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Camera Calibration with a Simulated Three Dimensional Calibration Object Hynek Bakstein, Radim Halir (2000) A new camera calibration method based on DLT model is presented in this paper. Full set of camera parameters can be obtained from multiple views of coplanar calibration object with coordinates of control points measured in 2D. The proposed approach is numerically stable and robust in comparison with calibration techniques based on non-linear optimisation of all camera parameters. 2. A Four-step Camera Calibration Procedure with Implicit Image Correction Janne Heikkila and Olli Silven In geometrical camera calibration the objective is to determine set of camera parameters that describe the mapping between 3-D reference coordinates and 2D image coordinates. In this paper a four-step calibration procedure that is an extension to the two-step method. There is an additional step to compensate for distortion caused by circular features, and a step for correcting the distorted image coordinates. The image correction is performed with an empirical inverse model that accurately compensates for radial and tangential distortions. Finally, a linear method for solving the parameters of the inverse model is presented. 3. Plane-based Calibration of a Camera with Varying focal Length: the Center Line Constraint Pierre GURDJOS and Rene PAYRISSAT This paper deals with the problem of calibrating a (moving) camera with varying focal length, from views of a planar pattern with a known Euclidean structure. They relate this calibration problem to the Center Line (CL) constraint, that is the principal point locus when planar figures are in perspective correspondence. They demonstrate that the CL equation is irrespective of the

focal length and holds for each view, with only three unknown parameters whose values are constant in the images. They define its analytic equation with coefficients computed from the world-plane to image homography matrices .The simulations on synthetic data and an application with real images. 4. A Simple Camera Calibration Method Aldo Cumani In this paper he discusses a calibration method based on a simple and inexpensive setup. Their approach allows a substantial decoupling of the distortion model from the rest of the camera model, which means that distortion estimation can make a better use of the available image data. Preliminary experimental tests show promising results. 5. Using Angles for Internal Camera Calibration and Calibration Update Marina Kolesnik Standard camera calibration technique is based on the relationship between 3D point coordinates in the object space and their respective 2D coordinates in the image plane. Thus precise distance measurements for a set of reference points are a necessary burden of the calibration. The idea presented in the paper is to perform internal camera calibration using angular information for a set of reference points in the image plane. This approach is angular calibration. In this they use a special laser projector that generates reference pattern with known angular characteristics. Angular calibration uses known angles to distinguished 3-D points in the laser pattern viewed by the camera. The calculation is done in the camera standard coordinate system; only the intrinsic camera parameters are of importance. They show how angular calibration approach can be used for the camera with changing focal length. They give calibration results of the camera internal parameters. 6. 3-D reconstruction of articulated objects from uncalibrated images Remondino 2002 Fabio

In this paper a system for the reconstruction of 3-D models of articulated objects, like human bodies, from uncalibrated images is presented. The scene is seen from different viewpoints and no pre-set knowledge is considered. To extract precise 3-D information from imagery, a calibration procedure must be performed. Therefore, first a camera calibration with Direct Linear Transformation (DLT) is done assuming few control points on the subject. The initial approximations of the interior and exterior orientation computed with DLT are then improved in a general photogrammetric bundle adjustment with self-calibration. Additionally a stereo matching process based on least squares matching extracts a dense set of image correspondences from the sequence. Finally a 3-D point cloud is computed by forward intersection using the calibration data and the matched points. The resulting 3-D model of human body is presented.

7. Photogrammetric Transformation with Panning K.A. Stivers, G.B. Ariel, A. Vorobiev, M.A. Penny, A. Gouskov, N. Yakunin This paper is to present a technique called physical parameter transformation (PPT) which allows the use of panning cameras. The PPT is built upon the co linearity photogrammetric relations from which the DLT is derived. Like the MDLT, PPT is implemented such that orthogonality of the orientation matrix of the image to object coordinate system is guaranteed. PPT with panning will be demonstrated to have greater accuracy than the DLT.

8.Two new algorithms to retrieve the calibration matrix from the 3-d projective camera model Gamal H. Seedahmed and Ayman F. Habib This paper presents two new algorithms to retrieve the calibration matrix from the projective camera model. In both algorithms, a collective approach was adopted, using matrix factorization. The calibration matrix was retrieved from a quadratic matrix term. The two algorithms were framed around a correct

utilization of Cholesky factorization to decompose the quadratic matrix term. The first algorithm used an iterative Cholesky factorization to retrieve the calibration matrix from the quadratic matrix term. The second algorithm used Cholesky factorization to factor the quadratic matrix term but after its inversion. The basic argument behind the two algorithms is that: the direct use of Cholesky factorization does not reveal the correct decomposition due to the missing matrix structure in terms of lower-upper order. In both algorithms, a successful retrieval of the calibration matrix was achieved. This paper explains the key ideas behind the two algorithms, accommodated with a simulated example to demonstrate their validity.

9. Linear recovery of the exterior orientation parameters in a planar object space Gamal H. Seedahmed and Ayman F. Habib This paper presents a new closed form solution to a single photo-resection in a planar object space based on homogenous coordinate representation and matrix factorization. Homogenous coordinate representation offers a direct matrix correspondence between the parameters of the 2-D projective transformation and the collinearity model. This correspondence lends itself to a direct matrix factorization to solve the photo-resection problem. The matrix factorization starts by recovering the elements of the rotation matrix and then solving for the camera position. It will be shown that an incomplete representation of the rotation matrix is captured by the 2-D projective parameters but the actual physical parameters of the rotation matrix still can be recovered explicitly and without any ambiguity. These elements were used to build a complete rotation matrix, which in turn facilitates the correct solution of the camera position. The developed solution can serve as a complementary companion to the classical DLT model. In this paper, a detailed derivation of the proposed solution will be presented, accommodated with two simulated examples to demonstrate its

validity. The first example simulates aerial photography and the second one simulates close range photogrammetric application. 10. Nonparametric, Model-Based Radial Lens Distortion Correction Using Tilted Camera Assumption Janez Pers, Stanislav Kovacic Radial lens distortion prohibits use of simple pinhole camera models in computer vision applications, especially when using wide-angle lenses, which result in barrel type distortion. Usual approach to radial distortion is by the means of polynomial approximation, which introduces distortion-specific parameters into the camera model and requires iterative methods for their calculation. Based on the properties of distorted images, an alternative approach is proposed in this paper. The basic assumption is that distortion occurs due to transformation of the observed differential of radius and is locally dependent of the angle of principal rays. The geometric relations which result from this assumption are complemented with the equations of the perspective radial lens projection function to derive model of radial distortion with single parameter - focal length. Experiments were conducted to illustrate the validity and performance of this approach.

11. Direct Recovery of the Camera Internal Parameters Using Known Angles Marina Kolesnik In this paper a pen-size laser crosshair projector is used to generate a reference pattern whose angular features are known. Each known angle between a pair of optical rays imposes one angular constraint on the internal camera parameters. Several constraints form a system of equations, which is solved for the internal parameters. Because the angular constraints are given in the standard coordinate system of the camera, the internal parameters are recovered directly, that is without referring to any world coordinate system. An advantage that follows, is that calibration does not require precise measurements of 3-D coordinates of reference points. The final calibration parameters as well as the

first order radial distortion parameter are computed by nonlinear optimization. We analyze an accuracy of angular values between optical rays and present experimental results of camera calibration. Angular calibration is fast, robust and easy to implement method, which is suitable for quick off lab calibration of cameras. 12. A camera calibration technique using targets of circular features Gines Garcia Mateos Accurate camera calibration is essential in many computer vision applications, where quantitative information is extracted from the images. This paper deals with the problems of sub pixel feature location on the calibration target and its automatic matching with the corresponding 3-D world points, as the first part of an unsupervised calibration process. In the proposed method a grid of circular features is used as target. Feature detection and location is carried out using a very simple and efficient connected component labeling algorithm, which incrementally calculates an ellipsoidal description of the regions. This description is a robust and accurate model of the projected circular features, since the perspective projection of a circle is always an ellipse. Some heuristics are presented for selecting those regions corresponding to circles in the target. From these ellipses, feature points are extracted, considering the effect of perspective. Experimental results have shown high robustness of the method against random noise and defocusing. Sub pixel accuracy is achieved and computational complexity is linear with the number of pixels. 13. Lens Distortion Calibration Using Point Correspondences G. P. Stein This paper describes a new method for lens distortion calibration using only point correspondences in multiple views, without the need to know either the 3D location of the points or the camera locations. The standard lens distortion model is a model of the deviations of a real camera from the ideal pinhole or projective camera model. Given multiple views of a set of corresponding points taken by ideal pinhole

cameras there exist epipolar and trilinear constraints among pairs and triplets of these views. In practice, due to noise in the feature detection and due to lens distortion these constraints do not hold exactly and we get some error. The calibration is a search for the lens distortion parameters that minimize this error. Using simulation and experimental results with real images we explore the properties of this method. We describe the use of this method with the standard lens distortion model, radial and decentering, but it could also be used with any other parametric distortion models. Finally we demonstrate that lens distortion calibration improves the accuracy of 3D reconstruction. Due to lack of space this paper will focus on the 3 image method. 14. Straight lines have to be straight, Automatic calibration and removal of distortion from scenes of structured environments Frederic Devernay, Olivier Faugeras Most algorithms in 3D computer vision rely on the pinhole camera model because of its simplicity, whereas video optics, especially low-cost wide-angle or fish-eye lenses, generate a lot of non-linear distortion which can be critical. To find the distortion parameters of a camera, we use the following fundamental property: a camera follows the pinhole model if and only if the projection of every line in space onto the camera is a line. Consequently, if we find the transformation on the video image so that every line in space is viewed in the transformed image as a line, then we know how to remove the distortion from the image. The algorithm consists of first doing edge extraction on a possibly distorted video sequence, then doing polygonal approximation with a large tolerance on these edges to extract possible lines from the sequence, and then finding the parameters of our distortion model that best transform these edges to segments. Results are presented on real video images, compared with distortion calibration obtained by a full camera calibration method, which uses a calibration grid.

DIGITAL CAMERA GEOMETRIC CALIBRATION WITH MODIFIED DLT (DIRECT LINEER TRANSFORMATION) METHOD COMPARING Fevzi KARSLI1[1]

Eminnur AYHAN2[2
Nowadays, digital cameras are widely taking place especially in the point of basic data source of terrestrial photogrammetry applications. Digital cameras have found wide spread of application area opportunity from measuring architectural monuments to measuring industrial elements. You have to know the geometric performances of the camera to get the real measurements. Geometric accuracy can only get by finding some parameters like camera constant, principal point coordinates, distortion etc. In the calibration of digital cameras generally methods of DLT (Direct Linear Transformation), which based on collinearity condition and bundle adjustment (ray bundle with additional parameters) are being used. In this paper, the calibration of digital camera has done with modified DLT method, which simplifies mathematical model and facilitates the solution by using 3D test field network. With this method, the solution has done by considering a few photographs and control points and the efficiency of the obtained calibration parameters on position sensitivity has been investigated. All calculations and evaluations are done in the Matlab 5.0 software.

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