Research and concepts New product design and development: a generic model

A.J. Peters E.M. Rooney J.H. Rogerson R.E. McQuater M. Spring and B.G. Dale
The authors A.J. Peters, E.M. Rooney and J.H. Rogerson are based at the School of Industrial and Manufacturing Science, Craneld University, Bedfordshire, UK. R.E. McQuater, M. Spring and B.G. Dale are based at the Manchester School of Management, University of Manchester Institute of Science and Technology (UMIST), Manchester, UK. Keywords Design, Model, New product development, Small-to-medium-sized enterprises Abstract This paper describes a generic model of the new product design and development (NPDD) process. The model has been derived from best practice observed in eldwork carried out in a range of situations. The model helps to identify and put the companys NPDD activities into the context of the overall NPDD process. It has been found to be a useful means of organising data on rms NPDD activities without imposing an overly-prescriptive how to model of NPDD. The framework which underpins the model will help to promote a discussion of the approaches undertaken within a companys NPDD process, thereby promoting understanding and improvement of the process.

Introduction
A joint Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC) project between Craneld University and UMIST has been undertaken to investigate the design/development processes in small and medium enterprises (SME). The objective of the research was to produce a generic model of the new product design and development (NPDD) process taking into account modern ideas of design management and the use of tools and techniques. A three-layer model describing the issues inherent to the management of the process has been derived and is described in this paper. The literature contains details of many models of the NPDD process; in the main these tend to reect the specic experience of companies and/or authors (e.g. Hollins and Pugh, 1990; Crawford 1994). None of the models examined appears to be truly generic. The model of the NPDD process described in this paper (see Figure 1) has been derived from best practice observed in eldwork carried out in a wide range of businesses and market sectors. In the model, design is not considered in isolation but as an integral part of a process involving its management and supported by appropriate tools and techniques. Understanding the NPDD process within a business is not straightforward and it can be difcult to identify and dene the multi-functional involvements. The model helps in this matter and describes a means of putting the companys NPDD activities into the context of the overall NPDD process.

Research methodology and background

The model was developed drawing on the literature and eldwork conducted primarily in SMEs but also in larger rms. The companies studied are involved in a diverse range of industries, such as computer software systems, tableware, domestic appliances and electronic components, and also differ in size and ownership. Semi-structured interviews with individuals involved in the NPDD process were among the methods employed to gather the data. Interviews were also

The TQM Magazine Volume 11 Number 3 1999 pp. 172179 MCB University Press ISSN 0954-478X

The authors wish to express their thanks to EPSRC for their nancial support of the project TQM: Management of Design/New Product Development EPSRC GR/K/42844 and GR/K42851.

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Figure 1 Generic model of the management of the NPDD process

NPDD Strategy Common Information Multidisciplinary Input NPDD Review NPDD Control Communication Information Management

FACILITATION ISSUES

PROCESS SUMMARY

Pre-Design/ Development

Design and Development Process

Post-Design Development

IDEA
QFD (1)

CONCEPT

DESIGN

PRE-PRODUCTION VALIDATION

PRODUCTION/ DISTRIBUTION

POST-COMPANY

FMEA

TOOLS & TECHNIQUES

DFA/DFM CA DOE
Quailty Tools and Techniques

conducted with those personnel from functions (e.g. purchasing, engineering and operations) who interface with the NPDD process. In this way a detailed case study was built up for each company to provide the empirical base for the model. There may be several reasons for companies wishing to improve practices in their NPDD process. Many are under pressure from customers to attain formal quality management system certification such as the ISO 9000 series; thus they need to be able not only to identify the process but to ensure that activities are effective and sufficient to satisfy these requirements. In the light of increasing pressure to cut costs and time, it is also important to engender a right first time mentality; hence the NPDD activities also need to satisfy internal customer requirements. Identication of the NPDD process with respect to involvement and inputs within a company is not straightforward: this is particularly the case in SMEs. It is the initial identication of the NPDD process that is often the most difcult to achieve. This can be due to a lack of time, lack of funding, the bias of the individual chosen to carry out the task, and internal company structure, for example. The design activity itself is often viewed as a black art, reected in practitioners reluctance to describe it in a formal manner, believing this will stie creativity. Fortunately several of the companies involved with this research have

had to go through this often painful identication process for the purpose of getting formal certication of their procedures. There is little doubt that models and standards (e.g. BS 5760: Part 14 (1993) and BS 7000 (1989)) can be useful and relevant in aiding process identication. However, it is clear from the literature and the empirical data that the common-sense good practices are often not communicated to and within companies in a way that is understandable and usable. The language used and aims of each is very much dependent on the author or the industry and also the intended audience of the model. For instance, typical NPDD models are aimed at management (e.g. Cooper, 1994) or at designers (e.g. Pugh, 1990) or were developed for specic industry needs (such as Product Introduction Model (PIM) at Lucas (Lucas Industries PLC, 1993)). There may also be generic standards which can be easily misinterpreted if not given adequate thought or consideration on the part of the user (e.g. ISO 9001 (1994)), as was the case in one of the companies studied. This company had ISO 9001 certication but developed procedures on what it thought should be happening rather than what was actually the case, and quite rightly they were required by their third party certication body to amend these procedures in order to retain certication. Consequently, a great deal of effort had to be devoted to assess

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the activities of each individual to create an accurate set of procedures that did actually reect reality. It has been suggested by some authors that the needs of the SME are not directly addressed by current standards/guidelines (e.g. Wareham, 1994; Pengelly, 1994; Rayner and Porter, 1991) or by texts on this subject (e.g. Hollins and Pugh, 1990; Menon, 1992; Crawford, 1994; Souder and Sherman, 1994) which appear to be derived from the experiences of large firms. From these works and the empirical evidence gathered from the initial fieldwork, it became clear that there was a need for a generic process summary and a breakdown of NPDD process facilitation issues suitable for tailoring to individual company requirements, in particular SMEs.

impart a prescriptive model that could be interpreted as a how to guide to best practice. Because of the natural diversity of companies, prescriptive models that are excessively generic will not work. Rather, the aim was to aid company managers to become aware of the whole process and how to relate this to their own experiences, which in turn provide a starting point for the improvement of the process and/or its management. A summary of the three main process identification sections of the model pre-design and development, design and development, and post-design/development is given in Table I. These themselves comprise one or more distinct generic phases. The next section summarises them in brief. Pre-design and development Idea This is the phase in which a business opportunity is identied and evaluated with respect to the general requirements of the company: Identication Relates to those mechanisms in place that allow business opportunities to be identied. Collation This is how business opportunities are brought to light within the company so that they can be assessed for suitability. Prioritisation The opportunity rating in relation to its importance to the company to turn the opportunity into a viable business proposition (i.e. immediate action vs. putting on the back burner). Idea introduction If the idea is to be considered seriously then the mechanisms for subjecting it to more detailed feasibility studies need to be in place. Design and development Concept Within this phase the business opportunity is evaluated to determine the detailed requirements of the proposed product. The objective is to convert the business opportunity into a viable solution which will full all internal and external requirements. Exploration of the requirements should encompass all aspects of the proposed idea, different possible solutions and necessary activities to support its production: Feasibility studies Assessment of all aspects of the opportunity from technical capabilities, costing and budgeting, materials, human resource and production requirements, post-company support,

Process summary
Process models have, generally, developed from a sequential approach that requires formalisation of process and a structured framework. There are many examples of PIM developed by companies to address these issues and the management of the process. Two well-known examples are those of Lucas and BAe Dynamics, who have developed and optimised their respective PIM which classify information needs in an attempt to adapt quickly to changes. By having a framework for the NPDD process, managerial control (including traceability) can be taken while, at the same time, enabling the creative activity in the process to be maintained. Without this control, people may focus on their own interests, which may well be at the expense of the company. With control and a formalised structure, interaction is engendered providing a basis on which meaningful working relationships can be built. The ndings from this research supports the view that formalisation fosters effective communication. Analysis of the data from the fieldwork indicated a prior need for an overview of the process and required an understanding of how information was organised (i.e. a good strategic insight as to where the company was going in terms of NPDD), in order to provide a frame of reference for those not directly involved in the process (e.g. production engineering, operations and purchasing staff). However, care was exercised not to

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Table I Process identication

Pre-design/ development Idea Identication Collation Prioritisation Idea introduction Concept

Design and development process Design Preproduction validation Trial production Batch testing Beta/gamma testing Launch planning

Post-design/ development Production/ distribution Assembly Manufacture Launch Sales Delivery Postcompany Performance Sales Disposal

Conceptualisation Design (incl. Feasibility industrial/ studies peripheral) Peripherals Prototyping Tooling Testing

ethical considerations, time scales and customer requirements. Concept/realisation The conversion of the opportunity into real solutions must encompass the requirements set out by the feasibility studies. Further studies may need to be undertaken to assess the merits of the proposed solutions. Peripherals The details of the product, such as the aesthetics, packaging, storage and delivery methods. Design A decision having being reached in the previous phase about the detailed requirements of the proposed product, the aim here is to determine the exact parameters of the product to t these boundaries; a possible solution is converted to a viable set of production instructions. It includes the initial testing of any prototypes to conrm that the physical requirements are adequate as well as initial tests to conrm that production requirements are being met: Design This includes not only engineering designs, but industrial and peripheral requirements. Prototyping A physical or computer representation of the product, so that it can be tested for certain physical or operational requirements. Prototypes can also aid communication of the physical appearance and parameters which are required. Tooling Production of a prototype enables the tooling requirements to be determined, as well as possible methods of production and assembly. Alpha testing This to conrm the physical requirements of the product, as well as its production and assembly suitability. Pre-production validation To ensure the smooth transition of the detailed design to the

end product, account should be taken of the way in which the product is to be produced. By initiating a trial run, the product and its method of production can be assessed for optimal progression: Trial production Confirms the manufacturing and assembly processes required to produce the product and that the production equipment is capable of maintaining the specifications required of the product. Batch testing Confirms that the product complies with the specifications laid down. Beta/gamma testing Gauges the reactions of existing customers or cold testing of the product on potential customers. In this way feedback is given so that unforeseen requirements can be addressed before the company commits to full-scale production. Post-design/development Production/distribution This phase pertains to the physical manufacture of the product, as well as its subsequent release onto the market and its delivery to the market/ customers. It includes the stages of: manufacture, assembly, launch, sales and delivery. Post-company The progress of the product after it has left the company is important. By monitoring the issues arising from complaints, positive feedback, sales, aftercare enquiries, use, lifetime, and disposal, this may identify some crucial new ideas for improving the product itself or even for new products. It includes issues such as: performance, sales, and disposal.

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Facilitation issues
The linear layout of the model (Figure 1) hides the fact that the process is iterative and within it there is an inherent amount of uncertainty. It is important therefore that uncertainties are reduced and the cyclic nature of the information ow encouraged. The facilitation issues represented in the model are the management activities necessary for development of the NPDD process. Seven key factors, which have been empirically derived, are fundamental to the effective operation of the NPDD process. A brief summary of the associated issues is given with each of the factors but this list is not exhaustive. The issues are inter-related and the groupings are for clarication of ideas only: NPDD Strategy strategic direction and long-term vision of the requirements of the NPDD process provides the framework which co-ordinates all process activities: overview of process requirements; future directions with respect to company goals; ethical issues; resourcing; time/nancial constraints; uncertainty and attitude to risk; senior management support; denition of project boundaries; benchmarking. Common information availability and accessibility of knowledge within the company so that personnel have the information they need to enable them to complete their job in the most effective manner: previous NPDD history; business plans and nancial projections; working practices; product portfolios including the postcompany performance; customers, markets and competitors; suppliers; skills and expertise available; technology available and associated capabilities; quality and traceability procedures; quality control and assurance procedures; training (e.g. courses, programmes, and resources available).

Multi-disciplinary input differing points of view are considered to ensure that as many eventualities as possible regarding a new product are considered at all stages of the NPDD process and also as early as possible: Internal functions marketing, business, purchasing, research and development, administrative, sales, production. External functions for example, customers, suppliers, universities, and government. NPDD review aims to ensure that the requirements of the process and the product are at all times co-ordinated and fullled: process review and the methods used; conformability and risk; project co-ordination; denition of project/phase/product/ activity requirements; benchmarking. NPDD control if process requirements are not being met a means of control is needed to halt or hold the process. This type of control is also needed to progress the process when the requirements for a given phase have been fulfilled to a predetermined standard. At any given point in the process, the mechanisms need to be in place to effect any of these decisions: process denition and framework; control points; project leadership and its co-ordination; responsibility and accountability; quality assurance and improvement; conformability to project/phase/ product/activity requirements; response to change (both internal and external) and lack of conformability to requirements. Communication an essential requirement of the NPDD process, with information exchange across all functional, departmental and hierarchical boundaries: paper, electronic, verbal; informal/formal; internal/external; interfunctional, interdepartmental, vertical, horizontal; procedures (see information management below); working practices. Information management reinforces communication interactions and exists to make

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sure that information is delivered in an optimum format at required points in time to relevant personnel, be they internal or external to the company: information routes, destinations, format and medium; information feedback mechanisms; timelines; information priority including previous information in relation to current activities; information source and date/time of release; authorising information sources and procedures and responses; aiding informal information exchange; engineering change control (conguration management).

Model application
The application of the model requires that the NPDD process is rst identied. This means, implicitly, that companies must have a clear strategy (no matter how informally dened) for their NPDD activity. This point cannot be over-emphasised. To assist with this identication, the model has been presented as a sequence of phases with generic activities associated with each. This helps to determine the information requirements of the NPDD process which is then used in the creation of the review and control criteria necessary for each phase, thus enabling denition of the NPDD project boundaries appropriate to the company. As every company is unique, they will each have differing requirements of their NPDD process. Therefore, it is the responsibility of the individual company to derive an NPDD process summary that is appropriate to their own requirements. Experience from the research indicates that generic models are most effective when tailored to individual needs. Table II contains a summary of the generic process phases along with the associated review and control criteria. Use of the generic model may aid clarication of activities or events, but is not intended as a how to guide for companies wishing to improve their NPDD process. The aim of the model and its framework is to aid managers develop an understanding of the NPDD process. The broad headings of the framework have been identied from what is considered to be best practice from literature and eldwork sources. The facilitation

issues can be used as a checklist to identify at any stage in the NPDD process the essential management practices that are evident within the company. Using the experiences and knowledge of a group of personnel who reect the process inputs throughout the NPDD cycle, the framework may be altered to represent the actual phases and activities occurring within the company. In this way an accurate process model is derived that generalises the NPDD process and the associated information requirements. The generic framework gives an overall picture of the process for individuals to discuss and, in this way, it acts as a guide. The process summary provides a starting point for the improvement of the process and its management. By assessing the information requirements, provision can be made to ensure that these needs are identified and considered early in the NPDD process. For example, the disposability of a product occurs at the end of its lifecycle; however, the information pertinent to the disposal (e.g. recycling issues, hazards to the public, etc.) are important criteria to include within the initial specifications of the product design. The identication of the process is a complicated activity and requires a great amount of effort and resource on the part of the company. Associated with this is the identication of the management issues necessary for the effective running of the process. However, the exercise will enable a company to stand back from its daily activities and obtain an overall view of the process, and is a starting point of self-improvement.

Summary
To understand the essentials of the NPDD process it is important to have an overview of the process to aid common understanding between those personnel who have both direct and indirect involvements with NPDD activities. Misunderstandings often occur because individuals cannot see the whole picture which can cause mistrust or even resentment in respect of the reasoning behind a particular decision that has been taken. The framework derived from the research and discussed in this paper is a means of organising NPDD information without imparting a model that can be interpreted as a how to guide to best practice.

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Table II Summary of the NPDD process and its main activities

Process summary Generic phases Generic phase activities

Pre-design/ development Idea Concept

Design and development process Design Design (incl. Industrial/ peripheral) Protyping Tooling Testing Detailed design review Design schemes Evaluation Design activities review Design denition Preproduction validation Trial production Batch testing Beta/gamma testing Launch planning Final design review

Post-design/development Production/ distribution Assembly Manufacture Launch Sales Delivery Product review Post-company Performance Sales Disposal

Sourcing Conceptualisation Collation Feasibility studies Prioritisation Peripherals Idea introduction

Phase review

Initial review Requirements Impact on company Initial project denition

Preliminary design review Idea realisations Evaluation-market Technical Business Concept denition

Product performance review Market/customer response Legislation New technologies Competition Sales/orders End customer Product use Product disposal Requirements from replacement!

Review criteria

Batch analysis Production Reliability/ schemes reproducibility Sales/marketing Project review literature Product Aftercare support denition schemes Product denition Product Product specications Peripherals/ packaging Delivery/storage Guarantees Product support

Phase denition/ Project control denition Control criteria Time constraints Resourcing Project (team) personnel Project priority

Concept denition

Design denition

Initial specications Specications/ Production Detailed project plan drawings methods Time constraints Prototypes/models Packaging/ Resource allocations Conformability peripherals Reliability Product specications

The summary of issues provided is useful to all members of a company hierarchy, from designers to members of the senior management team. The framework helps to promote discussion of the approaches undertaken within a companys NPDD process. This incorporates a series of prompts, so although ideas are put forward they all do not have to be incorporated into the NPDD process. Improving the management of the NPDD process requires a commitment of resources. By prompting responses with the use of generic issues, the companys NPDD activities will be identied more easily. The authors consider that SMEs would benet from using the framework as part of their strategy for enhancing their understanding and improvement of the NPDD process. It is also hoped that in assessing its own activities, the SME will be less vulnerable to detrimental outside inuences,

and will be more responsive to the needs of its customers both internally and externally.

References
BS 5760 (1993), Reliability of Systems, Equipment and Components, Part 14 Guide to Formal Design Review, British Standards Institution, London. BS 7000 (1989), Guide to Managing Product Design, British Standards Institution, London. Cooper, R.G. (1994), Third generation new product processes, Journal of Product Innovation Management, Vol. 11 No. 2, pp. 3-14. Crawford, C.M. (1994), New Products Management, Irwin, IL. Hollins, B. and Pugh, S. (1990), Successful Product Design, Butterworth and Co, London. ISO 9001 (1994), Quality Systems Model for Quality Assurance in Design, Development, Production, Installation and Servicing, British Standards Institution, London.

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Lucas Industries plc (1993), Product Introduction Management, Birmingham. Menon, H.G. (1992), TQM in New Product Manufacturing, McGraw-Hill Inc, New York, NY. Pengelly, R.J. (1994), ISO 9000 The Revision The Small Business Perspective, IEE Colloquium on ISO 9000 The Revisions, Institution of Electrical Engineers, London, pp. 5/1-5/5. Pugh, S. (1990), Total Design Integrated Methods for Successful Product Engineering, Addison-Wesley, New York, NY.

Rayner, P. and Porter, L.J. (1991), BS 5750/ISO 9000 the experience of small and medium-sized rms,

International Journal of Quality & Reliability Management, Vol. 8 No. 6, pp. 16-28.
Souder, W.E. and Sherman, J.D. (1994), Managing New

Technology Development, McGraw-Hill, New York,

NY. Wareham, E.M. (1994), ISO 9000 and the very small rm, IEE Review, September, pp. 207-9.

Commentary
Quality management, as they say, means quality of management as well as management of quality; therefore, quality of management has to extend backwards into quality of design. This is a highly useful condensation of anecdote and case example into a generic design framework. 179