Professional Documents
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Ulcers
Long-Term Care Clinical Manual
Pressure
Ulcers
Long-Term Care Clinical Manual
5 4 3 2 1
ISBN: 978-1-60146-719-5
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Barbara Acello, MS, RN, Author
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Contents
CD Contents........................................................................................................................ ix
A Word from the Author................................................................................................... xv
Disclaimer........................................................................................................................ xviii
Chapter 1: Overview of Anatomy and Physiology of the Skin........................................ 1
Facts About the Integumentary System.............................................................................................................. 1
The Integumentary System.................................................................................................................................. 2
Aging Changes..................................................................................................................................................... 4
Pressure Ulcers.................................................................................................................................................... 6
Wound Healing..................................................................................................................................................... 6
iv
Contents
Contents
vi
Contents
Contents
Osteomyelitis................................................................................................................................................... 179
Wound Culture................................................................................................................................................. 181
Necrotizing Fasciitis.......................................................................................................................................... 183
Risk of Tetanus in Pressure Ulcers, Skin Tears, and Chronic Wounds............................................................. 186
Care Plan Approaches and Practices for Preventing Wound Infection............................................................. 188
vii
CD Contents
Chapter 1
Panic Values
Chapter 3
Chapter 2
Lawsuit Report
Management Overview
Tissue Test
CD Contents
Chapter 4
Body Positions
Complications of Immobility
Bridging
Chapter 7
Chapter 5
Evaluating Edema
Tip-the-Waiter Technique
Wheelchair Fit
Wheelchair Parts
Chapter 8
Chapter 6
Advantages and Disadvantages of Support Surfaces
AHCPR Support Surfaces Decision Tree
CD Contents
Chapter 10
Pain Problem
Wound Pain
Irrigation Pressures
Procedural Actions
Chapter 9
Dressing Type for Wound Characteristics
Procedural Actions
Procedure for Applying a Hydrocolloid Dressing
Procedure for Applying a Transparent Film Dressing
Pressure Ulcer Treatment Product Categories
Red, Yellow, and Black
Types of Dressings
xi
xii
CD Contents
Chapter 11
Quick Assessment
Skin Tears
Suggested Skin Tear Protocols
Chapter 12
Adult Immunization Schedules
Survey Comparison
Hand Hygiene
Top 10 Deficiencies
Infection Criteria
Chapter 15
Daily Documentation
Expert Report
F514
PPE Sequence
CDC Poster: Applying and Removing PPE
Procedure for Needle Aspiration
Procedure for Swab Wound Culture
Forms
Admission Physician Order Sheet
AMDA 24-Hour Report
Assessment
Standard Precautions
Chapter 13
Gauging Pressure Ulcers Toolkit
Chapter 14
CNANurse Communication
CD Contents
Pain Scales
Forms: Pain Scales
PowerPoint Slides
Pain Assessment
Pain Screen
Useful Resources
CFMC Glossary
In-Service Resources
Other Resources
Resources/URLs
Wheelchair Rodeo
Weight Record
Wound Care Competency
Wound Evaluation and Follow-Up
xiii
Introduction
According to an old maxim, long-term care facilities are more highly regulated than nuclear power. One
area of recent regulation is pressure ulcers. Pressure ulcers (F314) is always on the annual top 10 list of
most commonly cited survey citations. However, this subject isnt really about rules. Pressure ulcers are
painful. Treatments can be very painful. Residents have a right to be free from pain. In addition to being
a source of pain, pressure ulcers often lead to many additional complications due to the disruption of
skin integrity. These include infection of the soft tissues surrounding the wound (cellulitis), infection of
the bone (osteomyelitis), infection of a joint (septic arthritis), abscesses, chronic infection, development
of undermining, tunneling, and sinus tracts. Worse yet, pressure ulcers can cause systemic spread of
bacteria (bacteremia/septicemia) and septic shock, which can lead to death. Complications can occur
despite apparent improvement in the ulcer.
It goes without saying that pressure ulcers increase the legal exposure of facilities and nurses. Pressure
ulcers are the leading cause of lawsuits against long-term care facilities, accounting for approximately
17,000 lawsuits each year. There are usually many additional peripheral and contributing factors, such as
development of contractures, malnutrition, dehydration, infection, and sepsis. Surprisingly, many facility
residents develop malnutrition and dehydration despite the presence of feeding tubes, and this is a
common factor in skin breakdown. The plaintiff often names the director and assistant director of
nursing, MDS nurse, and various shift supervisors and charge nurses in addition to the facility, its owners, and board members. A nonmedical jury is responsible for sorting it all out, and saying that juries are
often grossed out by the details, photos, and autopsy findings is an understatement. Laypeople view
medical conditions very differently from those of us who are exposed to them day after day, year after
year. Pressure ulcer lawsuits often invoke strong emotions and feelings of sympathy, and it shows when
million dollar verdicts are awarded to residents or their survivors.
xvi
You probably learned the maxim pressure ulcers are easier to prevent than to treat when you were in
nursing school. We have many sacred cows in nursing, but this old adage is absolutely true. This book
contains useful clinical pearls, helpful factoids, and functional tools with which to do your job. You
already know how to be a nurse, so it is not a rehash of familiar policies and procedures. It was not
written to be highly technical, theoretical, or to present the results of complex research. Rather, the
primary goal is to provide information and tools that will be both practical and functional to nurses in
developing, enhancing, improving, or revamping a pressure ulcer prevention and management program.
The book focuses on resources you need and beneficial information for administering a successful
program. It is not meant to be an exhaustive or comprehensive source of information, such as a textbook.
It includes current clinical information that will complement more exhaustive sources of long-term care
nursing reference material. Some of the information is likely to be new, and some not. Take what makes
sense and adapt whatever works to your facility and your residents. Pressure ulcer care is so highly
individualized that providing rigid rules is impossible.
When I was a director of nursing at a large skilled nursing facility, I conducted various wound product
studies, looking for the panacea to quickly heal all pressure ulcers. I finally concluded that no panacea
existed, and I learned to match the treatment product to the wound characteristics. This was effective,
and a good learning experience. However, the most important lesson I learned was that I had fewer
wounds if I paid a great deal of attention to the numbers. My staff did not want me on their units checking behind them, monitoring and adjusting care plans, or generally ranting and raving about the evils
associated with in-house pressure ulcers, and thus did all they could to prevent them. If a minor area
developed, their goal was to identify and heal it quickly, before I found out about it, although no one
would admit it. If I got busy or distracted for a few weeks, the numbers seemed to find a way of increasing.
Because of this, I encourage you to make your dislike of pressure ulcers very clear. It doesnt matter
whether you are a nurse manager or staff nurse. This is an area where all nurses have a modicum of
control. Develop a weekly tracking and reporting system. If a new ulcer develops or an existing ulcer is
not healing, make it your business to investigate the situation. I think you will be surprised and pleased,
just as I was when I learned that simply paying close attention to pressure ulcers had a dramatic effect on
resident care in the facility!
Working in long-term care is the toughest job you will ever love. Your mission and responsibility are
monumental, and the essence of quality care resides in the manner in which staff considers and relates to
residents as individuals. Quality of life is the result of a culture of caring. When the facility has a culture
of caring, quality of care flourishes. Nurses with a vision create this culture. Everyone benefits. Long-term
care nursing is a calling. Dont view it as a chore. We hope this book provides you with useful tools with
which to further the process. Your work is sacred, and by providing quality care, you are making a
difference. Believe in that, and believe in yourself!
Acknowledgments
Pressure Ulcers: Long-Term Care Clinical Manual was written with a great deal of personal and professional
collaboration. I am sincerely grateful for the assistance and cooperation of my colleagues:
Gwen Valois, MS, RN, BC, Director of Education, CiNet Healthcare Learning
Jayne Ball, Barbara Braden, and Nancy Bergstrom, Prevention Plus & TexTeach, LLC
National Pressure Ulcer Advisory Panel (NPUAP)
Frances Lovett, RN, WCC, LNCC
Bernard Pradines, MD, Centre Hospitalier, Albi, France
Karen Lou Kennedy-Evans, RN, CS, FNP
Cynthia Salzman, MHA, Northwest Regional Spinal Cord Injury System
Laura Grey More, MSW, LCSW
Ryan Sparks, MS, MBA, Vice President, General Manager, Care2Learn Enterprise
New Zealand Medical Association
Steve Warren, Vice President, Skil-Care Corporation
I am grateful for the unfailing support and assistance of my son, Jon Acello, for the professional quality
scans and photos. Adrienne Trivers, HCPro, Inc. Managing Editor, has shaped the book you hold in your
hands. She is committed to quality, and I sincerely appreciate the many hours she has devoted to making
this the best book possible. Many unnamed individuals at HCPro handle the manuscript as it makes its
way through the production process. Each makes a contribution that ultimately enhances the value of the
book, and I sincerely appreciate their efforts.
Good luck with your mission to provide quality pressure ulcer prevention and management. Geriatric care
is my first love, and I sincerely admire those who work in the difficult financial and regulatory environment we call long-term care. I believe in you, support you, admire your commitment, and sincerely hope
this information is useful to you. Please feel free to contact me through HCPro or by e-mail if you have
questions or comments.
Barbara Acello, MS, RN
bacello@spamcop.net
xvii
Disclaimer
In addition to the care provided by physicians, some facilities are also fortunate to have the services of
advanced practice nurses (including nurse practitioners and clinical nurse specialists) and physician
assistants. These well-educated and highly qualified individuals provide excellent care to residents in
long-term care facilities. Collectively, we refer to these individuals as healthcare providers or healthcare practitioners. Occasionally, the term physician is used for brevity only. This is not intended to
minimize the important work of advanced practice nurses and physician assistants. When the reader is
advised to notify the physician, facilities may also notify the advanced practice nurse or physician assistant, if available, and as required by state law and facility policies.
Every effort has been made to ensure that this material is timely and accurate at the time of publication,
but pressure ulcer care involves evidence-based practices that change frequently. The author, editors, and
publisher have done everything possible to ensure that this book is current and in compliance with the
standards of care. The author, editors, and publisher are not responsible for errors or omissions or for
consequences from application of the book, and make no warranty, expressed or implied, in regard to
the contents of the book. Neither the author nor the publisher nor any other individual or party involved
in the preparation of this information will be liable for any special, consequential, or exemplary damages
resulting in whole or in part from any individuals use of or reliance on this material. The practices described in this book should be applied in accordance with facility policies and procedures, state and
federal laws, the nurse practice act for your state, professional standards of practice, and the individual
circumstances that apply to each resident encounter and situation.
Chap ter 1
Chapter 1
four years. The hair on the head grows at a rate of approximately 1 cm (0.3937 inches) per month. The
average person loses approximately 50100 hairs from the head each day.
There are 650 sweat glands in 1 square inch of skin. Sweat from the underarm and genital areas is
odorless. Unpleasant body odors result from the action of bacteria on the sweat. The human body smell
is distinctive, as individual as a fingerprint, and unique to family groups.
Skin layers
The skin (Figure 1.1) consists of three distinct layers: epidermis, dermis, and subcutaneous tissue. The
epidermis, or top layer, is fastened to the dermis, or second layer. The dermis consists of thick connective
tissue. Persons with thin skin have a thin epidermis; those with thick skin have a fairly thick epidermis.
LESSON 3
The top of the epidermis consists of dead cells that shed continuously as new cells move upward from the
a. This
Integumentary
System.
Thesointegumentary
system
includes do
thenot
integument
dermis.
layer contains no
blood vessels,
superficial injuries
to the epidermis
bleed. How-
proper and the integumentary derivatives. We know the integument proper as the skin.
ever, nerve endings in this layer are abundant. These receptors are in constant contact with the environIt is the outermost covering of the whole body. The integumentary derivatives include
andnails,
provide
information
about heat,
cold,skin.
pain, pressure, and temperature.
thement
hairs,
and
various glands
of the
b. Fascial
System.
A fascia
is aepithelial
sheet orcells
collection
of fibrousinconnective
tissue
The epidermis
consists
of stratified
squamous
that are organized
four or five layers.
The
(FCT). The superficial fascia is the connective tissue which lies immediately beneath
number of cell layers differs based on location. The soles of the feet and palms of the hands have five
the skin and is often known as the subcutaneous layer. Deep fasciae (plural) form
layers and for
are about
7 mmand
thick
(Figure
1.2A). and
Otherfill
areas
of the body
only
four layers
because there
envelopes
muscles
other
organs
spaces.
Onehave
deep
fascial
membrane
is
theis third
envelope
of
the
whole
body,
beneath
the
skin
and
the
subcutaneous
layer.
It
is
less exposure to friction (Figure 1.2B). The skin is much thinner and softer in these areas. The epiderknown
as thedehydration
investing deep
fascia.tissues; keeps fluid and nutrients in the skin; and protects the
mis prevents
of underlying
body from microbial invasion, toxins, light, and mechanical injury. This layer responds to many stimuli.
MD0006
3-2
Pressure Ulcers: Long-Term Care Clinical Manual
Chapter 1
Sole of foot
Figure 1.2A
Figure 1.2B
Epidermis
Epidermis
Dermis
Dermis
Sole of foot
Compare the depth of the epidermis and dermis on the soles of the feet with the skin on the abdomen and thighs.
The dermis (corium) keeps the epidermis in place through attachment with connective tissue and elastic
fiber. The dermis is thick on the soles of the feet and palms of the hands, and thin on the eyelids, penis,
and scrotum. The dermis contains numerous blood vessels, nerves, lymph vessels, hair follicles, sweat
glands, and sensory receptors.
The upper one-fifth of the dermis is the papillary layer. This layer has small fingerlike projections that
extend deep into the surface of the epidermis. The reticular layer is the remainder of the dermis. It
consists of connective tissue interwoven with bundles of collagenous and coarse fibers. Adipose tissue,
hair follicles, nerves, oil glands, and the ducts of sweat glands reside between the fibers. The collagenous
and elastic fibers provide skin strength, extensibility, and elasticity. The dermis is very vascular. In fact, it
is more vascular than any other organ system. This layer assists with temperature regulation and provides
oxygen and nutrients to the epidermis.
The subcutaneous (adipose) layer consists of adipose tissue and loose connective tissue. This layer stores
water and fat. It provides insulation from loss of heat, gives the body shape and form, provides a cushion
against injury, supports other tissues, and provides a pathway for nerves and blood vessels.
Aging Changes
Many aging changes occur to the skin. Sadly, many are visible. The ability of the skin to distribute pressure decreases with age. Changes in collagen synthesis negatively affect the mechanical potential of the
tissue, which becomes stiffer and less able to withstand the effects of pressure. Muscle tone decreases,
Pressure Ulcers: Long-Term Care Clinical Manual
subcutaneous tissue is reduced, and inadequate nutrition (which is common in older persons) affects
healing ability. Dehydration and inadequate fluid intake further reduce skin elasticity and increase the
risk of injury. Aging changes include:
Subcutaneous fat and elastin diminishes
The skin thins, loses elasticity, and develops wrinkles
The skin becomes dry and fragile
Blood vessels near the skin surface become more prominent
Blood vessels that nourish the skin become more fragile with reduced capillary blood flow; senile
purpura are common and healing is delayed
Blood supply to lower extremities is reduced, increasing the risk of skin breakdown, gangrene,
amputation, and related complications
Sensitivity to pressure and temperature is reduced
Age spots become evident
Risk of injury increases; the skin bruises, cuts, tears, and breaks more readily
A person may complain of feeling cold
Risk of pressure, friction, and shearing injuries increases
Glandular activity decreases
Oil glands secrete less, causing the skin to dry and possibly become pruritic (scratching may
cause injury)
Perspiration decreases
Thermoregulatory ability is impaired
Veins dilate
Risk of injury increases due to impaired sensation
Melanin production is decreased; color is lost and hair turns gray
Hormone production changes; females develop facial, chin, and upper lip hair
Scalp, pubic, and axillary hair thins
Pressure Ulcers: Long-Term Care Clinical Manual
Chapter 1
Pressure Ulcers
An ulcer is a skin lesion in which the epidermis and upper dermis have been destroyed. Ulcers have many
causes, including skin trauma, chemicals, parasites, tumors, and infections. Those caused by pressure
often result in rapid, extensive tissue destruction. An ulcer always results in a scar.
A pressure ulcer is any lesion caused by unrelieved pressure that results in damage to underlying tissue.
Humans have more pain receptors than any other type of sensory nerve receptor. Even a small red area
or break in the skin can be very painful.
Pressure ulcers usually occur over bony prominences and are staged to classify the degree of tissue
damage that is observed or identified during the nursing assessment. Ulcers that are covered with eschar
or large amounts of slough are considered unstageable. Pressure ulcers do not necessarily progress from
Stage I to Stage IV or heal from Stage IV to Stage I.1
Although friction and shear are not primary causes of pressure ulcers, they are some of the most important contributing factors to pressure ulcer development.2 Pressure ulcers are largely, but not 100%
preventable, 3 and they are much easier to prevent than treat. They take a long time to heal, and even
after healing, the tissue is scarred and is never as strong as it was previously.
Wound Healing
Partial-thickness wounds involve the epidermis and upper dermis and heal by regeneration. Function is
not lost, and scar tissue does not form for most superficial injuries. Full-thickness wounds result from
destruction of the epidermis, dermis, and subcutaneous tissue. Muscle and other structures may also be
damaged. Full-thickness wounds heal by scar tissue formation, which involves granulation, contraction
(wound shrinkage), and epithelialization. A full-thickness pressure ulcer (Stage III or IV) can never
revert to a partial-thickness wound (Stage I or II). Healing occurs in three stages:
The inflammatory phase occurs immediately after injury and lasts a brief time in partial-thickness
wounds. The wound experiences an inflammatory response with heat, redness, pain, swelling, and
impaired function. Inflammation usually lasts about three days. Vasoconstriction occurs within seconds
after injury and lasts a few minutes. It is followed by vasodilation, which is caused by local stimulation
of the nerve endings. The wound produces a serous exudate that forms a scab if allowed to dry.
The proliferative phase overlaps the inflammatory phase slightly and continues until the wound
heals. This phase involves regrowth of the epidermis. (Epithelialization is part of this stage but
actually begins within hours of injury, during the inflammatory phase.) Small partial-thickness
wounds that have been left open to air will heal in about six to seven days. Moist wounds will heal in
about four days. Wounds involving loss of the epidermis and dermis repair both layers simultaneously. By the ninth day, collagen fibers emerge in the wound bed of a Stage II ulcer. Collagen synthesis continues until about 10 or 15 days after the injury and continues to produce new connective
tissue. Collagen synthesis requires vitamin C, amino acid, and adequate nutritional intake. Some
experts theorize that cells surrounding hair follicles contribute considerably to dermal repair,
accelerating healing in hairy areas of the body. In wounds with substantial tissue loss, granulation
tissue contracts to close the area. This contracture does not occur in wounds with little tissue loss.
The maturation phase begins about three weeks after injury and may continue for years in chronic
wounds. In this stage, the collagen that has been deposited in the wound is remodeled and reorgan
ized, which strengthens the wound and makes it more like adjacent tissue. New collagen is deposited,
which compresses blood vessels and flattens the scar (Figure 1.3). However, the area of a serious skin
injury is never as strong as it was prior
to the injury. The scar will not sweat,
Figure 1.3
Hypertrophic
Atrophic
Figure
Scar.
An ulcer that destroys
the3-12.
epidermis
and dermis will
result in a scar.
Chapter 1
References
1. The National Pressure Ulcer Advisory Panel (NPUAP). (2007). Pressure Ulcer Stages Revised by NPUAP. Retrieved March 2, 2010,
from www.npuap.org/pr2.htm
2. Cuddigan, J.; Ayello, E.A.; Sussman, C.; & Baranoski, S. (Eds.). (2001). Pressure Ulcers in America: Prevalence, Incidence, and
Implications for the Future. National Pressure Ulcer Advisory Panel Monograph (p. 181). Reston, VA: NPUAP.
3. NPUAP. Not All Pressure Ulcers Are Avoidable. Press release, March 3, 2010. Online April 29, 2010, www.npuap.org/A_UA%20
Press%20Release.pdf
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