often get things done in less time and their workforce is usually quite productive. Productivity slumps when the manager is not present, however. Democratic leaders often gain the respect of their workers. Workers appreciate feeling valued and will work harder for that manager. This type of leadership style can be ineffective when there is a lot of conflict among the staff. Laissez-faire leadership works when there is a high degree of skill and knowledge among the workforce but is sorely lacking when employees are less skilled. All three leadership styles are appropriate in different situations.

Step 3

Appreciate the diversity among your staff. Diversity in organizational psychology is often seen as differences among people that define or create the culture of the workplace. Dimensions of diversity include gender, age, sexual orientation, religions, ethnicity, education, work experience, military experience, family status and income level. Leave any preconceptions or prejudices at the door, and observe how your staff members relate to one another and to their jobs. Workers with more skill will most likely respond well to democratic and laissez-faire leadership styles; those with less experience will likely respond more to a more autocratic style.

Step 4
Experiment with different styles to see what works best with your group of workers. Maintain an "open door" policy so that workers can approach you to discuss work-related issues. As you get to know your workers, you will get a sense of how much direction and how much freedom they need to be productive. A Leaders Four Key Responsibilities A leaders specific roles are determined through the four basic leadership responsibilities of directing, coaching, supporting and delegating. Specific responsibilities will fall into one of these four categories. In leadership practice, one must master skills in all areas in order to effectively lead others under their direction. Effective leadership is not happenstance; it follows specific rules revolving around these four basic areas of responsibility. Leadership skills can be learned and developed, even if an individual does not have a natural tendency toward leadership. More importantly, once learned and applied, these rules make a leader more effective and productive as he or she learns to work, direct and guide others toward the mutual accomplishment of goals and objectives. Developing strengths in each of the four leadership roles allows a leader to read specific situations accurately and know what communication style is best applied. Directing Directing refers to how to keep work tasks and activities on the right track. A leaders direction is what makes or breaks problem solving as well as determines the effectiveness of an approach to an assignment or task, the maintaining of momentum until its completion, and whether it is done by deadline. There are several ways to generate good direction techniques. These include: Explain things completely and include the whys. Leaders learn early on that the best way to gain support and trust from their employees is to explain all things in their entirety. Once people understand why something is important or necessary, they generally rally to the call of that which needs to be done or addressed. Remain visible. Leaders understand the power of their presence at all times. Nothing deflates the workforces motivation and desire to achieve more than to be left on their own with no visible means of support or direction.

Objectively consider opposing points of view. Leaders consider situations, problems and solutions from various viewpoints, as the input from as many individuals as possible expands their capabilities to effectively frame their direction. Coaching Coaching refers to when a leader knows where he or she wants to go and remains in control of the task but needs to lead others in developing a mutual support network. Coaching instills the desire to achieve and builds a dialogue bridge between the leader and those under his or her charge. This motivates employees and positively changes attitudes toward the work assignment. To do this effectively a leader must make an effort to: Incorporate the word we into all conversations. Effective leaders eliminate the word I because it denotes a singular rather than cooperative effort. The very meaning of the term coaching implies a team effort. Listen for objections and areas of misunderstanding. Effective leaders who coach well develop the skill of eliminating objections by developing an effective dialogue and creating clear and concise responses. Offer explanations addressing the whys, whats and hows of the problem or task at hand. Good coaching depends upon complete understanding. Motivation and confidence comes from understanding the expectations a leader has of those involved in a given task, assignment or problem solving situation. Supporting Managers cannot be effective leaders unless they actively hone their supporting skills. People look warmly on leaders who actively work to support them emotionally as well as physically. When leaders actively work to support the people under their charge they: Acknowledge individual efforts with comments of praise and positive support. Leaders are not afraid to say thank you, or youre doing a great job, or whatever it takes to instill confidence in an individual. Disclose their own feelings openly and honestly. Leaders are not afraid to reveal their inner self. Trust and loyalty are built on disclosing inward feelings, concerns and desires. Readily and honestly opening up builds encouragement and perseverance on both sides. Never hesitate to ask, Whats wrong? Leaders allow themselves to get into the thick of a situation or task, and are quick to share the decision making responsibility, but know when to relinquish control in order to gain extra participation and involvement.

Delegating Leaders know and understand their people. They know their strengths and weaknesses as well as what motivates and frustrates them. Effective delegating relies on the ability to select the proper person for the specific task or role. Leaders develop good delegation skills by: Briefing the delegate Leaders leave nothing to chance when they delegate. When delegating, it is vital to explain exactly what expectations the leader has of the delegated individual. Having confidence in the person they select. Leaders do not select individuals for an assignment according to their job descriptions or the salaries they command, they look for people with the skills, abilities, perseverance and motivation to get the job done and done well.

To develop leadership skills

1. Learn More About Your Leadership Style

Understanding your current leadership style is essential. What are your strengths? Which areas need some improvement? One way to start assessing your skills is to take this leadership style quiz to get a general idea of how you lead. Once you have completed the quiz, read about the major characteristics of your dominant style. Are these qualities helping or hindering your leadership? Once you've determine which areas need some work, you can begin looking for ways to improve your leadership abilities.

2. Encourage Creativity

Intellectual stimulation is one of the hallmarks of transformational leadership. Followers need to be encouraged to express their creativity. Effective leaders should offer new challenges with ample support to achieve these goals. One way to foster creativity is to offer challenges to group members, making sure that the goals are within the grasp of their

abilities. The purpose of this type of exercise is to get people to stretch their limits, but to not become discouraged by barriers to success.

3. Serve As a Role Model

Idealized influence is another of the four key components of transformational leadership. Transformational leaders exemplify the behaviors and characteristics that they encourage in their followers. They walk the walk and talk the talk. As a result, group members admire these leaders and work to emulate these behaviors. If you want to become a better leader, work on modeling the qualities that you would like to see in your team members. 4. Be Passionate

Would you look to someone for guidance and leadership if they did not truly care about the goals of the group? Of course not! Great leaders are not just focused on getting group members to finish tasks; they have a genuine passion and enthusiasm for the projects they work on. Start by thinking of different ways that you can express your zeal. Let people know that you care about their progress. When one person shares something with the rest of the group, be sure to tell them how much you appreciate such contributions.

5. Listen and Communicate Effectively Another important characteristic of transformational leadership involves a focus on providing one-on-one communication with group members. Good leaders should express sincere care and concern for the members of their group both verbally and nonverbally. By keeping the lines of

communication open, these leaders can ensure that group members feel able to make contributions and receive recognition for their achievements.

6. Have a Positive Attitude Transformational leaders have an upbeat, optimistic attitude that serves as a source of inspiration for followers. If leaders seem discouraged or apathetic, members of the group are likely to also become uninspired. Even when things look bleak and your followers start to feel disheartened, try to stay positive. This does not mean viewing things through rose-colored glasses. It simply means maintaining a sense of optimism and hope in the face of challenges.

7. Encourage People to Make Contributions Let the members of your team know that you welcome their ideas. Leaders who encourage involvement from group members are often referred to as democratic or participative leaders. While they retain the final say over all decisions, they encourage team members to take an active role in coming up with ideas and plans. Research has shown that using a democratic leadership style leads to greater commitment, more creative problem-solving and improved productivity.

8. Motivate Your Followers Transformational leaders also provide inspirational motivation to encourage their followers to get into action. Of course, being inspirational isn't always easy. Fortunately, you don't need motivational speeches to rouse your group members. Some ideas for leadership inspiration include being genuinely passionate about ideas or goals, helping followers feel included in the process and offering recognition, praise and rewards for people's accomplishments.

9. Offer Rewards and Recognition

A good leader knows that offering effective recognition and rewards is one of the best ways to help followers feel appreciated and happy. It may also come as no surprise that happy people tend to perform better at work. According to researchers Teresa Amabile and Steven Kramer, leaders can help group members feel happier by offering help, removing barriers to success and rewarding strong efforts. Susan M. Heathfield, About.com's Guide to Human Resources, offers some great tips on how leaders can express recognition and reward team members. Some of these strategies include listening without distraction, putting your praise in writing and publicly thanking people for their efforts.

10. Keep Trying New Things

Who says leadership is a one-way relationship? As you work toward honing your leadership skills, don't forget to look to your followers for feedback an inspiration. Pay attention to the things that have been effective in the past and always be on the lookout for new ways to inspire, motivate and reward group members. National level policies in leadership There are currently more than 35 national organizations that provide public policy leadership for substance abuse issues (see chart on this page for a partial listing and Appendix I for a full listing). This list does not include the growing number of substance abuse treatment divisions or committees that have been created by national professional associations, such as the American Psychological Association and the American Public Health Association. Each of these organizations was created by a core group of members who had a vision and who with their collective investment of time and commitment, created these organizations often through long and arduous processes. Their work was done on a voluntary basis and with minimal resources.

Of these organizations: eight represent organizations that provide services; two represent individuals that provide services; nine are independent; and four represent special populations. Many of these national organizations have no staff infrastructure and must depend on volunteers to carry out their activities. Others are, for the most part, understaffed, particularly as it relates to public policy functions. While each organization contributes significantly to the field, most do not coordinate their efforts at the national level. For example, most of these organizations have an annual conference, but each is independently scheduled with very little effort directed at coordinating the various events. The last effort to bring all of these organizations together occurred in 1994 (in California) under the leadership of NASADAD. Prior to that, a Drug Abuse Congress, involving most national organizations, was held in Boston in the mid 80s sponsored by the Alcohol and Drug Problems Association of North America (ADPA). All of these organizations provide information to their constituencies regarding public policy and are involved to some degree in public policy discussions. Leadership on behalf of substance abuse treatment is not limited to these organizations. It also includes individual leaders such as: William Cope Moyers, an eloquent spokesperson on behalf of substance abuse issues and Joseph Califano, who as head of CASA has provided not only valuable research with major policy implications but also has been a strong effective voice on our behalf. It also includes researchers such as Dr. Herb Kleber and Dr. Thomas McLellan who have produced research documents that continue to make significant contributions to public education efforts. Of particular note is the recent article, Drug Dependence, a Chronic Medical Illness; Implications for Treatment, Insurance and Outcome Evaluation (McLellan, et. al, 2000). This list also includes individuals outside of the field such as Bill and Judith Moyers, who created the 5-part PBS series entitled, Moyers on Addiction: Close to Home. Both of these initiatives continue to assist in changing the way that the public looks at addiction and treatment. Leadership in the substance abuse treatment field includes not only eloquent voices but includes system-change agents such as the National Alliance for Model State Drug Laws, which will be discussed later in this document. the information are some how relavent but its only copy and paste from internet and in wrong place

Value of Leadership
Values-based leadership connotes a plethora of different meanings, but based upon my experience in the corporate world, the concept is primarily defined as leading by example, that is, doing the right thing for the right reasons and not compromising core principles. A leader who embraces this type of thinking can become very successful in fostering strategic vision and gaining the support and partnership of other potential business partners. Steve Jobs, CEO of Apple Computer, Inc., once remarked, The only thing that works is management by values. Find people who are competent and really bright, but more importantly,

people who care exactly about the same thing you care about. (Koteinikov quoting Jobs, 2008). This statement has been personally influential and I have embodied its clear meaning in a saying that I keep at the forefront of my thinking: engage peoples hearts as well as their heads . While this form of motivation appears idealistic and theoretical, the question inevitably arises as to whether values-based leadership really exists in actual corporate practice. Considering media headlines over the last several years, it certainly appears that a number of business leaders have compromised their own value systems in order to generate a profit and line their pockets to the detriment of the consumer, the employee, and the shareholder. This trend has left many of us occupying positions of corporate leadership to wonder what has happened to adhering to sound business practices and championing good old-fashioned ethics and moral behavior. Fortunately, through personal experience as a corporate official in a top-ranking financial institution, I am able to state with steadfast conviction that ethical decision-making is still alive and well in much of corporate America, with many companies having re-focused their existence around a common vision statement supported by solid values. Values such as giving back to the community, showing respect and care for the environment and many others have made their way back into corporate America. I have been auspiciously rewarded with a career working for Wells Fargo, a Fortune 500 company ranked 46/500 and 4/20 as a national commercial bank, boasting revenues of $40,407.0 million (CNN Money, 2006). Wells Fargo is a financial institution that has not only unambiguously set forth its vision and values, but has imparted these working principles to its team members. To demonstrate how one company chooses to operate in this manner, Wells Fargo has provided an exemplary model of principled business leadership by outlining the companys core values in its Corporate Governance Guidelines as follows: Ethics: Maintain the highest standards with customers, team members, stockholders and our communities: Value and reward open, honest, two-way communication. Be accountable for, and proud of, your conduct and your decisions. Only make promises you intend to keep do what you say youll do. If things change, let people know. Avoid any actual or perceived conflict of interest. Comply with the letter and the spirit of the law.

Customer Satisfaction : Consider the customer in all we do:

Exceed the expectations of internal and external customers surprise and delight them. Do whats right for the customer. Talk and act with the customer in mind. Build long-term customer relationships. Treat customers with care.

Leadership and Personal Accountability: Every team member who contributes to

the companys success should: Take prudent risks. Lead by example. Make decisions locally, close to the customer. Know your numbers. Consider customers, shareholders, team members and community needs when formulating decisions. Care about each other.

Diversity: Respect differences among team members, customers and individual communities:
Earn mutual trust by supporting our corporate values for promoting diversity in both the workforce and the company base. Take advantage of and learn from different perspectives presented. Support the diversity of team members, customers and communities. Leverage diversity as a competitive advantage.

Wells Fargo has been repeatedly ranked as a top-10 corporate citizen by Business Ethics magazine. Long before current discussion about corporate governance and corporate responsibility, values such as honesty, trust and integrity were part of Wells Fargos vision and values and our corporate culture, remarked Wells Fargo Chairman and Former CEO, Dick Kovacevich. Were proud to be recognized by Business Ethics for our leadership in corporate community investment, human rights, diversity, and our commitment to serving all of our stakeholders to the highest standard of integrity. leadership success. The ultimate mission and purpose of any leader is to make his or her organization successful. The leaders ability to select and develop the right people is crucial to the accomplishment of that goal. Insightful and successful people as diverse as humorist Leo Rosten (First rate people hire first rate people, second rate people hire third rate people), former Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld (As hire As, Bs hire Cs) and Good to Great author Jim Collins (First the WHO, then the WHAT) emphasize the importance of getting the best people. A leader has no higher duty than choosing people who will ensure the future success of his or her organization. Leadership is learned behavior that becomes unconscious and automatic over time. For example, leaders can make several important decisions about an issue in the time it takes others to understand the question. Many people wonder how leaders know how to make the best decisions, often under immense pressure. The process of making these decisions comes from an accumulation of experiences and encounters with a multitude of difference circumstances, personality types and unforeseen failures. More so, the decision making process is an acute understanding of being familiar with the cause and effect of behavioral and circumstantial patterns; knowing the intelligence and interconnection points of the variables involved in these patterns allows a leader to confidently make decisions and project the probability of their desired outcomes. The most successful leaders are instinctual decision makers. Having done it so many times throughout their careers, they become immune to the pressure associated with decision making and extremely intuitive about the process of making the most strategic and best

decisions. This is why most senior executives will tell you they depend strongly upon their gutfeel when making difficult decisions at a moments notice. Beyond decision making, successful leadership across all areas becomes learned and instinctual over a period of time. Successful leaders have learned the mastery of anticipating business patterns, finding opportunities in pressure situations, serving the people they lead and overcoming hardships. No wonder the best CEOs are paid so much money. In 2011, salaries for the 200 top-paid CEOs rose 5 percent to a median $14.5 million per year, according to a study by compensation-data company Equilar for The New York Times. Here are 15 things you must do automatically, every day, To be a successful leader in the workplace:

1. Make Others Feel Safe to Speak-Up

Many times leaders intimidate their colleagues with their title and power when they walk into a room. Successful leaders deflect attention away from them and encourage others to voice their opinions. They are experts at making others feel safe to speak-up and confidently share their perspectives and points of view. They use their executive presence to create an approachable environment.

2. Make Decisions
Successful leaders are expert decision makers. They either facilitate the dialogue to empower their colleagues to reach a strategic conclusion or they do it themselves. They focus on making things happen at all times decision making activities that sustain progress. Successful leaders have mastered the art of politicking and thus dont waste their time on issues that disrupt momentum. They know how to make 30 decisions in 30 minutes.

3. Communicate Expectations
Successful leaders are great communicators, and this is especially true when it comes to performance expectations. In doing so, they remind their colleagues of the organizations core values and mission statement ensuring that their vision is properly translated and actionable objectives are properly executed. I had a boss that managed the team by reminding us of the expectations that she had of the group. She made it easy for the team to stay focused and on track. The protocol she implemented by clearly communicating expectations increased performance and helped to identify those on the team that could not keep up with the standards she expected from us.

4. Challenge People to Think

The most successful leaders understand their colleagues mindsets, capabilities and areas for improvement. They use this knowledge/insight to challenge their teams to think and stretch them to reach for more. These types of leaders excel in keeping their people on their toes, never allowing them to get comfortable and enabling them with the tools to grow. If you are not

thinking, youre not learning new things. If youre not learning, youre not growing and over time becoming irrelevant in your work.

5. Be Accountable to Others
Successful leaders allow their colleagues to manage them. This doesnt mean they are allowing others to control them but rather becoming accountable to assure they are being proactive to their colleagues needs. Beyond just mentoring and sponsoring selected employees, being accountable to others is a sign that your leader is focused more on your success than just their own.

6. Lead by Example
Leading by example sounds easy, but few leaders are consistent with this one. Successful leaders practice what they preach and are mindful of their actions. They know everyone is watching them and therefore are incredibly intuitive about detecting those who are observing their every move, waiting to detect a performance shortfall.

7. Measure & Reward Performance

Great leaders always have a strong pulse on business performance and those people who are the performance champions. Not only do they review the numbers and measure performance ROI, they are active in acknowledging hard work and efforts (no matter the result). Successful leaders never take consistent performers for granted and are mindful of rewarding them.

8. Provide Continuous Feedback

Employees want their leaders to know that they are paying attention to them and they appreciate any insights along the way. Successful leaders always provide feedback and they welcome reciprocal feedback by creating trustworthy relationships with their colleagues.. They understand the power of perspective and have learned the importance of feedback early on in their career as it has served them to enable workplace advancement.

9. Properly Allocate and Deploy Talent

Successful leaders know their talent pool and how to use it. They are experts at activating the capabilities of their colleagues and knowing when to deploy their unique skill sets given the circumstances at hand.

10. Ask Questions, Seek Counsel

Successful leaders ask questions and seek counsel all the time. From the outside, they appear to know-it-all yet on the inside, they have a deep thirst for knowledge and constantly are on the look-out to learn new things because of their commitment to making themselves better through the wisdom of others.

11. Problem Solve; Avoid Procrastination

Successful leaders tackle issues head-on and know how to discover the heart of the matter at hand. They dont procrastinate and thus become incredibly proficient at problem solving; they learn from and dont avoid uncomfortable circumstances (they welcome them). Getting ahead in life is about doing the things that most people dont like doing.

12. Positive Energy & Attitude

Successful leaders create a positive and inspiring workplace culture. They know how to set the tone and bring an attitude that motivates their colleagues to take action. As such, they are likeable, respected and strong willed. They dont allow failures to disrupt momentum.

13. Be a Great Teacher

Many employees in the workplace will tell you that their leaders have stopped being teachers. Successful leaders never stop teaching because they are so self-motivated to learn themselves. They use teaching to keep their colleagues well-informed and knowledgeable through statistics, trends, and other newsworthy items. Successful leaders take the time to mentor their colleagues and make the investment to sponsor those who have proven they are able and eager to advance.

14. Invest in Relationships

Successful leaders dont focus on protecting their domain instead they expand it by investing in mutually beneficial relationships. Successful leaders associate themselves with lifters and other leaders the types of people that can broaden their sphere of influence. Leaders share the harvest of their success to help build momentum for those around them.

15. Genuinely Enjoy Responsibilities

Successful leaders love being leaders not for the sake of power but for the meaningful and purposeful impact they can create. When you have reached a senior level of leadership its about your ability to serve others and this cant be accomplished unless you genuinely enjoy what you do. to be honest bulshit ans

Conclusion
This assignment gives to teach us about leadership, role play of leadership, efficient process of leadership, types of power, Sources of Power and power utilization process. We learned from the assignment, Organizational change and its challenge for business leaders. Also we learned a Leaders key responsibilities that are develop leaders skill and performances.

Above all the assignment if a successful leader should follow the structure a leader can makes a decision about the organizational problem.

first of all,hedaing and sub-heading is not clear at all,secondly,where is the introduction?,in addition ,the way u have done this assignment it does not fullfill the basic level...thats y it might suitable for 16-20 marks according to the iam marking guideline.moreover,it is mostly copy and paste from the internet not from the books.it is not related to the question to be asked.please read the sample assignment i attahced with the email i sent to u.the student got 46 in this assignment.] please understand the question first.then, follow the i am marking guideline, and study guide i sent u befor to complete this assignment properly. thanks regard md toufik alam

References
Writers Amabile, T. & Kramer, S. (2011). Do happier people work harder? The New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2011/09/04/opinion/sunday/do-happier-people-workharder.html Riggio, R.E. (2009, March 24). Are you a transformational leader. Psychology Today. Retrieved from http://blogs.psychologytoday.com/blog/cutting-edge-leadership/200903/are-youtransformational-leader Decision-making: resolving a paradox for top management teams. Academy of Management Journal, 39,123148. Amason, A. C. (1986). Distinguishing the effects of functional and dysfunctional conflict on strategic Ancona, D. G. (1987). Groups in organizations: extending laboratory models. In: C. Hendrick (Ed.), Group processes and intergroup relations ( pp. 207230). Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Carol Stephenson, O.C. Webs

http://www.iveybusinessjournal.com/ http://smallbusiness.chron.com http://dspace.hil.unb.ca http://thegazette.com http://smallbusiness.chron.com http://blog.majoriumbusinesspress.com