Hydrology and Groundwater Notes Testmasters

Table of Contents Hydrology _____________________________________________________________ 4

Hydrology and the Hydrologic Cycle ___________________________________________ 4
Components of the Hydrologic Cycle Storages and Flows________________________________ 5

Precipitation _______________________________________________________________ 7
Storm Characteristics ______________________________________________________________ 7 Intensity-Duration-Frequency (IDF) Curves ____________________________________________ 7 Synthetic Rainfall Distributions from the NRCS________________________________________ 10 Double-Mass Analysis of Point Precipitation __________________________________________ 12 Estimating Missing Point Precipitation Data ___________________________________________ 13 Converting Point Precipitation to Areal Precipitation ____________________________________ 14

Evapotranspiration ________________________________________________________ 16
Evaporation from an Open-Water Body ______________________________________________ 16

Reservoirs ________________________________________________________________ 17
Water Supply Reservoirs __________________________________________________________ 17 Reservoirs for Flood Control and Other Uses __________________________________________ 18

Flood Control Analysis and Design ___________________________________________ 19

Streamflow or Total Runoff Hydrograph______________________________________________ 21 Frequency and Probability for Flood Control Design ____________________________________ 24

Travel Time Concepts ______________________________________________________ 25

Time of Concentration ____________________________________________________________ 25

Effective Rainfall Model for Effective Rainfall Generation from Rainfall____________ 32

Phi () Index Approach___________________________________________________________ 32 NRCS (previously SCS) Curve Number Method _______________________________________ 33

Peak Runoff Calculation ____________________________________________________ 45

Rational Formula ________________________________________________________________ 45 Modified Rational Formula ________________________________________________________ 47 NRCS Graphical Peak Discharge Method _____________________________________________ 48

Total Runoff Hydrograph Separation into Direct Runoff and Baseflow _____________ 53 Unit Hydrograph Method for Converting Effective Rainfall into a Direct Runoff Hydrograph ______________________________________________________________ 55
Determination of a Unit Hydrograph from a Total Runoff Hydrograph ______________________ 55 Convolution of Effective Rainfall with the Unit Hydrograph to Generate Direct Runoff Hydrographs ______________________________________________________________________________ 57 Generating Unit Hydrographs of Different Duration (tr) __________________________________ 59 NRCS Synthetic Unit Hydrograph___________________________________________________ 62

Groundwater__________________________________________________________ 66
Aquifers__________________________________________________________________ 66 Aquifer Characteristics _____________________________________________________ 67 Permeability, Conductivity, Transmissivity ____________________________________ 68
Averaging Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity on Layered Aquifers _________________________ 70 Constant Head Permeability Test____________________________________________________ 71 Variable or Falling Head Permeability Test____________________________________________ 72 Empirical Formulas for Estimating Hydraulic Conductivity or Permeability __________________ 73

Storativity, Specific Retention, and Specific Capacity ____________________________ 73

Unsaturated Zone__________________________________________________________ 75 Darcys Law ______________________________________________________________ 76 Well Drawdown in Aquifers _________________________________________________ 77

Steady-State Well Discharge for an Unconfined Aquifer _________________________________ 77 Steady-State Well Discharge for a Confined Aquifer ____________________________________ 78 Transient or Unsteady Well Discharge for a Confined Aquifer_____________________________ 80

Typical Soil Properties______________________________________________________ 82

Hydrology
Hydrology and the Hydrologic Cycle
Hydrology Science that is concerned with the occurrence, movement and distribution of water within the Earth (land and ocean) and atmosphere. Hydrologic cycle Continuous process by which water is purified by evaporation and transported from the Earths surface including oceans to the atmosphere and back to the land and oceans as precipitation. Watershed, drainage basin Topographically defined area drained by a river or system of interconnected rivers such that the entire outflow from the area is discharged through a single outlet. Water balance equation The change in storage per unit time on a control volume (e.g. area, watershed, reservoir etc.) equals the sum of the inflows minus the sum of the outflows from the control volume.

S = Qin Qout t
S = t ( Qin Qout ) = Vin Vout

Qin

Qout

S = change in storage on a control volume (L3) t = time interval (t) Qin = inflows into the control volume (L3/t) Qout = outflows out of the control volume (L3/t) Vin = volume into the control volume (L3) Vout = volume out of the control volume (L3)

over time interval t

Over a long period, positive and negative water storage variations tend to balance and the change in storage S may be disregarded.

Components of the Hydrologic Cycle Storages and Flows

Precipitation Includes rain, snow and other forms of water falling from the atmosphere in liquid or solid phase into the land and oceans. Evaporation Physical process by which water is vaporized into the atmosphere from free water surface and land areas. Transpiration Water from the soil is absorbed by plant roots and eventually discharged into the atmosphere through little pores in the leaves called stomata. It is a side effect of the plant needing to open its stomata in order to obtain carbon dioxide from the air for photosynthesis. Transpiration cools plants and allows flow of nutrients from the plants roots to its stems and leaves. Evapotranspiration Combined processes by which water is transferred to the atmosphere from open water surfaces and vegetation. Potential Evapotranspiration Measure of how much the atmosphere controls evapotranspiration independent of the surface hydrologic conditions. Quantity of water evaporated from an idealized extensive free water surface per unit area, per unit time under existing atmospheric conditions. Detention storage Fraction of precipitation that is stored temporarily on the land surface en route to a stream. Infiltration Movement of water from the land surface to the upper layers of the soil. It is usually the major abstraction from rainfall during a significant runoffproducing storm. Percolation Movement of water through the subsurface down to the water table. Overland flow Portion of runoff that travels over the surface of the ground to reach a stream channel and through the channel to the basin outlet. This process occurs relatively quickly. Surface runoff Includes all overland flow as well as precipitation falling directly onto stream channels. Subsurface runoff Portion of runoff that travels under the ground to reach a stream channel and to the basin outlet. It includes: a) interflow, and b) groundwater runoff. Interflow, throughflow, subsurface storm flow Portion of subsurface runoff that travels laterally through the unsaturated zone or through a shallow perched

saturated zone towards a stream channel. This process is slower than surface runoff.

Groundwater runoff Portion of subsurface runoff that comes from infiltration and subsequently percolation down to the water table and eventually reaches a stream channel. This process occurs relatively slowly. Baseflow, base runoff, delayed runoff Portion of the total runoff hydrograph at a stream location which is composed of contributions from: a) groundwater runoff, and b) delayed interflow. Baseflow is the result of water accumulating from previous storms and being released over an extended period of time. Direct runoff Portion of the total runoff hydrograph at a stream which is caused by and directly following a rainfall or snowmelt event. It consists of: a) overland flow, and b) quick interflow Effective precipitation, effective rainfall, precipitation excess Portion of precipitation that reaches stream channels as direct runoff. Abstractions Portion of precipitation that does not contribute to direct runoff. Includes interception, depression storage, and infiltration. Infiltration is usually the major abstraction from rainfall during a significant runoff-producing storm. Initial abstractions Abstractions prior to the beginning of runoff including infiltration prior to ponding, depression storage and interception Interception Fraction of precipitation that is retained on buildings and plants and is eventually evaporated. Depression storage Fraction of precipitation that is trapped in puddles, ditches, and other surface depressions from where it evaporates or infiltrates into the soil.

Precipitation
Precipitation is one of the most important components of the hydrologic cycle as it connects the atmospheric component of the hydrologic cycle with the land and ocean components. It includes rain, snow and other forms of water falling from the atmosphere in liquid or solid phase into the land and oceans. The most common types of rain gages are the tipping-bucket gage, and the weighing rain gage. Data collected from these gages can be plotted as a hyetograph, which is a plot of the amount of precipitation (volume or intensity) that falls as a function of time.

Storm Characteristics
The characteristics of a storm, namely depth, duration, intensity and distribution, affect the watershed response to the rainfall event. Depth Amount of precipitation that falls (usually in or cm). Duration Length of a storm (usually min, hr or day) Intensity Depth of rainfall per unit time (usually in/hr or cm/hr). Rainfall intensity changes continuously throughout a storm, but it may be averaged over short time intervals or over the entire storm duration. Distribution Describes how rainfall depth or intensity varies in space over an area or watershed

Intensity-Duration-Frequency (IDF) Curves

Intensity Depth of rainfall per unit time (usually in/hr or cm/hr). Rainfall intensity changes continuously throughout a storm, but it may be averaged over short time intervals or over the entire storm duration. Duration length of a storm (usually min, hr or day) Return period, frequency of occurrence, recurrence interval (F, years) Average number of years between events of a given intensity. 1 P( X x) F = return period (years) F=

P( X x) = cumulative or exceedance frequency = probability that an event X in any given year will equal or exceed x P( X x) can be approximated based on historical data by: m P ( X x) = n +1 m = rank of value x, with the largest equal to 1 n = number of values (in this case, number of years in the period of record)

The probability of an event of recurrence interval F occurring in any given year is: 1 P ( X x) = F For example, a 1 in 100 year storm has a 1% chance of being equaled or exceeded in intensity each year. That is, the storm would be equaled or exceeded on average 1 in 100 years.

The probability of an event of recurrence interval F not occurring in any given year is: 1 P ( X < x) = 1 P ( X x) = 1 F For example, a 1 in 100 year storm has a 99% chance of not being exceeded in intensity each year. The probability of exactly K events of recurrence interval F occurring in n years is:
1 1 P{exactly K of F events in n years} = C kn 1 F F where n! C kn = k!(n k )! The probability of at least one event of recurrence interval F occurring in n years is: P{at least one F event in n years} = 1- P{exactly 0 F events in n years}
1 = 1 1 F
n

nk

Relationship between intensity, duration and frequency of a storm: The longer the duration of a storm, the lower its average intensity. High-intensity storms happen infrequently (have a large return period).

Typical Intensity-Duration Frequency Curve Source: Civil Engineering Reference Manual for the PE Exam, 10th Ed. (Lindeburg, 2006)

Steels formula encapsulates these two observations: K t +b i = intensity (in/hr) t = duration (min or hr depending on how K and b are defined) K,b = constants empirically derived for a return period and location i= Steel formula

When using the rational formula to compute peak runoff rate for storm drainage design, t is usually taken as the time of concentration, tc, for the drainage area. The constants K and b can be obtained by performing an I-D-F analysis of historical precipitation data. These constants have been developed for 7 rainfall regions in the US and can be used in the absence of local historical precipitation data (Table 20.2 of the CERM, 10th ed. Lindeburg, 2006).

Steel formula Rainfall Regions and Coefficients Note: The above coefficients apply for i in inches/hr, and t in minutes. Source: Civil Engineering Reference Manual for the PE Exam, 10th Ed. (Lindeburg, 2006)

Synthetic Rainfall Distributions from the NRCS

The National Resources Conservation Service (previously the Soil Conservation Service) has developed four synthetic 24-hour rainfall distributions that can be used for storm drainage design in the absence of historical rainfall records. These distributions apply within predefined regions of the United States with common climatic and watershed conditions and are based on duration-frequency data from the National Weather Service as well as local storm data. Type IA is the least intense and type II represents the most intense short duration rainfall. The distributions are tabulated in the NRCS Technical Release 20 (TR-20) in terms of the fraction of 24-hour rainfall that occurs within the 24 hours.

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SCS 24-hour rainfall distributions Source: NRCS TR-55

Approximate geographic boundaries for NRCS (SCS) rainfall distributions Source: NRCS TR-55

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Double-Mass Analysis of Point Precipitation

The double-mass analysis is used to detect if data at a site have been subjected to a significant change in magnitude due to external factors such as problems with instrumentation, observation practices, or recording conditions. It consists of plotting cumulative rainfall values at a test station against the cumulative mean rainfall values at surrounding (base) stations. It is assumed that changes due to meteorological factors will affect all stations equally and therefore any breaks in the double-mass curve are strictly due to external factors. However, natural variations in the data can produce apparent changes in slope that need to be investigated further by performing statistical hypothesis testing analysis. If the data are consistent, the double-mass curve will be a straight line of constant slope. If the data is not consistent, a break in the double-mass curve will be apparent. The ratio of the slopes prior (a) and after the break (b) can be used to adjust the data in two ways: 1. The data can be adjusted to reflect conditions prior to the break. This is done by multiplying each precipitation value after the break by the ratio a/b. or 2. The data can be adjusted to reflect recent conditions after the break. This is done by multiplying each precipitation value prior to the break by the ratio b/a. Applicability: Base stations should be located relatively close to station being tested. Method should not be used in mountainous areas where precipitation can deviate significantly for nearby stations. Method should only be used for long-term adjustment of precipitation data but not for adjusting daily or storm precipitation.

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Double-mass curve analysis

100 90 Cumulative rainfall at test station 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 1 a break 1 b

Data adjusted to reflect conditions prior to the break

Original data

Data adjusted to reflect conditions after the break

Cumulative value at surrounding (base) stations

Estimating Missing Point Precipitation Data

The most common methods for estimating missing point precipitation data include:
Arithmetic Average Method Missing precipitation values at a station can be estimated by a simple arithmetic-average of concurrent precipitation at three or more stations which are close to and evenly spaced around the location where data is missing. Use method only if the normal annual precipitation at the three sites do not vary significantly (>5-10%) from the missing stations normal annual precipitation. Normal Ratio Method - Missing precipitation values at a station can be estimated from concurrent observations at 3 or more neighboring stations based on the normal-ratio method:
Px 1 n Pi = Nx n i =1 N i Px = missing precipitation value at station x Nx = normal long-term, usually annual, precipitation at station X. Nx could also be taken as the long-term average value for a particular month for all years of record. Pi = precipitation value at neighboring station i for the concurrent period

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Ni = normal long-term precipitation for neighboring station i n = number of neighboring stations

Inverse Distance Squared Method Missing precipitation values at a station can be estimated from concurrent precipitation measurements at the closest stations in each of 4 quadrants (North, South, East, and West). n Pi d 2 i =1 ix Px = n 1 d 2 i =1 i x Px = missing precipitation value at station x di-x = distance from station i to station x Pi = precipitation value at neighboring station i for the concurrent period n = number of neighboring stations (4: one on each quadrant N, S, E, W)

Converting Point Precipitation to Areal Precipitation

The most common methods of determining rainfall averages for an area based on data for a limited number of precipitation gages include:
Arithmetic Average Method Assigns equal weight to all gages irrespective of their relative spacing and other factors. Appropriate if gages are uniformly distributed over a flat area. Thiessen Polygon Method Perpendicular bisectors of the lines connecting the gages form polygons around each gauge. The basin average rainfall is then determined as a weighted average of the precipitation at each gage, with the weighting factor being the polygon area.

P=

i =1 N

Ai Pi Ai

i =1

P = average precipitation for the area Pi = precipitation at gage i Ai = area of Thiessen polygon enclosing gage i N = number of gages or Thiessen polygons
Isohyetal Method It is considered the most accurate method since it considers orographic effects. 1. Contours of equal precipitation are drawn. 2. The area between successive isohyets is computed and multiplied by the numerical average of the two contour values.

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3. The sum of #2 is computed and divided by the total drainage area to compute the weighted average precipitation.

P=

i =1 N

Ai Pi Ai

i =1

P = average precipitation for the area Pi = average precipitation between two successive contours Ai = area between two successive contours N = number of areas between successive contours

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Evapotranspiration
Evapotranspiration (actual evapotranspiration, AET) is the combined processes by which water is transferred to the atmosphere from open water surfaces and vegetation. It consists of evaporation, which is the amount of water vaporized into the atmosphere from open water surfaces and land areas, and transpiration, which is the amount of water absorbed by plants and crops and eventually discharged into the atmosphere through the plants stomata. The source of water for the plants and crops can be from the unsaturated and saturated zones. During larger storm events, the intensity of precipitation is much larger than the rate of evapotranspiration. Therefore, evapotranspiration is commonly ignored or lumped with other abstractions when analyzing the water budget during and immediately following a storm event. For longer and drier periods, evapotranspiration becomes a significant component of the water budget. Potential evapotranspiration (PET) is a measure of how much the atmosphere controls evapotranspiration independent of the surface hydrologic conditions. It is the quantity of water evaporated from an idealized extensive free water surface per unit area, per unit time under existing atmospheric conditions. Moisture deficiency limits the actual evapotranspiration rate, therefore AET < PET.

Evaporation from an Open-Water Body

An evaporation pan is usually used to estimate evaporation from an open water body (e.g. lake or reservoir). The pan evaporation is computed based on the difference in the observed water levels adjusted for any precipitation observed between observations. The actual evaporation from a real open water body is smaller than that measured from a pan. Therefore, a correction coefficient is applied to the measured pan evaporation:
E L = KE P

EL = evaporation from an open water body K = pan coefficient (0.6-0.8, with an average value of 0.7) EP = pan evaporation Applicability: The largest errors in the evaporation pan method are due to the assumed pan coefficient. Therefore, the method is usually useful to provide long-term ballpark estimates of evaporation and to analyze the variability of evaporation. The method is more appropriate for very shallow water bodies. For large water bodies, it may necessary to adjust for heat storage and energy advection.

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Reservoirs
In an ideal world, the quantity, timing, quality, and distribution of available water would match human needs. Unfortunately, freshwater is scarce in many parts of the world, threatening human health, limiting agricultural and industrial production, and causing ecological degradation. It is estimated that less than 3/4 of a percent of the total volume of water on Earth is freshwater stored in aquifers, the vadose zone, lakes, streams, wetlands, and the atmosphere. On the other hand, excess water at the wrong time and location, can cause catastrophic flooding. Reservoirs serve multiple purposes that are directly related to the quantity, timing, quality and distribution of water. These include flood control, water supply, water quality, groundwater recharge, sediment control. Secondary purposes include recreation, wildlife habitat enhancement, etc.

Water Supply Reservoirs

Water supply reservoirs are used to store water during periods of surplus and provide a source of water during periods of drought. Water supply reservoirs may serve a dual purpose of flood control. A Rippl diagram is a common method of sizing water supply reservoirs. It consists of a graph of cumulative inflows and cumulative demands from the reservoir with respect to time. Generally a constant demand is assumed, so the cumulative demand will plot as a straight line. The cumulative inflow curve will have a large slope during periods of high inflow, and will flatten out during periods of little or no inflow. If pseudo-demand lines are drawn tangent to a peak and a subsequent trough, the separation between the two lines gives the volume that would need to be stored in the reservoir to satisfy the constant demand for that period. The reservoir capacity required so that the community served by the reservoir does not run out of water during a drought condition would be the largest separation between pseudo-demand lines.

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Rippl diagram
Cumulative inflow 70000 Cumulative demand

60000 Cumulative inflow or demand (ac-ft)

50000

40000

Minimum required reservoir capacity = 32,160 ac-ft

30000

20000

10000

Reservoirs for Flood Control and Other Uses

Detention reservoir/pond/basin, dry pond Reservoir designed to store water temporarily as part of a flood control management system. It has no conservation pool. The reservoir is designed to temporarily store a specific volume of runoff, which is usually defined in terms of a return frequency (e.g. 100 year flood). Most are designed to empty out the runoff after the peak of the runoff has passed (usually less than a day) by slowly draining (usually through a bleeder) into a nearby flood control conveyance system. If the flow exceeds the storage capacity of the reservoir, an uncontrolled structure (usually a spillway) provides an outlet for the excess water. Retention reservoir/pond/basin Reservoir that holds water for an extended period of time. It has a conservation pool. Retention ponds usually serve two main purposes: to contain runoff generated by urban development, and to provide localized recharge to the groundwater system which would otherwise be limited due to imperviousness of urban cover. Other uses include pollution control by filtering of stormwater, fish and wildlife habitat, sedimentation control, recreation etc. If the flow exceeds the storage capacity of the reservoir, an uncontrolled structure (usually a spillway) provides an outlet for the excess water.

Ja n9 M 6 ar -9 M 6 ay -9 Ju 6 l -9 Se 6 pN 96 ov -9 Ja 6 n9 M 7 ar -9 M 7 ay -9 Ju 7 l -9 Se 7 pN 97 ov -9 Ja 7 n9 M 8 ar -9 M 8 ay -9 Ju 8 l -9 Se 8 pN 98 ov -9 Ja 8 n9 M 9 ar -9 M 9 ay -9 Ju 9 l -9 Se 9 pN 99 ov -9 Ja 9 n0 M 0 ar -0 M 0 ay -0 Ju 0 l -0 Se 0 pN 00 ov -0 0
Date

Rippl Diagram of cumulative inflow and demand

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Flood Control Analysis and Design

Flood control reservoirs and other flood control facilities are designed to contain excess precipitation resulting from extreme storms or rapid snowmelt. In designing these facilities, it is important to estimate the timing, quantity, distribution and peak flow associated with extreme storm events. This information is encapsulated in a hydrograph, which is a plot of streamflow as a function of time at a specific location in a stream channel. In addition, it is important to determine the probability of exceedance of these events due to safety and economic considerations. The diagrams below summarize the processes required for estimating a hydrograph at a location downstream of a stream or reservoir, and the peak flood discharge associated with a storm event. These processes are discussed in more detail in the next sections.
Effective Rainfall Model

Rainfall

Effective Rainfall

Basin Routing

Direct Runoff Hydrograph

Stream and/or reservoir routing hydrologic or hydraulic routing*

Downstream hydrograph*

*Not discussed here Process for generating an outflow (downstream) hydrograph for a stream or reservoir starting from rainfall

Rainfall

Effective Rainfall Model

Effective Rainfall

Peak discharge Model

Peak discharge

Process for estimating the peak discharge starting from rainfall

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To generate a downstream hydrograph, the rainfall falling on a watershed or contributing area is converted into effective rainfall by means of an effective rainfall model. An effective rainfall model converts the total (gross) precipitation into abstractions and effective rainfall which eventually reaches a stream channel as direct runoff. The abstractions are the portion of precipitation that does not contribute to direct runoff. They include interception, depression storage, and infiltration. Infiltration is usually the major abstraction from rainfall during a significant runoff-producing storm. Some abstractions occur immediately after the beginning of a storm prior to the beginning of runoff. These are called initial abstractions and include infiltration prior to ponding, depression storage and interception. Infiltration Movement of water from the land surface to the upper layers of the soil. It is usually the major abstraction from rainfall during a significant runoffproducing storm. Depression storage Fraction of precipitation that is trapped in puddles, ditches, and other surface depressions from where it evaporates or infiltrates into the soil. Interception Fraction of precipitation that is retained on buildings and plants and is eventually evaporated.

Effective rainfall (effective precipitation, precipitation excess) is the portion of precipitation that is available as overland flow supply. In order for water to start flowing through the land surface, first a very thin layer of water needs to be stored on the land surface to provide continuity of flow en route to a stream. This volume of water is called detention storage. The effective rainfall (overland flow supply) travels through the land surface until it eventually reaches stream channels as direct runoff. Direct runoff Portion of the total runoff hydrograph at a stream which is caused by and directly following a rainfall or snowmelt event. It consists of: a) overland flow, and b) quick interflow. It contributes rather quickly to streamflow.

To quantify this lag or travel time between effective rainfall and direct runoff, a basin routing model is used. One such model is a unit hydrograph, which describes the shortterm response of a watershed to a unit volume of effective rainfall applied uniformly over the entire watershed at a constant rate for a unit time. It includes contributions to streamflow immediately following a rainfall event (i.e. only includes contribution from direct runoff and excludes baseflow). The unit hydrograph is assumed to encapsulate all the combined physical characteristics of the basin and that of the storm. Based on the effective rainfall and the basin routing model the direct runoff hydrograph reaching a stream is produced. Alternatively, if only the peak of the direct runoff hydrograph is of interest, a peak discharge model can be used. In addition to the direct runoff, a stream receives inflows from the subsurface. This component of the streamflow hydrograph is known as baseflow or delayed runoff since it

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has a much longer travel time than the direct runoff. The source of this flow is from water that infiltrated during previous storm events and percolated down into the groundwater, where it flowed through the unsaturated and saturated zones until it discharged into a stream. Baseflow, base runoff, delayed runoff Portion of the total runoff hydrograph at a stream location which is composed of contributions from: a) groundwater runoff, and b) delayed interflow. Baseflow is the result of water from previous storms accumulating below the water table and being released over an extended period of time. Percolation Movement of water through the subsurface down to the water table.

The streamflow hydrograph may be routed through a stream network and/or reservoir by means of a hydrologic or a hydraulic routing model. Hydrologic routing Routing technique solely based on the continuity equation, which is used to predict temporal and spatial variations of a flood wave as it traverses a stream or reservoir. Hydraulic routing Routing technique based on the continuity and momentum equations, which is used to predict temporal and spatial variations of a flood wave as it traverses a stream or reservoir.

Streamflow or Total Runoff Hydrograph

A total runoff hydrograph or simply a hydrograph is a plot of streamflow with respect to time. In a natural unmanaged system it consists of contributions from overland flow, interflow, groundwater flow and in-channel precipitation from recent or past storm events. These contributions are summarized in the figure below and the different types of runoff are described in detail below.
Classification of runoff according to source:

Surface runoff Includes all overland flow as well as precipitation falling directly onto stream channels.
o Overland flow Portion of runoff that travels over the surface of the ground to reach a stream channel and through the channel to the basin outlet. This process occurs relatively quickly.

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Subsurface runoff Portion of runoff that travels under the ground to reach a stream channel and to the basin outlet. It includes: a) interflow, and b) groundwater runoff.
o Interflow, throughflow, subsurface storm flow Portion of subsurface runoff that travels laterally through the unsaturated zone or through a shallow perched saturated zone towards a stream channel. This process is slower than surface runoff. o Groundwater runoff Portion of subsurface runoff that comes from infiltration and subsequently percolation down to the water table and eventually reaches a stream channel. This process occurs relatively slowly.

Classification of runoff according to travel time to a stream:

Direct runoff Portion of the total runoff hydrograph at a stream which is caused by and directly following a rainfall or snowmelt event. It consists of: a) overland flow, and b) quick interflow. It contributes rather quickly to streamflow. Baseflow, base runoff, delayed runoff Portion of the total runoff hydrograph at a stream location which is composed of contributions from: a) groundwater runoff, and b) delayed interflow. Baseflow is the result of water from previous storms accumulating below the water table and being released over an extended period of time.

Precipitation

Evaporation

Overland flow Direct runoff Interflow Subsurface runoff Percolation Baseflow Streamflow

Evaporation

Interception and depression storage

Infiltration

Evapotranspiration

Unsaturated zone storage

Groundwater (saturated zone) storage

Evaporation

Land portion of the hydrologic cycle showing partitioning of precipitation into surface and subsurface storages and flows, and contributions to streamflow

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A typical simplified hydrograph resulting from a storm event is shown below. It consists of a rising limb, a crest, and a recession limb. The shape of the rising limb is a function of both the basin properties and the character of the rainfall. The crest contains the peak flow rate when all parts of the basin are contributing to runoff at the outlet. At the end of the crest there is an inflection point that corresponds to the moment when overland flow stops contributing and discharge is due to flow from detention storage, interflow and groundwater flow. At some point on the recession limb, the contribution from detention storage ceases and all the discharge is due to baseflow (i.e. delayed interflow and groundwater flow). This point marks the end of the direct runoff hydrograph.

Rising limb

Recession limb

Discharge

Crest

Time
Simplified total runoff hydrograph

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Frequency and Probability for Flood Control Design

Return period, frequency of occurrence, recurrence interval (F, years) Average number of years between events of a given intensity. Probable maximum flood (PMF) Hypothetical flood that can be expected to occur as a result of the severe combination of critical meteorological and hydrologic conditions. Standard flood, standard project flood (SPF) Flood that can be selected from set of most extreme combinations of meteorological and hydrological conditions, which is typically characteristic of the region, but excludes extremely rare combinations of events. The peak discharge of a SPF is generally 40-60% of that of a PMF for the same basin. Design flood, design basis flood (DBF) Flood used for design of a particular project. Usually less severe than the PMF due to economical considerations. (i.e. minimizes the average annual cost of the project including annualized construction costs, operation and maintenance, monetary flood damages).

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Travel Time Concepts

Travel time (tt) Time it takes for water to travel from one location to another Time base of a hydrograph (tb) Time from the beginning to the end of the direct runoff or unit hydrograph. Lag time, basin lag (tl) Time between centroid of effective rainfall to center of mass of runoff or to the peak of runoff. Time to peak (tp) Time from the beginning of rainfall to the center of mass or runoff or to the peak runoff. Time of concentration (tc) Time for a drop of water to flow from the hydraulically most remote point in the watershed to the outlet and includes travel time for sheet flow, shallow concentrated flow, channel flow and sewer flow. Additional definitions are given below

Time of Concentration
Various definitions are given below: Time for a drop of water to flow from the hydraulically most remote point in the watershed to the outlet and includes travel time for sheet flow, shallow concentrated flow, channel flow and sewer flow. Time required, with uniform rain, for 100% of a tract of land to contribute to direct runoff at the outlet. Excess rainfall release time or wave travel time. Time required for runoff to arrive at the outlet from the most remote point of a watershed after rainfall ceases. Time from the end of excess rainfall generation (overland flow supply) to the inflection point of the hydrograph on the recession limb.

Note that it is unusual for the time of concentration to be less than 0.1 hr when using the NRCS method or less than 10 minutes when using the rational method.
NRCS Method:

Based on the first definition, the NRCS developed the following equations to compute the time of concentration: t c = t sheet + t shallow + t channel / sewer tc = time of concentration

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tsheet = travel time for sheetflow tshallow = travel time for shallow concentrated flow tchannel/sewer = travel time for channel and sewer flow Generally, sheetflow occurs for a maximum length of 300 ft. Sheetflow, laminar flow Flow regime in which fluid motion is smooth and orderly, and in which adjacent layers slip past each other with little mixing between them. The movement of water across a surface in a sheet-like mass instead of within channels or streambeds.

The travel time for sheetflow is given by Mannings kinematic solution: t sheet = 0.007(nL) 0.8 P20.5 S 0.4 Overton and Meadows (1976)

tsheet = travel time for sheetflow (hr) n = Mannings roughness coefficient for sheetflow L = sheetflow length (ft), the smaller of the total flow length and 300 ft. P2 = 2-yr, 24-hr rainfall (in) S = slope of the hydraulic grade line or land slope (decimal) This simplified form of the Mannings kinematic solution is based on: 1. shallow steady uniform flow 2. constant intensity of effective rainfall 3. rainfall duration of 24 hours 4. assuming minor effect of infiltration on travel time

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Roughness coefficients (Mannings n) for sheetflow Source: NRCS TR-55

After a maximum of 300 ft, sheetflow usually becomes shallow concentrated flow (swale/ditch flow). Shallow concentrated flow Flow starts concentrating in rills and gullies. Rill Long, narrow depression or incisions in soil resulting from erosion caused by increased velocities. It is common on agricultural and unvegetated ground. Rills may eventually form gullies. Gullies Large ditches or depressions usually created by running water eroding sharply into a hillside. Gullies may eventually form natural stream channels.

The average velocity for shallow concentrated flow can be determined from the following figures based on the surface cover and the land slope.
t shallow = Lshallow v shallow

tshallow = travel time for shallow concentrated flow

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Lshallow = longest length for shallow concentrated flow vshallow = velocity for shallow concentrated flow The velocity for shallow concentrated flow can be read from the graphic below or computed as: v shallow = 16.1345S 0.5 Use for unpaved areas

v shallow = 20.3282S 0.5

Use for paved areas

vshallow = velocity for shallow concentrated flow (ft/s) S = watercourse slope (decimal)

Average velocities for estimating travel time for shallow concentrated flow Source: NRCS TR-55 (1986)

28

Average velocities for estimating travel time for shallow concentrated flow Source: Hydrology & Hydraulic Systems (Gupta, 1995)

The travel time for channel and sewer flow can be obtained by dividing the channel or sewer length by the flow velocity obtained from either the Mannings or the HazenWilliams equation. If the pipe or channel dimensions and flow depth are known, the velocity can be readily obtained from Mannings or Hazen-Williams equation. If the channel or pipe is to be sized, an iterative trial-and-error solution is required, since the size of the pipe or channel and its velocity are related. L t channel / sewer = channel / sewer vchannel / sewer tchannel/sewer = travel time for channel and sewer flow Lchannel/sewer = length for channel and sewer flow vchannel and sewer flow = velocity for channel and sewer flow

29

Other Time of Concentration Formulas:

Source: Introduction to Hydrology 4th Ed. (Viessman and Lewis, 1995) Note: Recommended values of Mannings roughness coefficient (n) for the kinematic wave formula are:
Surface smooth impervious surfaces smooth bare-packed soil, free of stones poor grass, moderately bare surface pasture or average grass cover dense grass or forest Mannings n 0.011 0.05 0.10 0.20 0.40

30

Source: Hydrology & Hydraulic Systems (Gupta, 1995) Equations in Table 12.8 above only apply when overland flow conditions dominate. Note that the Izzard formula requires rainfall intensity. Steels formula can be used by assuming an initial time of concentration, tc. Application of Izzards formula gives a new time of concentration, and the process is repeated until there is convergence.

31

Effective Rainfall Model for Effective Rainfall Generation from Rainfall

Methods include: Horton equation infiltration* Holton equation infiltration* Green-Ampt infiltration* Phi () Index Approach - infiltration NRCS (SCS) Curve Number Method all abstractions *Not discussed here

Phi () Index Approach

The index represents a constant (horizontal line) of intensity which divides the rainfall intensity diagram in such a manner that the depth of rain above the index line is equivalent to the surface runoff depth over the basin. The portion of the rainfall intensity diagram below the line represents abstractions during the storm.
Phi Index
7 Surface runoff 6 Rainfall intensity (in/hr) 5 4 3 Index 2 1 Abstractions 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 time (min) 60 70 80 90 100

Phi Index Approach for Determining Effective Rainfall

32

The index is obtained by subtracting the runoff volume obtained from a direct runoff hydrograph from the total rainfall during a storm such that: DRV = [max(0, i )]* t * Ad DRV = direct runoff volume (volume under direct runoff hydrograph) i = rainfall intensity during period = phi index t = time interval of rainfall intensity data Ad = drainage area

NRCS (previously SCS) Curve Number Method

Empirical methodology developed by the National Resources Conservation Service (previously the Soil Conservation Service) to separate rainfall into abstractions and overland flow supply. The method is described in detail on the NRCS Technical Release 55 (ftp://ftp.wcc.nrcs.usda.gov/downloads/hydrology_hydraulics/tr55/tr55.pdf). Applicability: Method can be used for any size homogeneous watershed with a known percentage of imperviousness. Method may not be applicable in extreme terrains (e.g. mountainous regions). Method does not take into account rainfall intensity in the initial abstraction. Method can only be used for individual storm events and not for continuous hydrologic modeling since it does not account for the recovery of infiltration capacity (and other abstractions) between storm events. Runoff from snowmelt or rain on frozen ground cannot be estimated using this method. Method is less accurate if effective rainfall is less than 0.5 inches in which case another method should be used. Method cannot be used if the weighted curve number is less than 40. P = gross cumulative rainfall (inches) = Q + F+ Ia Q = effective rainfall = cumulative overland flow supply which will eventually appear at the watershed outlet as direct runoff (inches). Ia = initial abstractions (prior to beginning of runoff) which includes infiltration prior to ponding, depression storage and interception (inches) ta = time when initial abstractions end and infiltration starts F = cumulative infiltration since beginning of runoff (inches) F + Ia are the abstractions or rainfall retention (inches) S = maximum retention or the maximum possible abstraction (F + Ia) for the storm (inches) Pt = maximum runoff potential (Pt = Q + F = P Ia) (inches) Note that for there to be any runoff at all, the gross cumulative rainfall (P) must equal or exceed the initial abstraction (Ia).

33

Schematic curves of P, Q, F+Ia

12 P Q F+Ia

Precipitation (P)

10

Cumulative amount

Abstractions (F+Ia)
6

Q
4

Pt F

Runoff supply (Q) S

Ia
0 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4

Ia
0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1

ta

time

Schematic curves of P, Q, F+Ia (Note: Constant rainfall intensity is assumed)

Empirically based on:

Q F = Pt S

Setting F = Pt - Q and after some derivation, you arrive at:

Q=

( P Ia )2
P + S Ia

Generic equation, applies when initial abstractions are known

If initial abstraction, Ia, cannot be determined, the NRCS recommends using Ia = 0.2S, in which case: ( P 0 .2 S ) 2 Use only if initial abstraction cannot be determined Q= ( P + 0 .8 S ) The maximum retention, S, can be obtained from an index called the Curve Number (CN), which ranges from 0 to 100 with higher values indicating higher runoff potential.

34

 1000 S = 10 CN CN = 1000 10 + S

The curve number is a function of the watershed antecedent moisture conditions, hydrologic soil group and landuse/landcover. Tables 20.4 and 20.5 of the CERM (10th ed. Lindeburg, 2006) give the runoff curve number for urban and agricultural areas for an antecedent moisture condition of II (AMC II, average condition). Tables from TR-55 are also included below. Formulas for converting from AMC II (average condition) to AMC I (dry condition) and from AMC II to AMC III (saturated condition) are given below: 4.2CN II CN I = 10 0.058CN II
CN III =
23CN II 10 + 0.13CN II

When the watershed varies in soil type, antecedent moisture condition, or land cover a composite curve number is used, which is computed as the weighted areal average of the curve number for each region of the watershed. Alternatively, the runoff can be computed for each region individually and then added.

CN =

i =1 N

Ai CN i Ai

i =1

N = number of regions, i = region index, Ai = area for region i, CNi = curve number for region i, CN = composite curve number for the watershed

35

Exceptions for Urban Areas:

Several factors, such as the percentage of impervious area and the means of conveying runoff from impervious areas to the drainage system, should be considered in computing CN for urban areas (Rawls et al., 1981). For example, do the impervious areas connect directly to the drainage system, or do they outlet onto lawns or other pervious areas where infiltration can occur? Connected impervious areas - An impervious area is considered connected if runoff from it flows directly into the drainage system. It is also considered connected if runoff from it occurs as concentrated shallow flow that runs over a pervious area and then into the drainage system. The urban Curve Numbers listed on Table 2-2a of TR-55 (included below) were developed for typical land use relationships based on specific assumed percentages of impervious area. These CN vales were developed on the assumptions that (a) pervious urban areas are equivalent to pasture in good hydrologic condition and (b) impervious areas have a CN of 98 and are directly connected to the drainage system. The assumed percentages of impervious area are shown in Table 2-2a. If all of the impervious area is directly connected to the drainage system, but the impervious area percentages or the pervious land use assumptions in Table 2-2a are not applicable, use Figure 2-3 or the equation below to compute a composite CN. For example, Table 2-2a gives a CN of 70 for a 1/2-acre lot in HSG B, with assumed impervious area of 25 percent. However, if the lot has 20 percent impervious area and a pervious area CN of 61, the composite CN obtained from Figure 2-3 is 68. The CN difference between 70 and 68 reflects the difference in percent impervious area.
PIm p CN C = CN P + (98 CN P ) 100 Use when all impervious areas are directly connected OR if there is some unconnected impervious area, but total impervious area is > 30%

CNC = composite curve number CNP = curve number for pervious area PImp = percentage of connected impervious cover Unconnected impervious areas - Runoff from these areas is spread over a pervious area as sheet flow. To determine CN when all or part of the impervious area is not directly connected to the drainage system, (1) use Figure 2-4 if total impervious area is < 30% or (2) use Figure 2-3 if the total impervious area is > 30%, because the absorptive capacity of the remaining pervious areas will not significantly affect runoff.

36

When impervious area is less than 30%, obtain the composite CN from the equation below or by entering the right half of Figure 2-4 with the percentage of total impervious area and the ratio of total unconnected impervious area to total impervious area. Then move left to the appropriate pervious CN and read down to find the composite CN. For example, for a 1/2-acre lot with 20 percent total impervious area (75 percent of which is unconnected) and pervious CN of 61, the composite CN from figure 2-4 is 66. If all of the impervious area is connected, the resulting CN (from figure 2-3) would be 68.
PIm p CN C = CN P + (98 CN P )(1 0.5 R ) 100

Use if there is some unconnected impervious area AND total impervious area is < 30% CNC = composite curve number CNP = curve number for pervious area PImp = percentage of impervious cover R = ratio of unconnected impervious area to the total impervious area

37

Hydrologic condition

Hydrologic soil group description (HSG)

Source: NRCS TR-55

38

Antecedent moisture conditions (AMC)

Antecedent Moisture Condition AMC I

Description

Total 5-day antecedent rainfall (inches) Dormant Season Growing Season < 0.5 < 1.4

AMC II AMC III

Dry soils, prior to or after plowing or cultivation, or after periods with no precipitation. Typical or average conditions Saturated soil due to heavy rainfall (or light rainfall with freezing temperatures) occurring during 5 days prior to the storm

0.5 1.1 > 1.1

1.4 2.1 > 2.1

39

Runoff curve numbers for urban areas Antecedent Moisture Condition II

Source: NRCS TR-55

40

Runoff curve numbers for cultivated agricultural areas Antecedent moisture condition II

Source: NRCS TR-55

41

Runoff curve numbers for other agricultural areas Antecedent moisture condition II

Source: NRCS TR-55

42

Runoff curve numbers for arid and semiarid rangelands Antecedent moisture condition II

Source: NRCS TR-55

43

Composite CN with connected impervious area

Source: NRCS TR-55

Composite CN with unconnected impervious areas and total impervious areas < 30%

Source: NRCS TR-55

44

Peak Runoff Calculation

Methods include: Rational formula Modified rational formula NRCS graphical peak discharge method NRCS tabular peak discharge method* *Not discussed here

Rational Formula
Method in used in the 1890s for determining peak discharge. Due to its simplicity, it is the preferred method in storm drainage design practice for small urban and rural watersheds. Assumptions: It is based on the assumption that when the duration of a storm of steady, uniform rainfall intensity equals the time of concentration, all parts of a watershed are contributing simultaneously to discharge at the outlet. At this moment, the runoff rate matches the effective rainfall rate. Therefore, the method only applies for storms of duration greater than the time of concentration. Assumes that the return period of the runoff event is the same as the return period of the precipitation event. Applicability: Method is applicable to small watersheds (less than several hundred acres), but is seldom used for areas greater than 1-2 mi2.
Q p = CiAd

Qp = peak runoff rate (ac-in/hr or cfs) C = dimensionless runoff (rational) coefficient = f(soil type, surface cover, watershed slope) i = average intensity of precipitation (in/hr) for a storm with duration equal to time of concentration tc, and a return period F. Steels formula is usually used for obtaining the average rainfall intensity for a storm of duration tc and return period F. C*i = average effective rainfall intensity (in/hr) Ad = drainage area (acre) The runoff coefficient converts the average rainfall rate of a particular recurrence interval to the peak runoff intensity of the same frequency. Therefore, it accounts for many complex and dynamic phenomena of the runoff process. However, its value is usually considered fixed for a drainage area depending only on land cover, land use, soil type, (See Appendix 20.A of the CERM, 10th ed. Lindeburg, 2006).

45

Source: Civil Engineering Reference Manual for the PE Exam, 10th Ed. (Lindeburg, 2006) Average coefficients for composite areas may be calculated on an area weighted basis using:

C=

C A
i =1 N i

A
i =1

46

N = number of regions, i = region index, Ai = area for region i, Ci = runoff coefficient for region i, C = composite runoff coefficient

Empirical runoff coefficient formulas: Many empirical formulas have been developed to estimate the runoff coefficient for a basin. C = 0.14 + 0.65( IMPdecimal ) + 0.05S percent Schaake et al./John Hopkins U. (1967) IMPdecimal = fraction of watershed that is impervious Spercent = average watershed slope (%) 0.98t 0.78t Mitci, USDOT (1979) P+ (1 P) 4.54 + t 31.17 + t t = time (min) from beginning of rainfall to the occurrence of the design intensity rain of the duration of the time of concentration within the overall rainfall period. P = fraction of impervious surface C= Several equations have been developed to correlate the NRCS curve number, CN, to the Rational Formula runoff coefficient, C:

Rossmiller (1981) CN = NRCS curve number T = recurrence interval (years) S = average land slope (%) I = average rainfall intensity (in/hr) P = fraction imperviousness

Modified Rational Formula

The original runoff (rational) coefficient in the rational formula was developed for design storms with a return frequency of 2-10 years. The modified rational formula uses a correction factor for less frequent storms. Q p = C f CiAd Qp = peak runoff rate (ac-in/hr or cfs) Cf = frequency correction factor

47

C = dimensionless runoff (rational) coefficient = f(soil type, surface cover, rainfall intensity, watershed slope) i = average intensity of precipitation (in/hr) for a storm with duration equal to time of concentration tc, and a return period F. Steels formula is usually used for obtaining the average rainfall intensity for a storm of duration tc and return period F. C*i = average effective rainfall intensity (in/hr) Ad = drainage area (acre) Note: The product CfC must be < 1.0.
Recurrence period F (years) 2-10 25 50 100 Cf

1.0 1.1 1.2 1.25

NRCS Graphical Peak Discharge Method

Method was developed by the National Resources Conservation Service (previously the Soil Conservation Service) for computing peak discharge from urban and rural watersheds. The peak discharge is given by the following formula: Q p = Qu Ad QFp Qp = peak discharge (cfs) Qu = unit peak discharge (cfs/mi2/in), obtained from a graph Ad = drainage area (mi2) Q = effective rainfall = cumulative overland flow supply which will eventually appear at the watershed outlet as direct runoff (inches), obtained from the NRCS curve number method. Fp = pond and swamp correction factor Applicability: The watershed must be hydrologically homogeneous, that is, describable by one CN. Land use, soils, and cover are distributed uniformly throughout the watershed. The watershed may have only one main stream or, if more than one, the branches must have nearly equal tc 's. The method cannot perform valley or reservoir routing. The Fp factor can be applied only for ponds or swamps that are not in the tc flow path.

48

Accuracy of peak discharge estimated by this method will be reduced if Ia/P values are used that are outside the range given in exhibit 4. The limiting Ia/P values are recommended for use. This method should be used only if the weighted CN is greater than 40. When this method is used to develop estimates of peak discharge for both present and developed conditions of a watershed, use the same procedure for estimating tc. tc values with this method may range from 0.1 to 10 hours.

The input requirements for the graphical method are as follows: 1. Time of concentration, tc (hr) 2. Drainage area, Ad (mi2) 3. Appropriate rainfall distribution (I, IA, II, or III) 4. 24-hour cumulative rainfall, P (in) 5. NRCS Curve Number (CN). 6. Adjustment factor for pond and swamp areas (Fp) - If pond and swamp areas are spread throughout the watershed and are not considered in the tc computation, an adjustment for pond and swamp areas is also needed. Procedure for obtaining the peak discharge (Qp): 1. For a selected rainfall frequency, the 24-hour rainfall (P) is obtained from maps in Appendix B of the TR-55 or more detailed local precipitation data. 2. The most appropriate 24-hour synthetic rainfall distribution from the NRCS is selected (i.e. type I, IA, II or III). 3. The NRCS CN is computed for the watershed. 4. The effective rainfall (Q) and initial abstraction (Ia) are computed based on the NRCS CN method. 5. Based on the ratio Ia/P, the time of concentration tc, and the appropriate 24-hour synthetic rainfall distribution from the NRCS, the unit peak discharge Qu is obtained from Exhibits 4-I, 4-IA, 4-II or 4-III. If the computed Ia/P ratio is outside the range in Exhibit 4 (4-I, 4-IA, 4-II, and 4-III) for the rainfall distribution of interest, then the limiting value should be used. If the ratio falls between the limiting values, linear interpolation should be used. 6. If pond and swamp areas are spread throughout the watershed and are not considered in the tc computation, the adjustment for pond and swamp areas Fp is obtained from Table 4-2. 7. The peak discharge Qp is computed from the above equation.

49

Adjustment factor (Fp) for pond and swamp areas that are spread throughout the watershed Source: NRCS TR-55

50

Source: NRCS TR-55

Source: NRCS TR-55

51

Source: NRCS TR-55

Source: NRCS TR-55

52

Total Runoff Hydrograph Separation into Direct Runoff and Baseflow

Methods for separating baseflow from direct runoff:
Isotope or chemical tracer budgets studies Recession Curve Method Based on the following equation for the recession curve:

Qt = Qo K t Qt = discharge at t time units after Q0 Q0 = initial discharge at time 0 K = recession constant (< 1.0) It consists of selecting periods with no rainfall in between storms and plotting the ratio of two consecutive flow values (Qt and Qt+t). The ratios Qt+ t / Qt are plotted with respect to time and the slope of the best fit line is taken as K (Qt+ t / Qt = K). Once the slope is obtained, the baseflow recession curve can be plotted starting at the beginning of direct runoff by taking this flow value as Qt and marching forward in time. Alternatively, when the total runoff hydrograph is plotted on semilogarithmic paper (with log of Q on the y-axis), the tail part of the rising limb will plot as a straight line. This straight line can be extended back in time under the total runoff hydrograph to approximate the baseflow.
Arbitrary Method 1 Draw a straight line connecting the beginning (point A) and end of direct runoff (point B). If the end of direct runoff is unknown, draw a horizontal line from point A until it intersects the recession limb. Arbitrary Method 2 Extend recession curve from start of direct runoff (point A) down to a point C under the peak. Connect point C to D by a straight line. Point D on the hydrograph occurs N days after the peak:

N = aA 0.2 N = number of days after the peak when direct runoff ceases A = drainage area A = 0.8 if A is in km2, or 1.0 if A is in mi2

53

Arbitrary Method 3 - Extend recession curve backward to point E below the inflection point of the recession limb and connect A to E by a straight line. The point where the recession curve departs from the total runoff hydrograph (point F) is the end of direct runoff.

Methods of baseflow separation Source: Hydrology & Hydraulic Systems (Gupta, 1995)

54

Unit Hydrograph Method for Converting Effective Rainfall into a Direct Runoff Hydrograph
A unit hydrograph describes the short-term (quick) response of a specific watershed to a unit volume of effective rainfall applied uniformly over the entire watershed at a constant rate for a unit time (tr). It includes contributions to streamflow immediately following a rainfall event (i.e. only includes contribution from direct runoff and excludes baseflow). The unit of effective rainfall is usually taken as 1 inch of depth. The unit of time for effective rainfall (tr) may be 1 day or less, but it must be less than the time of concentration (tc). Assumptions: It is assumed that the unit hydrograph reflects all the combined physical characteristics of the basin and that of the storm. It assumes that the physical characteristics of the basin do not change significantly from storm event to storm event. Therefore, it is assumed that the hydrograph developed for a specific duration will apply to all storms of the same duration. Storms of different durations produce different unit hydrographs. The effect of back to back storms or storms of different duration or magnitude can be analyzed by convoluting the effective rainfall and the unit hydrograph. The inherent assumption is that the response of the basin is linear and the contribution from individual storms can be obtained by superposition of individual unit hydrographs modulated in magnitude and lagged in time. Time base of a hydrograph (tb) Time from the beginning to the end of the direct runoff or unit hydrograph.

Determination of a Unit Hydrograph from a Total Runoff Hydrograph

1. Select a storm event for which the rainfall and the total runoff hydrograph have been recorded. The storm should be intense and cover the entire basin. a. Determine the total effective rainfall for the storm (TPeff) by separating the abstractions from the rainfall hyetograph. b. Compute the total effective rainfall volume (ERV) for the storm as: ERV = TPeff * Ad ERV = total effective rainfall volume TPeff = total effective rainfall depth for the storm obtained from rainfall hyetograph Ad = basin or drainage area

55

c. Determine the duration of effective rainfall tr. This is the duration associated with the unit hydrograph (tr), which is not to be confused with the time base (tb) of the unit hydrograph. 2. Separate the direct runoff hydrograph (DRH) for the storm from the total runoff hydrograph (TRH) by assuming a certain baseflow hydrograph (BFH) for the storm event. 3. Compute the direct runoff volume (DRV) and effective rainfall (TPeff ) from the direct runoff hydrograph (DRH): DRV = (QDR t )

TPeff =
'

(Q

DR

t )

Ad

DRV = direct runoff volume QDR = ordinates (y-axis) of direct runoff hydrograph (flow rate) t = time increment TPeff = total effective rainfall depth for the storm obtained from direct runoff hydrograph Ad = basin or drainage area 4. Recalling the definition of effective rainfall (portion of precipitation that reaches stream channels as direct runoff), then in theory ERV and DRV should be equal, as well as TPeff and TPeff. However, that is rarely the case. Discrepancies can be due to errors in rainfall and runoff measurements, as well as the methodologies selected for determining effective rainfall and for separating TRH into DRH and BFH. 5. Compute the ordinates (y-axis) of the unit hydrograph (QUH) based on linear relationship: QDR QUH = 1 TPeff or QDR TPeff
'

QUH 1

QDR = ordinates (y-axis) of direct runoff hydrograph (flow rate) QUH = ordinates (y-axis) of unit hydrograph (flow rate) TPeff = total effective rainfall depth for the storm obtained from rainfall hyetograph TPeff = total effective rainfall depth for the storm obtained from direct runoff hydrograph

56

Convolution of Effective Rainfall with the Unit Hydrograph to Generate Direct Runoff Hydrographs
Once a unit hydrograph for a specific duration (tr) has been developed, it can be used to obtain the direct runoff hydrograph for a storm by convoluting the effective rainfall hyetograph for the storm (defined at tr increments) with the unit hydrograph. In this case, the storm is treated as several individual storms of duration tr and the principle of linearity is applied: Proportionality If 5 inches of effective rainfall occurs during a specified unit time (tr), the resulting direct runoff hydrograph will have the same shape as the hydrograph produced by 1 inch effective rainfall of the same duration (tr), but all the ordinates (y-axis) will be five times as large. Superposition The response of various storms lagged in time can be estimated by adding the response of individual storms. Procedure: 1. Create an effective rainfall hyetograph (Peff) by separating the abstractions from the rainfall hyetograph. 2. Determine the duration (time interval) of the effective rainfall hyetograph, tr. 3. Convolute a unit hydrograph of the same duration (tr) with the effective rainfall hyetograph to obtain the direct runoff hydrograph produced by the storm. Note: If a unit hydrograph of the same duration is not available, one can be derived by several techniques, which are discussed in the next section.

QDR (t ) = Peff ( )QUH (t + 1)

=1

QDR(t) = ordinate (y-axis) of direct runoff hydrograph at time t QUH(t - + 1) = ordinate (y-axis) of unit hydrograph at time t - + 1 Peff() = ordinate (y-axis) of effective rainfall hyetograph at time For example: QDR(1) = Peff(1)QUH(1) QDR(2) = Peff(1)QUH(2) + Peff(2)QUH(1) QDR(3) = Peff(1)QUH(3) + Peff(2)QUH(2) + Peff(3)QUH(1) QDR(4) = Peff(1)QUH(4) + Peff(2)QUH(3) + Peff(3)QUH(2) + Peff(4)QUH(1)

57

a) 1 inch effective rainfall over 1 hr 1.2 Effective rainfall (inches) 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 1 Time (hr) b) 1 hr unit hydrograph 800 700 Discharge (cfs) 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 Time (hr) c) Effective rainfall hyetograph 1.2 Effective rainfall (inches) 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 1 2 Time (hr) d) Individual direct runoff hydrographs 0.5 in 1 in 200 1 inch 200 100 50 7 25 8 0 9 550 400 1 in

One inch of effective rainfall of one hour duration (a) produces the unit hydrograph shown in (b). The effective rainfall hyetograph for another storm is shown in (c). The storm can be conceptualized as a series of back-to-back storms of one hour duration. The principle of proportionality can be used to generate the direct runoff hydrographs produced by each individual back-to-back storm (d). The principle of superposition can then be used to obtain the total watershed response (e).

1 hr unit hydrograph Time (hr) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Q (cfs) 0 200 550 400 200 100 50 25 0

Effective rainfall hyetograph Time (hr) 1 2 3 Peff (in) 0.5 1 0

800 700 Discharge (cfs) 600 500 400 300 200 100 0

550 1 in 0.5 in 100 0 0 1 0 2 3 4 5 Time (hr) e) Total direct runoff hydrograph 275 200 200 100 400 200 50 6 100 25 7 50 12.5 8 25 0 9 0

Individual hydrographs (cfs) due to Peff of Time (hr) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0.5 in 0 100 275 200 100 50 25 12.5 0 + + + + + + + + 1 in 0 200 550 400 200 100 50 25 0 = = = = = = = = = =

Total DRH (cfs) 0 100 475 750 500 250 125 62.5 25 0

800 700 Discharge (cfs) 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 0 0 1 2 3 100 475

750

500 1.5 in

250 125 62.5 4 5 6 7 8 25 9 0

Time (hr)

58

Generating Unit Hydrographs of Different Duration (tr)

Lagging Method - A unit hydrograph of duration Y can be generated from a given unit hydrograph of duration X, where Y must be a multiple of X. The unit hydrograph of duration Y can be obtained by lagging the unit hydrograph of duration X some Y/X-1 times by X hours, adding the ordinates and then dividing by Y/X. For example, if a 1-hr (X) unit hydrograph is available for a particular watershed, the 3-hr (Y) unit hydrograph can be obtained by lagging the 1-hour unit hydrograph 2 (Y/X-1) times by 1 hour (X), adding the ordinates of the three 1-hour hydrographs and then dividing by 3 (Y/X).
One inch of effective rainfall of one hour duration (a) produces the unit hydrograph shown in (b). The unit hydrograph of 3 hour duration can be obtained by assuming 3 backto-back storms of one hour duration producing 1 inch of effective rainfall each (c). The unit hydrograph is then lagged 2 times by 1 hour (d) and the ordinates are added to obtain the total watershed response (e) due to a total of 3 inches of effective rainfall occurring over 3 hours. The unit hydrograph for a 3 hour event with a total of 1 inch of effective rainfall (f) is then obtained by dividing the direct runoff hydrograph produced in (e) by 3.

a) 1 inch effective rainfall over 1 hr 1.2 Effective rainfall (inches) 1 in 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 1 Time (hr) b) 1 hr unit hydrograph 1400 1200 Discharge (cfs) 1000 800 600 400 200 0 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 Time (hr) c) Effective rainfall hyetograph 1.2 Effective rainfall (inches) 1 in 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 1 2 3 Time (hr) 1 in 1 in 6 200 550 400 1 inch 200 100 50 7 25 8 0 9 10

1 hr unit hydrograph Time (hr) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Q (cfs) 0 200 550 400 200 100 50 25 0

Effective rainfall hyetograph Time (hr) 1 2 3 Peff (in) 1 1 1

59

1400 1200 Discharge (cfs) 1000 800 600 400 200 0

d) Individual direct runoff hydrographs

1 in
550

1 in
550 400 550 400 200

1 in
400 200 100 200 100 50

200 0 0

200 0

200

100 50 25

50 25 0

25 0

5 Time (hr)

10

Individual hydrographs (cfs) due to Peff of Time (hr) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 in 0 200 550 400 200 100 50 25 0 + + + + + + + + 1 in 0 200 550 400 200 100 50 25 0 1 in = = = = = = = = = = =

e) Total direct runoff hydrograph 1400 1200 Discharge (cfs) 1000 800 600 400 200 0 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 Time (hr) f) 3 hr unit hydrograph 1400 1200 Discharge (cfs) 1000 800 600 400 200 0 0 0 1 67 2 3 4 5 Time (hr) 6 250 383 1 in 383 233 117 7 58 8 25 9 8 10 0 6 7 8 200 3 in 750 700 350 175 75 9 25 10 0 1150 1150

Total DRH (cfs) 0 200 750 1150 1150 700 350 175 75 25 0 /3= /3= /3= /3= /3= /3= /3= /3= /3= /3= /3=

3 hr unit hydrograph (cfs) 0 67 250 383 383 233 117 58 25 8 0

+ + + + + + + +

0 200 550 400 200 100 50 25 0

S-hydrograph Method This method allows for the generation of any duration unit hydrograph from an existing unit hydrograph. It is developed by infinitely lagging an existing unit hydrograph by its duration and adding the ordinates. This produces a hydrograph resulting from an infinite storm with effective rainfall intensity equal to the reciprocal of the unit hydrograph duration. For example, by continuously lagging by 4 hours a unit hydrograph of 4 hour duration, a 4-hour Shydrograph resulting from an infinite storm with effective rainfall intensity of 0.25 in/hr is developed.

The resulting hydrograph has the shape of an S, hence its name, and eventually flattens out to a constant outflow rate equivalent to the effective rainfall. If a uniform effective rainfall intensity is applied for an infinitely long time over a basin, the basin will achieve an equilibrium state in which the maximum storage capacity of the basin is attained and therefore inflow (effective rainfall) equals outflow (runoff). This is the basis of the rational formula.

60

To construct a unit hydrograph of duration Y, from an X hour S-hydrograph (produced from a unit hydrograph of duration X), the S-hydrograph is lagged by Y hours. The differences in the S-hydrograph ordinates are then divided by Y/X.
a) 1 hr unit hydrograph 1600 1400 Discharge (cfs) Discharge (cfs) 1200 1000 800 600 400 200 0 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 200 550 400 200 100 50 6 7 25 8 0 9 10 11 12 1600 1400 1200 1000 800 600 400 200 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Time (hr) 1-hr Unit hydrographs b) Generating 1-hr S-hydrograph from lagged 1-hr unit hydrographs 1-hr S-hydrograph

Time (hr) c) Lagging a 1-hr S-hydrograph to obtain a 3-hr unit hydrograph 1600 1400 Discharge (cfs) 1200 1000 800 600 400 200 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Time (hr) 1-hr S-hydrograph Discharge (cfs) 1-hr S-hydrograph lagged by 3 hours Difference (3 inches) 3-hr Unit hydrograph (1 inch) 1600 1400 1200 1000 800 600 400 200 0 0 0 1 67 2 3 4 250 383 383 d) 3 hr unit hydrograph

233 117 5 6 7 58 8 25 9 8 10 0 11 12

Time (hr)

Individual 1-hr UH (cfs) lagged Time (hr) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

1 in 0 200 550 400 200 100 50 25 0

1 in + + + + + + + + 0 200 550 400 200 100 50 25 0

1 in

1 in

1 in

1 in

1 in

1 in

1 in = = = = = = = = 0 = 200 = 550 = 400 = 200 = 100 = 50 = 25 =

+ + + + + + + +

0 200 550 400 200 100 50 25

+ + + + + + +

0 200 550 400 200 100 50

+ + + + + +

0 200 550 400 200 100

+ + + + +

0 200 550 400 200

+ + + +

0 200 + 550 + 400 + 200 + 100 + 50 + 25 + 0 +

0 200 + 550 + 400 + 200 + 100 + 50 + 25 + 0 +

1-hr Shydrograph (cfs) 0 200 750 1150 1350 1450 1500 1525 1525 1525 1525 1525 1525 1525 1525 1525

Lagged 1 hr Shydrograph (cfs) Diff. 0 200 750 0 1150 200 1150 750 700 1150 350 1350 175 1450 75 1500 25 1525 1525 1525 1525 1525 1525

/3= /3= /3= /3= /3= /3= /3= /3= /3= /3=

3-hr UH 0 67 250 383 383 233 117 58 25 8 0

0 +

25 + 0 +

50 + 25 + 0 +

100 + 50 + 25 + 0 +

0 /3=

To produce a 1-hr S-hydrograph from a 1-hr unit hydrograph (a), the unit hydrograph is lagged by 1 hour an infinite number of times and the ordinates are added (b). The S-hydrograph approaches a constant value, which is equal to the effective rainfall. The 1-hr S-hydrograph is lagged by 3 hours and the difference between the ordinates of the two Shydrographs is divided by 3 (c ) to obtain the 3-hr unit hydrograph (d).

61

NRCS Synthetic Unit Hydrograph

In the absence of rainfall and streamflow data, a synthetic unit hydrograph must be created to analyze the response of a watershed to storm events. The National Resources Conservation Service (previously the Soil Conservation Service) has developed a method for constructing synthetic unit hydrographs based on a dimensionless unit hydrograph. Applicability: The method was originally developed for use in rural watersheds up to 2000 acres, but it appears to be applicable to urban watersheds up to 4000-5000 acres. The method requires the computation of time to peak flow (tp), and the peak discharge (Qp) as follows: t p = 0.5t r + t l tp = time to peak = time from the beginning of rainfall to the center of mass or runoff or to the peak runoff (hr) tr = duration of effective rainfall (hr) tl = lag time = time between centroid of effective rainfall to the peak of runoff (hr) (note very specific definition) 484 Ad tp Qp = peak runoff rate (cfs) Ad = basin or drainage area (mi2) tp = time to peak (hr) Qp = The factor 484 is called the peaking factor, which essentially controls the volume of water on the rising and recession limbs. The 484 value is a default value but it can be modified based on the following:
General Description Peaking Factor Limb Ratio (Recession to Rising) Urban areas; steep slopes Typical SCS Mixed urban/rural Rural, rolling hills Rural, slight slopes Rural, very flat 575 484 400 300 200 100 1.25 1.67 2.25 3.33 5.5 12

Hydrograph peaking factors and recession limb ratios (Wanielista, et al. 1997)

62

The lag time, tl, is computed based on: L0.8 ( S + 1) 0.7 tl = 1900Y 0.5

tl = lag time (hr) L = length to basin divide (ft) S = potential maximum retention from Curve Number Method (in) Y = average watershed slope (%) The potential maximum retention, S, is computed based on the NRCS Curve Number: 1000 S = 10 CN S = potential maximum retention from Curve Number Method (in) CN = NRCS Curve Number The time base (tb), which is the time from the beginning to the end of the unit hydrograph, is 5*tp. The average lag time is 0.6*tc, where tc is the time of concentration, defined by NRCS as the time from the end of effective rainfall to the inflection point of the unit hydrograph. The time of concentration is given by: t c = 1.7t p t r tc = time of concentration (hr) = time from the end of effective rainfall to the inflection point of the unit hydrograph. tp = time to peak (hr) tr = duration of effective rainfall (hr) Therefore, the dimensionless unit hydrograph has a point of inflection at approximately 1.7tp from the start of effective rainfall. Combining all these equations together, then the duration of the NRCS synthetic unit hydrograph should not exceed 0.25*tp or 0.17*tc. If a unit hydrograph of a different duration is needed, it can be developed from an S-hydrograph created by lagging the NRCS synthetic unit hydrograph. A simplified version of the dimensionless synthetic unit hydrograph was developed by the NRCS by approximating the hydrograph as triangular in shape. The triangular approximation has a time base (tb) equal to 2.67*tp.

63

NRCS dimensionless synthetic unit hydrograph Triangular approximation Discharge Ratios

Time Ratios

Curvilinear Discharge Ratios

Mass Curve Ratios (Qa/Q) 0.000 0.001 0.006 0.012 0.035 0.065 0.107 0.163 0.228 0.300 0.375 0.450 0.522 0.589 0.650 0.700 0.751 0.790 0.822 0.849 0.871 0.908 0.934 0.953 0.958 0.967 0.977 0.984 0.989 0.993 0.995 0.997 0.999 1.000

(t/tp) 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.7 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8 4.0 4.5 5.0

(q/qp) 0.000 0.030 0.100 0.190 0.310 0.470 0.660 0.820 0.930 0.990 1.000 0.990 0.930 0.860 0.780 0.680 0.560 0.460 0.390 0.330 0.280 0.207 0.147 0.107 0.097 0.077 0.055 0.040 0.029 0.021 0.015 0.011 0.005 0.000

(q/qp) 0.000 0.100 0.200 0.300 0.400 0.500 0.600 0.700 0.800 0.900 1.000 0.940 0.880 0.820 0.760 0.701 0.641 0.581 0.521 0.461 0.401 0.281 0.162 0.042 0.000

NRCS Dimensionless Synthetic Unit Hydrograph (Curvilinear and Triangular Approximation) and Mass Curve Ratios for Curvilinear Synthetic Unit Hydrograph Source: NRCS, 1969

64

NRCS dimensionless synthetic unit hydrograph (SUH)

Curvilinear SUH Triangular approximation to SUH 1.000 0.900 0.800 0.700 0.600 Q/Qp 0.500 0.400 0.300 0.200 0.100 0.000 1.7 2.67 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 t/tp 5.0 inflection point Mass curve for curvilinear SUH

Source: NRCS, 1969 tr

Source: NRCS, 1969; NWS Unit Hydrograph (UHG) Technical Manual NRCS Dimensionless Synthetic Unit Hydrograph (Curvilinear and Triangular Approximation) and Mass Curve Ratios for Curvilinear Synthetic Unit Hydrograph

65

Groundwater
Aquifers
Aquifer Geological formation containing underground (subsurface) water Aquiclude Confining unit which impedes groundwater flow. Impermeable layer of soil that may absorb water slowly but does not transmit it. A body of relatively impermeable rock that is capable of absorbing water slowly but does not transmit it rapidly enough to supply a well or spring. Aquitard Confining unit which impedes groundwater flow. A layer of soil having low permeability that stores groundwater but delays its flow. Lowpermeability bed of sufficient permeability to allow movement of contaminants and to be relevant to regional groundwater flow, but of insufficient permeability for the economic production of water. Also known as a leaky confining layer. Aquifuge Confining unit which restricts groundwater flow. A geological formation that contains absolutely no interconnected openings or interstices and therefore neither absorbs nor transmits water. Confined or artesian aquifer Water flows down in a recharge area and gets trapped under a confining impermeable unit (e.g. clay, granite). Water is under pressure due to weight of upgradient water and confinement under impermeable layer. Drilling a well will cause water to flow upwards to a level above the top of the aquifer called the piezometric head. If the confining pressure is high enough, water will flow to the surface under artesian pressure (artesian well). Artesian well Well drilled on a confined aquifer where the confining pressure is high enough, so that water will flow to the surface under artesian pressure. Unconfined or free aquifer Water is in contact with atmospheric pressure. Drilling a well will hit the water table (gravity well). Gravity well Well drilled on an unconfined aquifer (hits the water table). Water table or phreatic surface Surface beneath which all interconnected pore space in the soil is filled with water or fully saturated. At the water table the pressure head is equal to the atmospheric pressure (Pgage = 0). Capillary fringe or tension-saturated zone Subsurface layer above the water table where water molecules rise up from the water table by capillary action (pressure is below atmospheric). It is part of the unsaturated zone.

66

Perched water table Aquifer that occurs above the main regional water table when the descent of water percolating from above is blocked by an impermeable lens. Piezometric height Height to which water will rise when a well is drilled in a confined aquifer; corresponds to the hydrostatic pressure. Piezometric head or hydraulic head Includes potential head (elevation above a datum) plus hydrostatic pressure head. h = z + (P/) h = hydraulic head z = potential head (elevation above datum) P = pressure = specific weight = g (M/t2L2) = mass density (M/L3) g = gravitational acceleration (L/t2)

Infiltration Movement of water from the land surface to the upper layers of the soil. Percolation Movement of water through the subsurface down to the water table.

Aquifer Characteristics
Porosity, total porosity (n, dimensionless) Total volume occupied by voids / total volume of soil. Origins of porosity include: o Primary or intergranular porosity Function of grain size distribution and packing of constituent grains. It decreases with depth due to compaction and pressure solution. o Secondary porosity Due to dissolution of carbonate rocks, and fracturing of rocks during tectonic events, etc. Factors reducing the porosity: o Compaction Destroys pores as grains are squeezed closer together. It is the result of the conversion of sediments to sedimentary rocks. o Cementation Spaces are filled with cementing agents (dissolved minerals) holding grains together. It is the result of the conversion of sediments to sedimentary rocks.

67

Types of porosity include: o Intergranular Between grains. Mostly part of effective porosity, but there can also be dead-end pores o Intragranular Within grains. Usually not considered part of effective porosity. Effective or open porosity (ne, dimensionless) Porosity available for flow = total volume of interconnected pore space / total volume of soil.

Permeability, Conductivity, Transmissivity

Intrinsic or specific permeability (k, L2) Portion of the hydraulic conductivity of a porous medium which is dependent on pore structure only. Hydraulic conductivity (K, L/t) - Proportionality constant between the volumetric flow through a porous medium and the hydraulic gradient. It is a function of both the porous medium and the fluid.
k g k = K = hydraulic conductivity (L/t) K=

SI units

Medium properties: k = intrinsic or specific permeability (L2) Fluid properties: = mass density (M/L3) = absolute or dynamic viscosity (M/Lt) = specific weight = g (M/t2L2) g = gravitational acceleration (L/t2)
kg g c = specific weight = g/gc (M/t2L2) K= = k

US units

Transmissivity or coefficient of transmissivity (T, L2/t) Volume of water flowing through a cross-sectional area of an aquifer that has a unit width times an aquifer thickness b, under a unit hydraulic gradient in a given amount of time.
T= Kb

T = transmissivity (L2/t) K = hydraulic conductivity (L/t) 68

b = aquifer saturated thickness (L)

Isotropy Having the same hydraulic properties in all directions. Anisotropy Having directional hydraulic properties. Homogeneity Having the same hydraulic properties at all locations. Heterogeneity Having different properties at different locations. An example in groundwater flow is a stratified (layered) aquifer.

Kz

Kz

Kx Homogeneous, isotropic

Kx Homogeneous, anisotropic

Kz

Kz

Kx Heterogeneous, isotropic

Kx Heterogeneous, anisotropic

Diagram showing principles of heterogeneity and anisotropy Note: Kx is the horizontal hydraulic conductivity; Kz is the vertical hydraulic conductivity

69

Averaging Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity on Layered Aquifers

KX =

(m K ) (m )
i i i

KX = equivalent horizontal hydraulic conductivity (flow is parallel to the stratification) Ki = hydraulic conductivity of layer i mi = thickness of layer i

Flow direction

K1 K2

m1 m2

Kx = ( m1 * K1 + m2 * K2 ) / (m1 + m2)

KZ =

(m ) (m / K )
i i i

K1 K2

m1 m2

KZ = equivalent vertical hydraulic conductivity (flow is at right angles to the stratification) Ki = hydraulic conductivity of layer i mi = thickness of layer i

Flow direction KZ = ( m1 + m2 ) / (m1/K1 + m2/K2)

70

Constant Head Permeability Test

Test recommended for coarse-grained soils. If method is used for fine-grained soils, the testing time can be prohibitively long.
K = VL Aht
Constant head permeability test

Qin

Qin = Qout h is constant Qout

h

K = hydraulic conductivity (L/t) V = volume of water collected (L3) L = length of specimen (L) A = cross sectional area of soil specimen (L2) h = head difference (L) i = hydraulic gradient = h/L (L/L, dimensionless) t = duration of water collection (t)

Area A

Porous stone filter

water collected

71

Variable or Falling Head Permeability Test

Test can be used for all soil types, but mostly used for materials with fine-grained soils having low permeability.
a L h1 ln At h2
Falling head permeability test

K=

Area a outlet head kept constant Q

h a L = 2.303 log 10 1 At h2 K = hydraulic conductivity (L/t) a = cross-sectional area of the standpipe or burette (L2) A = cross sectional area of soil specimen (L2) L = length of soil specimen (L) t = time (t2 t1) (t) h1 = head in standpipe at time t1 (L) h2 = head in standpipe at time t2 (L)

h2

h1

Area A

Porous stone filter

water collected

72

Empirical Formulas for Estimating Hydraulic Conductivity or Permeability

Examples of Empirical Formulas for Estimating Hydraulic Conductivity or Permeability Source: Physical and Chemical Hydrogeology, 2nd Ed. (Domenico & Schwartz)

Note: Hazen formula is valid for effective grain sizes from 0.1 to 3 mm. Recommended C values for Hazens formula are given below:
Material very fine sands (poorly sorted) or fine sand with appreciable fines medium sand (well sorted) or coarse sand (poorly sorted) coarse sand (well sorted and clean) C 40-80 80-120 120-150

Storativity, Specific Retention, and Specific Capacity

Storage coefficient, storage constant, storativity (S, dimensionless) Change in aquifer water volume per unit surface area of the aquifer per unit change in hydraulic head. Same as specific yield for unconfined aquifers.
S= volume of storage change Surface area of aquifer x change in head

Specific storage (Ss, 1/L) Volume of water that a unit volume of aquifer releases from storage for a unit decline in hydraulic head.
Ss = volume of storage change volume of aquifer x change in head

73

Note that S = Ss * b, where b is the aquifer thickness.

Specific yield (Sy, dimensionless) Volume of water yielded when an unconfined aquifer is drained by gravity. Volume of water yielded per unit surface area of the aquifer per unit drawdown.

Diagram illustrating the specific yield (Sy) for an unconfined aquifer Source: Physical and Chemical Hydrogeology, 2nd Ed. (Domenico & Schwartz)

Specific retention (Sr, dimensionless) Ratio of the volume of water that will be retained in an aquifer against the pull of gravity to the total volume of the aquifer. This volume of water is also called pendular water.
ne = Sy + Sr

ne = effective porosity Sy = specific yield Sr = specific retention Notes: In general, the coarser the material, the lower the specific retention and the more closely the specific yield approaches total porosity.

Clay has a very high porosity (pores are small but numerous) but a very low specific yield (high specific retention) due to strong molecular attraction between clay particles and water (large contact area). Permeability is low through clay because large surface areas results in increased friction and pores are not well connected.

74

Specific capacity of an aquifer - The specific capacity of an aquifer gives an indication of its productivity as defined by the discharge rate per unit drawdown at a well.
SC = Q/s

SC = specific capacity Q = discharge rate s = aquifer drawdown at the well

Unsaturated Zone

Vadose zone, zone of aeration, unsaturated zone Portion of subsurface between the land surface and the water table where the soil pores are filled with water and air. Water in the unsaturated zone is retained by adhesion and capillary action. Pressure head (gage) is negative in the unsaturated zone. Soil moisture content (, unitless) volume of water / total volume of soil. It is equal to the total porosity (n) if the soil is fully saturated. Effective rainfall - In irrigation, it is the portion of precipitation that remains in the soil and is available for plant use. Permanent wilting point Amount of water held in a soil that is unavailable to plants since it remains in very small pores. Plants become permanently wilted when the soil moisture content is reduced below this level. It usually occurs when Pgage = -15 atm on the drying branch of the soil moisture vs. pressure curve. Field capacity or drained upper limit Amount of water held in the soil when percolation (gravity-driven flow) of water has stopped. Plant available water Amount of water between the permanent wilting point and the field capacity, which is available to plants.

75

Darcys Law
q = Ki h i= L Q = KiA q = specific discharge (L/t) Q = total discharge (L3/t) A = gross flow area measured at right angles to the direction of flow (L2) i = hydraulic gradient (change in hydraulic head h over distance L) (L/L, dimensionless) h = change in hydraulic head (represents the frictional energy loss due to flow through media) (L) K = hydraulic conductivity (L/t)

Applicability: Darcys Law holds for saturated and unsaturated flow, steady-state and transient flow, flow in aquifers and aquitards, flow in homogeneous and heterogeneous systems, flow in isotropic and anisotropic media, flow in rocks and granular media. Applicability at extremely low and high hydraulic gradients has been questioned Reynolds number (Re) must be less than 1: qDmean Re =

q = specific discharge (L/t) Dmean = mean grain diameter (L) = mass density (M/L3) = absolute or dynamic viscosity (M/Lt)
It is important to distinguish between the following: q = specific discharge, Darcian velocity, Darcian flux, effective velocity, discharge per unit gross area (macroscopic concept used in computing total discharge; fictitious velocity, not actual velocity of fluid) vpore = average pore velocity, actual velocity, rate of advection, seepage velocity, average linear velocity (used in computing actual travel time). Velocity a conservative tracer would experience if carried by water through the aquifer. q v pore = ne

q = specific discharge (L/t) ne = effective porosity (interconnected pore space)

76

Well Drawdown in Aquifers

Unconfined aquifer pumping - In an unconfined aquifer water drains out of the pores at the water table when the water table falls. Confined aquifer pumping - In a confined aquifer water comes from both compression of the granular material (shifting of grains and reduction in porosity) and expansion of the water.

Steady-State Well Discharge for an Unconfined Aquifer

The hydraulic conductivity, K, can be derived from this test. pumping Q well r1 s1 water table observation wells r2

s2

Unconfined aquifer

y1

y2

Note: The pumping well itself can be taken as one of the observation wells, in which case r1 equals the radius of the pumping well r. The cone formed between the original water table location and the water table location after pumping is called a cone of depression. A cone of depression is formed when water is pumped from a well faster than it can be replaced.
2 K ( y12 y 2 ) Q= r ln 1 r2

Thiem equation: unconfined aquifer, steady-state

77

Q = discharge rate (L3/t) K = aquifer hydraulic conductivity (L/t) r1, r2 = radial distances measured for pumping well centerline (L) y1 = water table elevation at radial distance r1 (L) = b y1 y2 = water table elevation at radial distance r2 (L) = b y2
Assumptions: Darcys Law is valid Aquifer is unconfined but underlain by an impermeable horizontal unit and has an infinite horizontal extent Aquifer is homogeneous, isotropic and of uniform thickness over the area influenced by the well Prior to pumping, the piezometric surface is horizontal over the area influenced by the well. Aquifer is pumped at a constant discharge rate. Fully-penetrating well screened over entire thickness of the aquifer to ensure purely horizontal flow System is at equilibrium or steady-state (can be used a long time after pumping has begun) Drawdown is small with respect to aquifer thickness b so that flow is mostly horizontal

Steady-State Well Discharge for a Confined Aquifer

The Hydraulic Conductivity, K, can be derived from this test pumping well
Aquitard (impermeable layer)

observation wells r2

r1 s1

s2

Potentiometric surface y0

Confined aquifer

y1

y2

78

Note: The pumping well itself can be taken as one of the observation wells, in which case r1 equals the radius of the pumping well r. The cone formed between the original location of the potentiometric surface and its location after pumping is called a cone of depression. A cone of depression is formed when water is pumped from a well faster than it can be replaced.
2 T ( y1 y 2 ) 2 T ( s2 s1 ) Thiem equation: confined aquifer, steady-state = r1 r1 ln ln r2 r2

Q=

Q = discharge rate (L3/t) T = aquifer transmissivity (L2/t) = K*b K = aquifer hydraulic conductivity (L/t) b = saturated aquifer thickness (L) r1, r2 = radial distances measured for pumping well centerline (L) y1 = piezometric head at radial distance r1 (L) y2 = piezometric head at radial distance r2 s1 = aquifer drawdown at radial distance r1 (L) = y0 y1 s2 = aquifer drawdown at radial distance r2 (L) = y0 y2 Note: It is important to distinguish between the aquifer saturated thickness b and the piezometric head y, which are different in a confined aquifer. The saturated thickness of the aquifer is generally not affected, while the piezometric head is lowered by pumping.
Assumptions: Darcys Law is valid Aquifer is confined at the top and bottom, and has an infinite horizontal extent Aquifer is homogeneous, isotropic and of uniform thickness over the area influenced by the well Prior to pumping, the piezometric surface is horizontal over the area influenced by the well. Aquifer is pumped at a constant discharge rate. Fully-penetrating well screened over the entire thickness of the aquifer to ensure purely horizontal flow. System is at equilibrium or steady-state (can be used a long time after pumping has begun) Drawdown is small with respect to aquifer thickness b so that flow is mostly horizontal

79

Transient or Unsteady Well Discharge for a Confined Aquifer

Both the hydraulic conductivity, K, and the storage coefficient, S, can be determined from this test.
Q Q sr ,t = W ( u) = W (u) 4 Kb 4 T
W ( u) =

Theis equation: confined aquifer, transient

e z dz (Table 21.3 CERM) z

u=

r2S r2S = 4 Kbt 4Tt

sr,t = aquifer drawdown at radial distance r from the well and after pumping from time t (L) r = radial distance measured for pumping well centerline (L) t = time since beginning of pumping (t) Q = discharge rate (L3/t) T = aquifer transmissivity (L2/t) = K*b K = aquifer hydraulic conductivity (L/t) b = saturated aquifer thickness (L) W(u) = well function See table 21.3 Civil Engineering Reference Manual (10th ed. Lindeburg, 2006) S = aquifer storage coefficient (dimensionless) When u < 0.01, the well function can be simplified to: W(u) = -0.5772 ln(u), Q 2.25Tt in which case sr ,t = ln 4 T r 2 S

Jacobs equation

Assumptions: Aquifer is confined at the top and bottom, and has an infinite horizontal extent Aquifer is homogeneous, isotropic and of uniform thickness over the area influenced by the well Prior to pumping, the piezometric surface is horizontal over the area influenced by the well. Aquifer is pumped at a constant discharge rate. Fully-penetrating well screened over the entire thickness of the aquifer to ensure purely horizontal flow. System is not yet at equilibrium Drawdown is small with respect to aquifer thickness b so that flow is mostly horizontal

80

Darcys Law is valid

From the Theis equation it can be noticed that: Soils with low transmissivity have a deeper and narrower cone of depression. Soils with high transmissivity have a shallower and wider cone of depression. Soils with low storage coefficient have a deeper and wider cone of depression. Soils with high storage coefficient have a shallower and narrower cone of depression. Note: The application of the Theis equation to unconfined aquifers is limited to cases when drawdown is less than 25% of the aquifer thickness. In the case of an unconfined aquifer, the resulting drawdown s is adjusted by a correction factor. This correction becomes less important with distance from the well.
s2 s' = s 2b

s = observed drawdown in the unconfined aquifer b = initial saturated aquifer thickness s= corrected drawdown; drawdown that would have occurred if the aquifer were confined (as given by Theis equation)

81

Typical Soil Properties

Range in Values of Total Porosity (n, %) Source: Physical and Chemical Hydrogeology, 2nd Ed. (Domenico & Schwartz)

Range in Values of Total Porosity (n, %) and Effective Porosity (ne, %) Source: Physical and Chemical Hydrogeology, 2nd Ed. (Domenico & Schwartz)

82

Representative Values of Hydraulic Conductivity (K) for Various Rock Types Source: Physical and Chemical Hydrogeology, 2nd Ed. (Domenico & Schwartz)

83

Values of Specific Yield (Sy) for Various Geologic Materials Source: Physical and Chemical Hydrogeology, 2nd Ed. (Domenico & Schwartz)

84

Hydrology and Groundwater Problems Testmasters

Table of Contents Hydrology _____________________________________________________________ 3

Breadth Problems __________________________________________________________ 3

Groundwater__________________________________________________________ 11
Breadth Problems _________________________________________________________ 11

Hydrology ____________________________________________________________ 17
Depth Problems ___________________________________________________________ 17

Groundwater__________________________________________________________ 25
Depth Problems ___________________________________________________________ 25

Hydrology
Breadth Problems
1. What are the effects of urbanization on the hydrologic cycle? a. b. c. d. e. Increases effective rainfall (direct runoff) for a given rainfall Faster time to peak (lower time of concentration) Higher peak Lower rates of groundwater recharge in urbanized area All of the above

2. What happens to the shape of the unit hydrograph if the effective rainfall duration is doubled? a. The base time of the unit hydrograph is halved. b. The base time of the unit hydrograph will be lengthened and the peak will be lowered so that the volume of the unit hydrograph remains constant. c. The peak of the unit hydrograph will be doubled. d. The unit hydrograph will have two peaks. e. The ordinates (flows) of the unit hydrograph will increase by 2 units. 3. What is detention storage? a. Fraction of precipitation that is retained on buildings and plants and is eventually evaporated. b. Fraction of precipitation that is trapped in puddles, ditches, and other surface depressions from where it evaporates or infiltrates into the soil. c. Fraction of precipitation that is stored temporarily on the land surface en route to a stream. d. Fraction of precipitation that infiltrates into the unsaturated zone and from there moves to a stream channel. e. Fraction of precipitation that infiltrates and percolates down to the water table and from there moves to a stream channel. 4. What is the direct runoff volume in acre-ft generated by the storm whose hyetograph is given below if the index is 1.2 in/hr and the area of the watershed is 20 acres? a. b. c. d. e. 500 acre-ft 5 acre-ft 30 acre-ft 180 acre-ft 6 acre-ft

Rainfall Hyetograph
7 6 Rainfall intensity (in/hr) 5 4 3 Index 2
3.0 3.0 2.0 1.0 5.0 5.0

6.0

1
1.5 1.0 0.5

2.0

0 0 10 20 30 40 50 time (min) 60 70 80 90 100

5. Which of the following is NOT a definition of time of concentration? a. Time for a drop of water to flow from the hydraulically most remote point in the watershed to the outlet. b. Wave travel time c. Time required, with uniform rain, for 100% of a tract of land to contribute to direct runoff at the outlet. d. Time from the beginning to the end of the direct runoff or unit hydrograph. e. Time from the end of excess rainfall generation (overland flow supply) to the inflection point of the hydrograph on the recession limb. 6. Based on the rainfall intensity data below, what is the maximum hourly precipitation in inches/hour? a. b. c. d. e. 5.1 inches/hour 1.7 inches/hour 2.0 inches/hour 4.4 inches/hour 2.8 inches/hour

time interval 1:20 PM to 1:40 PM 1:40 PM to 2:00 PM 2:00 PM to 2:20 PM 2:20 PM to 2:40 PM 2:40 PM to 3:00 PM 3:00 PM to 3:20 PM 3:20 PM to 3:40 PM 3:40 PM to 4:00 PM 4:00 PM to 4:20 PM 4:20 PM to 4:40 PM 4:40 PM to 5:00 PM 5:00 PM to 5:20 PM 5:20 PM to 5:40 PM 5:40 PM to 6:00 PM 6:00 PM to 6:20 PM

Average Intensity (in/hr) 0.0 0.2 0.6 0.8 0.9 1.2 1.3 2.0 1.8 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.2 0.1 0.0

7. An urban community has an area of 52 acres, of which 15% is concrete with a runoff coefficient of 0.85, 30% is shingle roof with a runoff coefficient of 0.75, 20% is asphalt with a runoff coefficient of 0.90, and the rest is lawn areas with a runoff coefficient of 0.2. If the community receives rainfall from a storm of average intensity of 2 inches/hour, what would be the expected peak runoff from the storm in acre-ft/hour? a. b. c. d. e. 4.6 ac-ft/hr 6.2 ac-ft/hr 52 ac-ft/hr 62.7 ac-ft/hr 5.2 ac-ft/hr

8. What is the total effective rainfall in inches produced by the storm described above if its duration is 5 hours? a. b. c. d. e. 1.2 inches 6.0 inches 5.2 inches 10.0 inches 0.25 inches

9. What is a unit hydrograph? a. Timeseries of effective rainfall resulting from a storm over a particular watershed. b. Timeseries of baseflow for a storm over a particular watershed.

c. Timeseries of discharge resulting from one unit of rainfall for a unit time over a particular watershed. d. Timeseries of discharge resulting from one unit of effective rainfall for a unit time over a particular watershed. e. Timeseries of discharge resulting from one unit of effective rainfall for a unit time over any watershed. 10. Which of the following is NOT a rainfall abstraction? a. b. c. d. e. Infiltration Interception Depression storage Detention storage Evapotranspiration

11. What is evapotranspiration? a. Transfer of water from the atmosphere to the land surface b. Fraction of precipitation that is retained on buildings and plants c. Transfer of water from plant, soil, and open-water surfaces back to the atmosphere d. Movement of water from the land surface to the upper layers of the soil. e. Process by which plants obtain energy by reacting oxygen with glucose to produce water, carbon dioxide and energy. 12. A standard collector-type gage recorded rainfall over a storm which started at 12:00 PM and had an average wind speed of 15 miles per hour. The gage calibration yielded a coefficient 0.1 mm of rain per milligram of rainfall. At 15 miles per hour, the gage catch deficiency is about 20%. What is most closely the true rainfall in inches for the period between 12:40 PM and 1:00 PM? Catch deficiency = 1 (gage catch/true catch) a. b. c. d. e. 0.15 inches 0.52 inches 0.98 inches 0.65 inches 16.6 inches

Reading time 12:00 PM 12:10 PM 12:20 PM 12:30 PM 12:40 PM 12:50 PM 1:00 PM 1:10 PM 1:20 PM 1:30 PM 1:40 PM 1:50 PM 2:00 PM 2:10 PM 2:20 PM

Cumulative gage weight (mg) 18.0 25.0 100.0 150.0 217.0 230.0 350.0 480.0 720.0 910.0 1000.0 1040.0 1050.0 1055.0 1060.0

13. A storm of 1-hour effective rainfall duration hits a watershed, which is characterized by the 1-hour unit hydrograph shown below. Five hours after the beginning of runoff, the discharge measured at the watershed outlet is 325 cfs. What is the effective rainfall in inches and the total direct runoff volume in acre-ft produced by the 1-hour effective rainfall event? a. b. c. d. e. 1 inch, 135 acre-ft 1 inch, 350 acre-ft 2.6 inches, 135 acre-ft 2.6 inches, 1610 acre-ft 2.6 inches, 350 acre-ft
1 hr unit hydrograph Time (hr) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Q (cfs) 0 217 563 424 220 125 50 25 0

14. For the problem above, what is the peak runoff in cfs? a. b. c. d. e. 220 cfs 563 cfs 572 cfs 1464 cfs 1610 cfs

15. A storm producing 5 inches of rainfall falls over a watershed during its dormant season. The watershed has the landuse distribution shown in the table below. The watershed consists of silty clays with a clay hardpan. The total rainfall for the 5 days prior to the storm was 1.5 inches. For this storm the initial abstractions were determined to be 0.25 inches. What is the expected overland flow supply in acre-ft? a. b. c. d. e. 0.62 acre-ft 56 acre-ft 50 acre-ft 670 acre-ft 38 acre-ft
Area (acres) 50 33 27 25 10 10 5 Landuse Residential - 1/4 acre lots with 40% impervious area Residential - 1/8 acre lots with 65% impervious area Woods - good condition Commercial and business use with 85% impervious area Parks - fair condition Paved roads with curbs and storm sewers Golf courses - good condition

16. A water supply reservoir is to be designed to provide water to an urban community during drought conditions. The Rippl diagram showing the expected cumulative demand and inflow for the reservoir is shown below. What is the approximate reservoir capacity (without a factor of safety) in acre-ft required so that it does not run out of water during a drought? a. b. c. d. e. 1,700 acre-ft 200 acre-ft 5,000 acre-ft 25,000 acre-ft 12,000 acre-ft

Rippl diagram
Cumulative inflow Cumulative demand

25000

Cumulative inflow or demand (ac-ft)

20000

15000

10000

5000

17. The table below shows the normal precipitation for the month of August at eleven gages in a flat interior watershed. During a storm event which occurred on August 17, 2006, gage D failed. What was most likely the precipitation at gage D during the storm event in inches/day?

a. b. c. d. e.

Ja n9 M 6 ar -9 M 6 ay -9 Ju 6 l -9 Se 6 pN 96 ov -9 Ja 6 n9 M 7 ar -9 M 7 ay -9 Ju 7 l -9 Se 7 pN 97 ov -9 Ja 7 n9 M 8 ar -9 M 8 ay -9 Ju 8 l -9 Se 8 pN 98 ov -9 Ja 8 n9 M 9 ar M 99 ay -9 Ju 9 l -9 Se 9 pN 99 ov -9 Ja 9 n0 M 0 ar M 00 ay -0 Ju 0 l -0 Se 0 pN 00 ov -0 0
Date

A C B D F H I E

Site

A B C D E F G H I J K

August August 17, Normal 2006 Precipitation precipitation (in/mo) (in/day) 6.5 2.1 4.7 1.1 5.3 1.4 5.0 -4.9 1.1 5.1 1.3 3.8 0.8 6.2 2.0 6.4 2.1 6.6 2.2 7.2 2.7

1.2 inches/day 3.0 inches/day 1.0 inches/day 1.4 inches/day 0.6 inches/day

18. The table below shows the annual precipitation at five stations in a watershed. Data at station A is suspect. This data is plotted as a double mass-curve and a breakpoint is identified in 1969. Assuming that the correct slope is the most recent slope, what would be the correct 1967 annual precipitation at station A in inches/year? a. b. c. d. e. 45.6 inches/year 63.6 inches/year 32.7 inches/year 58.7 inches/year 92.1 inches/year
Cumulative precipitation for station A (in)

Double-mass curve
1000.0

900.0

800.0

700.0

1.06
600.0

500.0

400.0

300.0

200.0

0.76
100.0

Breakpoint in 1969

1
0.0 0.0 100.0 200.0 300.0 400.0 500.0 600.0 700.0 800.0 900.0 1000.0 Cumulative precipitation for mean of stations B, C, D, E (in)

Year

Annual Precipitation for Station (inches/year) Mean of Stations B, C, D, E (in/yr) 54.1 53.8 57.1 56.3 42.9 75.5 65.4 54.2 61.7 61.0 44.4 62.4 62.6 67.7 64.3 50.4 52.2 51.0 58.7 50.5 50.9 70.6 59.4 43.9 52.9 56.2 47.2 58.9 60.8 62.0 62.5 46.1 Cumulative for mean of B, C, D, E (in) 52.2 103.2 161.9 212.4 263.3 333.9 393.3 437.2 490.1 546.3 593.5 652.4 713.2 775.2 837.7 883.8 Cumulative for A (in) 44.7 82.9 128.4 168.7 201.0 280.4 343.2 384.5 448.1 499.9 558.1 609.7 678.6 742.3 811.0 857.8

A 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 44.7 38.2 45.6 40.2 32.3 79.4 62.9 41.3 63.6 51.8 58.2 51.6 68.9 63.7 68.7 46.8

B 50.8 42.0 57.1 54.3 49.4 49.8 52.5 36.6 44.1 56.5 42.6 60.0 68.9 55.9 53.1 46.9

C 41.7 55.7 55.0 44.2 49.9 84.8 65.1 44.5 49.1 41.8 48.1 53.3 58.9 67.8 65.1 43.7

D 62.2 52.4 65.6 47.1 61.4 72.5 54.5 40.2 56.7 65.5 53.7 60.0 53.0 56.5 67.5 43.4

10

Groundwater
Breadth Problems
1. What is the soil permanent wilting point? a. Excess water left in the soil when percolation has stopped b. Volume of water yielded when an unconfined aquifer is drained by gravity per unit surface area per unit of drawdown. c. Amount of water held in the soil that is unavailable to plants d. Ratio of the volume of water that will be retained in an aquifer against the pull of gravity to the total volume of the aquifer. e. Soil moisture content at which transpiration is at its maximum (potential) 2. If a well is drilled on a confined aquifer, water will rise to the: a. b. c. d. e. Piezometric height Height of the water table Top of the confining unit Phreatic surface Land surface

3. An unconfined aquifer has a specific yield of 4%, a specific retention of 41%, and a total porosity of 50%, what is the percentage of unconnected pore space? a. b. c. d. e. 44% 5% 37% 9% 4%

4. What is a reasonable value for the hydraulic conductivity in ft/day of a well-sorted coarse sand aquifer with an effective grain size of 0.1 inch? a. b. c. d. e. 20,000 ft/day 500 ft/day 50 ft/day 2 ft/day 1 ft/day

11

5. What is the transmissivity in gal/day/ft of a confined aquifer with intrinsic permeability of 1.08X10-9 ft2 and thickness of 20 ft if the water temperature is 70 F? a. b. c. d. e. 4,300 gal/ft/day 400 gal/ft/day 750 gal/ft/day 42,300 gal/ft/day 32 gal/ft/day

6. What is the rate of advection or seepage velocity in ft/day for the flow line shown below if the hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer is 50 ft/day, its porosity is 0.3 and its effective porosity is 0.2? a. b. c. d. e. 0.02 ft/day 0.13 ft/day 13 ft/day 675 ft/day 0.20 ft/day

H = 20.0 ft A H = 7.0 ft L = 3.2 mi Lake 7. Based on the figure above, how many years will it take a contaminant spilled at point A to reach the lake if the hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer is 50 ft/day, its porosity is 0.3 and its effective porosity is 0.2? Note: Assume that the contaminant only migrates by advection. a. b. c. d. e. 84,500 years 85 years 232 years 360 years 36 years

8. Based on the figure below, which way does water flow? a. From point A to point B since hydraulic head is greater at point A than at point B b. From point B to point A since elevation of point B is higher than point A c. From point A to point B since elevation of point B is higher than point A

12

d. From point A to point B since pressure head is greater at point A than at point B e. There is no flow since elevation of point B is higher than point A which compensates for larger pressure head at point A

HpA HpB B ZB

A ZA

Datum Hp = pressure head Z = elevation 9. What is the definition of specific retention? a. Change in aquifer water volume per unit surface area of the aquifer per unit change in hydraulic head. b. Volume of unconnected pore space to the total soil volume c. Same as the specific yield for an unconfined aquifer d. Volume of water yielded when an unconfined aquifer is drained by gravity. e. Ratio of the volume of water that will be retained in an aquifer against the pull of gravity to the total volume of the aquifer.

13

10. What is the specific capacity of the aquifer shown below in gal/ft/day if the aquifer has reached steady-state, the well diameter is 1 ft, the water table elevation at the well is 12 ft, the aquifer recovers its original thickness of 15 ft at 1,000 ft from the well, and the hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer is 3X10-5 ft/s? a. b. c. d. e. 215 gal/ft/day 29 gal/ft/day 54 gal/ft/day 87 gal/ft/day 240 gal/ft/day pumping well D = 1 ft Sand Q observation well 1000 ft

Land surface elevation

water table

Sand

12 ft

b = 15 ft

14

11. What is the coefficient of permeability (inches/hour) of the sand sample shown below if 1.25 gallons of water were collected in 5 minutes, the sample diameter is 4 inches and its length is 3.5 inches? a. b. c. d. e. 3X10-2 inches/hour 26.8 inches/hour 6X10-4 inches/hour 40.0 inches/hour 1.5X10-3 inches/hour Water is added

Porous stone filter 4 ft Soil sample Water is collected

1 ft Datum

15

12. Neglecting friction and minor losses on the pipe and fittings of the permeameter shown below, what is the total head, elevation head and pressure head (measured from the datum) in feet at point C in the middle of the soil sample? a. b. c. d. e. Total head = 4 ft, elevation head = 4 ft, pressure head = 0 ft Total head = 4 ft, elevation head = 1 ft, pressure head = 3 ft Total head = 3 ft, elevation head = 1 ft, pressure head = 2 ft Total head = 3.5 ft, elevation head = 1 ft, pressure head = 2.5 ft Total head = 3 ft, elevation head = 3 ft, pressure head = 0 ft

Qin

Qin = Qout H is constant Qout H = 1 ft C

4 ft Porous stone filter water collected

Area A

L 1 ft

Datum Not to scale

16

Hydrology
Depth Problems
1. On a specific month, a managed reservoir with an area of 500 acres, receives structural inflows averaging 23.29 cfs, structural outflows averaging 3.33 cfs, and looses 100 acre-ft/month to the groundwater. An evaporation pan nearby records a monthly pan evaporation of 6.5 inches/month. The calibrated pan coefficient is 0.72. The reservoir starts with a storage of 1000 acre-ft and ends up with a storage of 2500 acre-ft at the end of the month. What is the rainfall over the reservoir in inches/month? a. b. c. d. e. 4.7 inches/month 5.8 inches/month 1.2 inches/month 16.1 inches/month 14.2 inches/month

2. What is a standard project flood or SPF? a. b. c. d. The flood that causes minimal damage to the environment. Flood used for design of a particular project. The flood that can be contained with the current infrastructure. Flood that can be selected from set of most extreme combinations of meteorological and hydrological conditions but excludes extremely rare combinations of events. e. Hypothetical flood that can be expected to occur as a result of the severe combination of critical meteorological and hydrologic conditions. 3. Which of the following is NOT true about a retention basin? a. It stores water for an extended period of time b. If the flow exceeds the storage capacity of the reservoir, an uncontrolled structure (usually a spillway) provides an outlet for the excess water. c. It stores water temporarily and slowly drains to a nearby flood control conveyance system d. It is generally more efficient at removing sediments and other contaminants than a detention basin due to longer residence times. e. Its main purposes are runoff containment and groundwater recharge 4. The Curve Number associated with a storm of 1.5 inches/hour average intensity and 20 year recurrence interval is 85. The watershed has an average slope of 3% and 40% of it is impervious. What would be the corresponding rational formula runoff coefficient C for the storm?

17

a. b. c. d. e.

0.12 0.24 0.57 0.45 0.66

5. A small urban watershed located in Florida has a time of concentration of 3 hours and the landuse distribution shown below. If the stormwater drainage system for the community is to be designed based on a 100 year storm frequency, what would be the expected peak runoff in cfs? a. b. c. d. e. 69 cfs 43 cfs 12 cfs 35 cfs 256 cfs

Material Concrete Shingle roof Asphalt Lawn areas

Area 6.8 12.0 7.2 14.0

C 0.90 0.75 0.90 0.25

6. What is the probably of at least one event of 20 year frequency occurring in 50 years? a. b. c. d. e. 1% 33% 92% 5% 20%

7. What is the average rainfall for the watershed below in inches? a. b. c. d. e. 3.8 inches 3.6 inches 2.1 inches 3.3 inches 4.1 inches

18

Station A B C D E F G

P (in) 3.8 3.5 4.1 3.4 3.7 2.8 2.6

Thiessen Polygon Area, A (mi^2) 825 917 679 1,508 623 1,014 1,200

B A E

D C

G F

8. A watershed has a Curve Number equal to 78 for an Antecedent Moisture Condition (AMC) II. If the AMC is III, and the initial abstraction is 0.8 inches, what is the effective rainfall (inches) between 5 and 6 for the storm event given below? a. b. c. d. e. 3.80 inches 0.71 inches 5.10 inches 0.78 inches 6.90 inches

19

time (hrs) 0-1 1-2 2-3 3-4 4-5 5-6 6-7 7-8

Incremental Precipitation (inches) 0.5 0.9 1.5 2.1 1.1 0.8 0.3 0.1

9. Based on the problem above, what is the difference (inches) between the effective rainfall for AMC II and AMC III for the period from 5-6? a. b. c. d. e. 0.06 inches with AMC III generating more effective rainfall 0.78 inches with AMC III generating more effective rainfall 1.6 inches with AMC III generating more effective rainfall 0.06 inches with AMC II generating more effective rainfall 1.6 inches with AMC II generating more effective rainfall

10. The 1-hour unit hydrograph for a watershed is given below. What is the peak runoff in cfs for the 3-hour unit hydrograph? a. b. c. d. e. 423.5 cfs 1270.5 cfs 141.2 cfs 295.2 cfs 192.5 cfs
1 hr unit hydrograph Q Time (hr) (cfs) 0 0.0 1 154.0 2 423.5 3 308.0 4 154.0 5 77.0 6 38.5 7 19.3 8 0.0

11. The 1-hour unit hydrograph for a watershed is given below. What is the time in hours and magnitude in cfs of the peak runoff generated by the storm with effective rainfall shown below? 20

a. b. c. d. e.

891 cfs at hour 2 1107 cfs at hour 3 651 cfs at hour 3 437 cfs at hour 2 1262 at hour 2
1 hr unit hydrograph Time (hr) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Q (cfs) 0.0 270.0 742.5 540.0 270.0 135.0 67.5 33.8 0.0 Effective rainfall hyetograph Time (hr) 1 2 3 Peff (in) 0.3 1.2 0.2

12. A residential area with 1 acre average lot size has a percent impervious of 28% and 50% of the impervious area is unconnected. The Curve Number for the pervious area is 61. What is the composite Curve Number? a. b. c. d. e. 69 80 62 75 85

13. A very flat rural watershed with an area of 1,700 acres has an average slope of 1%, a Curve Number of 77, and the distance from the watershed outlet to the basin divide is 10,750 ft. For a 1-hour synthetic unit hydrograph, what is the approximately the runoff in cfs at hour 2.0? a. b. c. d. e. 27 cfs 78 cfs 0.3 cfs 380 cfs 145 cfs

14. What is the time of concentration to the outlet (hours) for the watershed shown below? a. b. c. d. e. 2.8 hours 1.6 hours 0.8 hours 1.4 hours 0.4 hours 21

Overland flow from A-B: L = 1,200 ft Landuse = short grass 2-yr, 24-hr rainfall = 0.8 inches S = 2% Trapezoidal channel flow from B-C: L = 5,000 ft Base = 10 ft Side slope = 1:1 Channel slope = 2% Water depth = 3 ft Mannings n = 0.1

A Overland flow B

Trapezoidal channel

15. Using the NRCS graphical peak discharge method, what is the peak discharge in cfs for a watershed with an area of 1.25 mi2, a time of concentration of 2 hours, and an average curve number of 69? The 24-hour cumulative rainfall is 3 inches and the watershed is characterized by type II rainfall distributions? Note: 3% of pond and swamp areas are NOT included in the time of concentration. a. b. c. d. e. 312 cfs 107 cfs 155 cfs 116 cfs 173 cfs

22

16. The 1-hour S-hydrograph for a watershed is shown below. What is the peak flow for the 3-hour unit hydrograph? a. b. c. d. e. 350 cfs 556 cfs 2212 cfs 586 cfs 1668 cfs

Time (hr) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1-hr S-hydrograph (cfs) 0 290 1088 1668 1958 2103 2176 2212 2212 2212 2212

17. The streamflow measured at the outlet of a 300 acre watershed during a storm event is tabulated below. Assuming a constant baseflow of 20 cfs, what is the effective rainfall in inches produced by the storm? a. b. c. d. e. 12.9 inches 1 inch 12.2 inches 11.6 inches 9.3 inches
Time (hr) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Total Streamflow (cfs) 20 101 567 1127 898 493 256 138 74 27 20

23

18. An agricultural field is drained by a ditch which runs north to south as shown below. What is the peak runoff (cfs) produced at point 2 if the rainfall intensity for a 1 in 100 year storm is given by the equation below? i (in/hr) = 350 / (tc + 40) where tc is in minutes a. b. c. d. e. 16.7 cfs 30.1 cfs 37.7 cfs 31.6 cfs 35.1 cfs
Runoff Coefficient C 0.15 0.30 0.08 0.25 Overland flow time (min) 45 15 55 30

ID A B C D

Area (acres) 15 23 8 20

POINT 1

A
POINT 2

D
POINT 3

Arrows represent overland drainage direction

Rectangular channel from point 1-2 L = 1,000 ft Base = 10 ft Channel slope = 2% Water depth = 2 ft Mannings n = 0.1

Rectangular channel from point 2-3 L = 800 ft Base = 20 ft Channel slope = 2% Water depth = 1.5 ft Mannings n = 0.08

24

Groundwater
Depth Problems
1. What is the equivalent hydraulic conductivity (gal/day/ft2) of the aquifer shown below? a. b. c. d. e. 0.02 gal/day/ft2 313 gal/day/ft2 1.2 gal/day/ft2 30 gal/day/ft2 2 gal/day/ft2 Flow direction

K1 = 103 gal/day/ft2 K2 = 10-2 gal/day/ft2 K3 = 1 gal/day/ft2

10 ft 17 ft 5 ft

2. When is a variable head permeability test recommended instead of a constant head permeability test? a. b. c. d. e. For small soil samples For coarse-grained soils For highly permeable soils For disturbed soils For fine-grained soils

3. What is a perched water table? a. Aquifer that occurs above the main regional water table when the descent of water percolating from above is blocked by an impermeable lens. b. A regional unconfined aquifer. c. An aquifer that occurs above a sandy lens. d. A regional confined aquifer. e. An aquifer that flows to the surface when a well is drilled into it.

25

4. What is the hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer shown below in gal/day/ft2? a. b. c. d. e. 68 gal/day/ft2 610 gal/day/ft2 530 gal/day/ft2 2490 gal/day/ft2 680 gal/day/ft2 Q = 50,000 gal/day observation wells pumping well 1,000 ft 100 ft Clay layer

15 ft

Sand layer

12.5 ft

14.5 ft

5. What is the hydraulic conductivity in ft/s of the soil sample shown below if the water level in the standpipe drops as shown in a period of 30 minutes? a. b. c. d. e. 3.8 * 10-5 ft/s 2.4 * 10-3 ft/s 9.4 * 10-6 ft/s 9.4 * 10-8 ft/s 1.2 * 10-6 ft/s

26

1 in 18 in 12 in outlet head kept constant Q

4 in

8 in

Porous stone filter

water collected

6. What is the storativity of the confined aquifer shown below if the hydraulic conductivity is 500 gal/day/ft2 and the well diameter is 2.0 feet? a. b. c. d. e. 2.8 * 10-4 1.1 * 10-3 2.1 * 10-3 3.4 * 10-2 1.2 * 10-2 pumping well Clay layer Q = 0.6 MGD

Potentiometric surface 150 ft 70 ft Sand layer 120 ft after 75 days of pumping

27

7. What is the source of water when pumping from a confined aquifer? a. b. c. d. e. Water draining out of the pores when the water table falls Water draining out of the unconnected pores Compression of the material Expansion of the water Water comes from both compression of the material and expansion of the water

8. Which of the following is NOT true about the unsaturated zone? a. b. c. d. e. Pores are filled with water and air Pressure is below atmospheric It is also known as the vadose zone Pressure is above atmospheric Water is held by adhesion and capillary action

28

Hydrology and Groundwater Problems - Solutions Testmasters

Table of Contents Hydrology _____________________________________________________________ 3

Breadth Problems __________________________________________________________ 3

Groundwater__________________________________________________________ 10
Breadth Problems _________________________________________________________ 10

Hydrology ____________________________________________________________ 13
Depth Problems ___________________________________________________________ 13

Groundwater__________________________________________________________ 22
Depth Problems ___________________________________________________________ 22

Hydrology
Breadth Problems
1. What are the effects of urbanization on the hydrologic cycle? E: All of the above 2. What happens to the shape of the unit hydrograph if the effective rainfall duration is doubled? B: The base time of the unit hydrograph will be lengthened and the peak will be lowered so that the volume of the unit hydrograph remains constant. 3. What is detention storage? C: Fraction of precipitation that is stored temporarily on the land surface en route to a stream. 4. What is the direct runoff volume in acre-ft generated by the storm whose hyetograph is given below if the index is 1.2 in/hr and the area of the watershed is 20 acres? B: 5 acre-ft
t (min) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 max(0,i-phi) (in/hr) 0 0 0.3 0.8 1.8 3.8 3.8 4.8 1.8 0.8 0 max(0,i-phi) * dt (in) 0.00 0.00 0.05 0.13 0.30 0.63 0.63 0.80 0.30 0.13 0.00 Sum=2.98 2.98*20/12 =4.97

in ac-ft

5. Which of the following is NOT a definition of time of concentration? D: Time from the beginning to the end of the direct runoff or unit hydrograph. This is the definition of base time.

6. Based on the rainfall intensity data below, what is the maximum hourly precipitation in inches/hour? B: 1.70 inches/hour
Average Intensity (in/hr) 0.0 0.2 0.6 0.8 0.9 1.2 1.3 2.0 1.8 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.2 0.1 0.0 inches for 20 minute interval 0.00 0.07 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.40 0.43 0.67 0.60 0.20 0.17 0.13 0.07 0.03 0.00

time interval 1:20 PM to 1:40 PM 1:40 PM to 2:00 PM 2:00 PM to 2:20 PM 2:20 PM to 2:40 PM 2:40 PM to 3:00 PM 3:00 PM to 3:20 PM 3:20 PM to 3:40 PM 3:40 PM to 4:00 PM 4:00 PM to 4:20 PM 4:20 PM to 4:40 PM 4:40 PM to 5:00 PM 5:00 PM to 5:20 PM 5:20 PM to 5:40 PM 5:40 PM to 6:00 PM 6:00 PM to 6:20 PM

cumulative inches

0.27 0.52 0.75 0.95 1.13 1.50 1.70 1.47 0.97 0.50 0.37 0.23 0.10

7. An urban community has an area of 52 acres, of which 15% is concrete with a runoff coefficient of 0.85, 30% is shingle roof with a runoff coefficient of 0.75, 20% is asphalt with a runoff coefficient of 0.90, and the rest is lawn areas with a runoff coefficient of 0.2. If the community receives rainfall from a storm of average intensity of 2 inches/hour, what would be the expected peak runoff from the storm in acre-ft/hour? E: 5.2 ac-ft/hr
52 Material Concrete Shingle roof Asphalt Lawn areas acres % of area 15% 30% 20% 35% = Total area Area (ac) 7.8 15.6 10.4 18.2 C 0.85 0.75 0.9 0.2 average C = Sum(C*A)/Sum(A) average effective rainfall intensity = (average C)*I = 0.6*2 1.2 in/hr C*A 6.6 11.7 9.4 3.6 0.6

(average C)*I*A = 0.6*2*52 =

62.7 5.2

ac-in/hr ac-ft/hr

8. What is the total effective rainfall in inches produced by the storm described above if its duration is 5 hours? B: 6.0 inches
average effective rainfall intensity = (average C)*I = total effective rainfall = (average C)*I*storm duration = 1.2*5 = 1.2 6.0 in/hr inches

9. What is a unit hydrograph? D: Timeseries of discharge resulting from one unit of effective rainfall for a unit time over a particular watershed. 10. Which of the following is NOT a rainfall abstraction? D: Detention storage 11. What is evapotranspiration? C: Transfer of water from plant, soil, and open-water surfaces back to the atmosphere 12. A standard collector-type gage recorded rainfall over a storm which started at 12:00 PM and had an average wind speed of 15 miles per hour. The gage calibration yielded a coefficient 0.1 mm of rain per milligram of rainfall. At 15 miles per hour, the gage catch deficiency is about 20%. What is most closely the true rainfall in inches for the period between 12:40 PM and 1:00 PM? Catch deficiency = 1 (gage catch/true catch) D: 0.65 inches
Catch Cumulative gage weight (mg) 18.0 25.0 100.0 150.0 217.0 230.0 350.0 480.0 720.0 910.0 1000.0 1040.0 1050.0 1055.0 1060.0 Cumulative rainfall (mm) 1.80 2.50 10.00 15.00 21.70 23.00 35.00 48.00 72.00 91.00 100.00 104.00 105.00 105.50 106.00 True True incremental rainfall (in) 0.03 0.37 0.25 0.33 0.06 0.59 0.64 1.18 0.94 0.44 0.20 0.05 0.02 0.02 Comment [MI1]: Belfort gage

Reading time 12:00 PM 12:10 PM 12:20 PM 12:30 PM 12:40 PM 12:50 PM 1:00 PM 1:10 PM 1:20 PM 1:30 PM 1:40 PM 1:50 PM 2:00 PM 2:10 PM 2:20 PM

Cumulative rainfall (in) 0.07 0.10 0.39 0.59 0.85 0.91 1.38 1.89 2.83 3.58 3.94 4.09 4.13 4.15 4.17

Incremental rainfall (in) 0.03 0.30 0.20 0.26 0.05 0.47 0.51 0.94 0.75 0.35 0.16 0.04 0.02 0.02

0.65 inches = 0.06 inches + 0.59 inches

Catch deficiency = 1 (gage catch/true catch) True catch = gage catch / (1 catch deficiency)

True incremental rainfall = Incremental rainfall / (1-catch deficiency) = Incremental rainfall / (1 0.20) = Incremental rainfall / 0.8 13. A storm of 1-hour effective rainfall duration hits a watershed, which is characterized by the 1-hour unit hydrograph shown below. Five hours after the beginning of runoff, the discharge measured at the watershed outlet is 325 cfs. What is the effective rainfall in inches and the total direct runoff volume in acre-ft produced by the 1-hour effective rainfall event? E: 2.6 inches, 350 acre-ft
1 hr unit hydrograph Time (hr) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Q (cfs) 0 217 563 424 220 125 50 25 0 Total Volume 390,600 1,404,000 1,776,600 1,159,200 621,000 315,000 135,000 45,000 5,846,400 134.2 Watershed Area =134.2*12 1,610.6 ft^3 acre-ft acres 2.6*1610.6/12= 349.0 acre-ft 563*2.6= 325/125= 1464 2.6 cfs inches =0.5*(0+217)*3600 Incremental Volume (ft^3)

14. For the problem above, what is the peak runoff in cfs? D: 1464 cfs 563 cfs/1 inch = Y/2.6 inches Y = 1464 cfs 15. A storm producing 5 inches of rainfall falls over a watershed during its dormant season. The watershed has the landuse distribution shown in the table below. The watershed consists of silty clays with a clay hardpan. The total rainfall for the 5 days prior to the storm was 1.5 inches. For this storm the initial abstractions were determined to be 0.25 inches. What is the expected overland flow supply in acre-ft? B: 56 acre-ft

Area (acres) 50 33 27

Landuse Residential - 1/4 acre lots with 40% impervious area Residential - 1/8 acre lots with 65% impervious area Woods - good condition Commercial and business use with 85% impervious area Parks - fair condition Paved roads with curbs and storm sewers Golf courses - good condition acres = Total area

CN for AMC II, HSG D 87 92 77

CN for AMC III, HSG D

CN III

23CN II = 10 + 0.13CN II
93.9 96.4 88.5

CN (AMC III, HSG D)*A 4695.0 3179.8 2389.7

25 10 10 5 160

95 84 98 80

97.8 92.4 99.1 90.2

2444.1 923.5 991.2 451.0 94.2 =Weighted average CN =sum(CNIII*A)/sum(A)

S = 1000/CN - 10 = 1000/94.2 - 10 =

0.62

inches

Q = (P-Ia)^2 (P+S-Ia)

=(5-0.25)^2 (5+0.62-0.25)

4.20 672.3 56.0

inches acre-in acre-ft

16. A water supply reservoir is to be designed to provide water to an urban community during drought conditions. The Rippl diagram showing the expected cumulative demand and inflow for the reservoir is shown below. What is the approximate reservoir capacity (without a factor of safety) in acre-ft required so that it does not run out of water during a drought? E: 12,000 ac-ft

Rippl diagram
Cumulative inflow Cumulative demand

25000

Cumulative inflow or demand (ac-ft)

20000 Minimum required reservoir capacity = 11,911 ac-ft

15000

10000

5000

0
-9 M 6 ar M 96 ay -9 Ju 6 l-9 Se 6 pN 96 ov -9 Ja 6 n9 M 7 ar M 97 ay -9 Ju 7 lSe 97 pN 97 ov -9 Ja 7 n9 M 8 ar M 98 ay -9 Ju 8 l-9 Se 8 pN 98 ov -9 Ja 8 n9 M 9 ar -9 M 9 ay -9 Ju 9 lSe 99 pN 99 ov -9 Ja 9 n0 M 0 ar M 00 ay -0 Ju 0 l-0 Se 0 pN 00 ov -0 0 Ja n

Date

17. The table below shows the normal precipitation for the month of August at eleven gages in a flat interior watershed. During a storm event which occurred on August 17, 2006, gage D failed. What was most likely the precipitation at gage D during the storm event in inches/day? A: 1.2 inches/day Only gages B, C, E, F are close enough and evenly spaced enough to be included in normal ratio.
Gage B C D E F N 4.7 5.3 5.0 4.9 5.1 P 1.1 1.4 -1.1 1.3 Sum (P/N)= P/N 0.23 0.26 0.22 0.25 0.98 1.2 in/day

n=4 (# of nearby gages) Pc = Sum(P/N) / n / Nc = 0.98 / 4 * 5 =

18. The table below shows the annual precipitation at five stations in a watershed. Data at station A is suspect. This data is plotted as a double mass-curve and a breakpoint is identified in 1969. Assuming that the correct slope is the most recent slope, what would be the correct 1967 annual precipitation at station A in inches/year? B: 63.6 inches/year Since the most recent slope (after 1969) is the correct one, the precipitation at station A prior to 1970 is corrected by multiplying it by the ratio of the new to the old slope (1.06/0.76). Then PA (1967) = 45.6 * 1.06 / 0.76 inches/year = 63.6 inches/year
Year Annual Precipitation for Station (inches/year) Corrected annual precipitation at station A (in/yr) 32.0 53.3 63.6 56.1 45.1

A 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 44.7 38.2 45.6 40.2 32.3 79.4 62.9 41.3 63.6 51.8 58.2 51.6 68.9 63.7 68.7 46.8

B 50.8 42.0 57.1 54.3 49.4 49.8 52.5 36.6 44.1 56.5 42.6 60.0 68.9 55.9 53.1 46.9

C 41.7 55.7 55.0 44.2 49.9 84.8 65.1 44.5 49.1 41.8 48.1 53.3 58.9 67.8 65.1 43.7

D 62.2 52.4 65.6 47.1 61.4 72.5 54.5 40.2 56.7 65.5 53.7 60.0 53.0 56.5 67.5 43.4

E 54.1 53.8 57.1 56.3 42.9 75.5 65.4 54.2 61.7 61.0 44.4 62.4 62.6 67.7 64.3 50.4

Mean of Stations B, C, D, E (in/yr) 52.2 51.0 58.7 50.5 50.9 70.6 59.4 43.9 52.9 56.2 47.2 58.9 60.8 62.0 62.5 46.1

Cumulative for mean of B, C, D, E (in) 52.2 103.2 161.9 212.4 263.3 333.9 393.3 437.2 490.1 546.3 593.5 652.4 713.2 775.2 837.7 883.8

Cumulative for A (in) 44.7 82.9 128.4 168.7 201.0 280.4 343.2 384.5 448.1 499.9 558.1 609.7 678.6 742.3 811.0 857.8

Slope 0.86 0.75 0.78 0.80 0.63 1.12 1.06 0.94 1.20 0.92 1.23 0.88 1.13 1.03 1.10 1.01

------------

Groundwater
Breadth Problems
1. What is the soil permanent wilting point? C: Amount of water held in the soil that is unavailable to plants 2. If a well is drilled on a confined aquifer, water will rise to the: A: Piezometric height or potentiometric surface 3. An unconfined aquifer has a specific yield of 4%, a specific retention of 41%, and a total porosity of 50%, what is the percentage of unconnected pore space? B: 5% n = ne + unconnected pore space ne = Sy + Sr Then unconnected pore space = n ne = n (Sy + Sr) = 50% - (4% + 41%) = 5% 4. What is a reasonable value for the hydraulic conductivity in ft/day of a well-sorted coarse sand aquifer with an effective grain size of 0.1 inch? A: 20,000 ft/day Using the Hazen formula:

C = 120 to 150 for well-sorted coarse sand d10 = 0.1 inches = 0.254 cm K = 120*0.2542 = 7.74 cm/s 7.74 cm/s * 1 in/2.54 cm * 1 ft/12 in * 3600 s/1 hr * 24 hr / 1 day = 21,940 ft/day K = 150*0.2542 = 7.74 cm/s 9.68 cm/s * 1 in/2.54 cm * 1 ft/12 in * 3600 s/1 hr * 24 hr / 1 day = 27,432 ft/day

5. What is the transmissivity in gal/day/ft of a confined aquifer with intrinsic permeability of 1.08X10-9 ft2 and thickness of 20 ft if the water temperature is 70 F? D: 42,000 gal/ft/day 10

At 70 oF, = 62.3 lbm/ft3, = 2.050 * 10-5 lbf-sec/ft2 Then

K=

k g (1.08 * 10 -9 ft 2 ) * (62.3 lbm/ft 3 ) * (32.2 ft/s 2 ) k = = = 0.00328 ft / s gc (2.050 * 10 -5 lbf s / ft 2 ) * (32.2lbm ft / s 2 / lbf )

T = K*b = (0.0328 ft/s) * (20 ft) = 0.06564 ft2/s (1 gal/0.13368 ft2) * (3600 s/hr) * (24 hr/day) = 42,426 gal/ft/day 6. What is the rate of advection or seepage velocity in ft/day for the flow line shown below if the hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer is 50 ft/day, its porosity is 0.3 and its effective porosity is 0.2? E: 0.20 ft/day q v pore = ne

i=

h = (20 7) ft / (3.2 mi) * (1 mi / 5280 ft) = 0.000769 ft/ft L

q = Ki = 50 ft/day * 0.000769 ft/ft = 0.03847 ft/day q = 0.03847 ft/day / 0.2 = 0.192 ft/day v pore = ne
7. Based on the figure above, how many years will it take a contaminant spilled at point A to reach the lake if the hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer is 50 ft/day, its porosity is 0.3 and its effective porosity is 0.2? Note: Assume that the contaminant only migrates by advection. C: 232 years t = L / vpore = 3.2 mi * (5280 ft / 1 mi) / 0.20 ft/day = 87,838.4 days = 231.5 years 8. Based on the figure below, which way does water flow? A: From point A to point B since hydraulic head is greater at point A than at point B 9. What is the definition of specific retention? E: Ratio of the volume of water that will be retained in an aquifer against the pull of gravity to the total volume of the aquifer.

11

10. What is the specific capacity of the aquifer shown below in gal/ft/day if the aquifer has reached steady-state, the well diameter is 1 ft, the water table elevation at the well is 12 ft, the aquifer recovers its original thickness of 15 ft at 1,000 ft from the well, and the hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer is 3X10-5 ft/s? A: 215 gal/ft/day The aquifer is unconfined, then the following equation applies: 2 K ( y12 y 2 ) Q= r1 ln r2 Setting K = 3X10-5 ft/s, y1 = 12 ft, y2 = b = 15 ft, r1 = 1 ft / 2 = 0.5 ft, r2 = 1000 ft, s= 15 ft 12 ft = 3 ft

Q=

* 3 * 10 5 (12 2 152 ) = 0.00100436 ft3/s = 86.78 ft3/day = 649.1 gal/day 0.5 ln 1000

SC = Q/s = 649.1 gal/day / 3 ft = 216.4 gal/ft/day 11. What is the coefficient of permeability (inches/hour) of the sand sample shown below if 1.25 gallons of water were collected in 5 minutes, the sample diameter is 4 inches and its length is 3.5 inches? B: 26.8 inches/hour Permeameter is a constant head permeameter. V = 1.25 gal * (0.13368 ft3 / 1 gal ) * (123 in3 / ft3) = 288.7 in3 L = 3.5 inches A = 0.25 * (4 inches)2 = 12.57 inches2 h = 4 1 ft = 3 ft = 36 inches t = 5 min * (1 hr / 60 min) = 0.0833 hr K = VL = 288.7 in3 * 3.5 in / (12.57 in2 * 36 in * 0.0833 hr) = 26.81 in/hr Aht 12. Neglecting friction and minor losses on the pipe and fittings of the permeameter shown below, what is the total head, elevation head and pressure head (measured from the datum) in feet at point C in the middle of the soil sample? D: Total head = 3.5 ft, elevation head = 1 ft, pressure head = 2.5 ft

12

Hydrology
Depth Problems
1. On a specific month, a managed reservoir with an area of 500 acres, receives structural inflows averaging 23.3 cfs, structural outflows averaging 3.3 cfs, and looses 100 acre-ft/month to the groundwater. An evaporation pan nearby records a monthly pan evaporation of 6.5 inches/month. The calibrated pan coefficient is 0.72. The reservoir starts with a storage of 1000 acre-ft and ends up with a storage of 2500 acreft at the end of the month. What is the rainfall over the reservoir in inches/month? E: 14.2 inches/month
Reservoir area Structural inflows 500 1400.3 acres acre-ft/mo = 23.3 cfs

Structural outflows Loss to groundwater Evaporation Total outflows Initial storage Final storage Change in storage

198.33 100.00 195.00 493.3 1000.0 2500.0 1500.0

acre-ft/mo acre-ft/mo acre-ft/mo

= 3.3

cfs

=6.5*0.72*500/12

acre-ft acre-ft acre-ft

Water Balance Equation: Change in storage = Total inflows - Total outflows Change in storage = 1500 = 1400.3 + Rain 493.3 Rain = 1500 - 1400.3 + 493.3 = 593 1.186 14.2

acre-ft/mo ft/mo inches/mo

2. What is a standard project flood or SPF? D: Flood that can be selected from set of most extreme combinations of meteorological and hydrological conditions but excludes extremely rare combinations of events.

13

3. Which of the following is NOT true about a retention basin? C: It stores water temporarily and slowly drains to a nearby flood control conveyance system 4. The Curve Number associated with a storm of 1.5 inches/hour average intensity and 20 year recurrence interval is 85. The watershed has an average slope of 3% and 40% of it is impervious. What would be the corresponding rational formula runoff coefficient C for the storm? D: 0.45 Obtained by substituting the following values in the Rossmiller equation relating CN and C.
CN = T= S= I= P= C= 85 20 3 1.5 0.4 0.45

year % in/hr

5. A small urban watershed located in Florida has a time of concentration of 3 hours and the landuse distribution shown below. If the stormwater drainage system for the community is to be designed based on a 100 year storm frequency, what would be the expected peak runoff in cfs? B: 43 cfs
40 Material Concrete Shingle roof Asphalt Lawn areas acres = Total basin area Area C 6.8 0.90 12.0 0.75 7.2 0.90 14.0 0.25 average C = Sum(C*A)/Sum(A) C*A 6.12 9 6.48 3.5

0.63 Steel's formula: i = K/(tc+b) Florida is in Zone I, then for a 100 year return period: K=367, b=33 with tc=3 hr=180 min i = 367/(180+33) = 1.72 in/hr average effective rainfall intensity = (average C)*I = 0.63 * 1.72 in/hr = (average C)*I*A = 43.2 43.2 ac-in/hr cfs

1.08

in/hr

14

6. What is the probably of at least one event of 20 year frequency occurring in 50 years? C: 92%
P{at least one 20 year event in 50 years}= =1-(1-1/20)^50= 0.92 92%

7. What is the average rainfall for the watershed below in inches? D: 3.3 inches
Thiessen Polygon Area, A (mi^2) 825 917 679 1,508 623 1,014 1,200 6,766

Station A B C D E F G

P (in) 3.8 3.5 4.1 3.4 3.7 2.8 2.6 Total Area =

P*A 3,135 3,210 2,784 5,127 2,305 2,839 3,120 22,520

= Sum (P*A)

P= 22519.9/6766

3.3

inches

8. A watershed has a Curve Number equal to 78 for an Antecedent Moisture Condition (AMC) II. If the AMC is III, and the initial abstraction is 0.8 inches, what is the effective rainfall (inches) between 5 and 6 for the storm event given below? D: 0.78 inches
CNII = CNIII = 23*CNII / (10+0.13*CNII) = S for AMC III = 1000/CNIII - 10 = 78.0 89.1 1.2 Cumulative Q (inches) = Incremental Precipitation (inches) 0.5 0.9 1.5 2.1 1.1 0.8 0.3 0.1 Cumulative Precipitation P (inches) 0.5 1.4 2.9 5 6.1 6.9 7.2 7.3

( P Ia )2

time (hrs) 0-1 1-2 2-3 3-4 4-5 5-6 6-7 7-8

P + S Ia
0 0.2 1.3 3.3 4.3 5.1 5.4 5.5

Incremental Q (inches) 0.00 0.20 1.14 1.93 1.05 0.78 0.29 0.10

15

9. Based on the problem above, what is the difference (inches) between the effective rainfall for AMC II and AMC III for the period from 5-6? A: 0.06 inches with AMC III generating more effective rainfall
CNII = S for AMC II = 1000/CNII - 10 = Incremental Precipitation (inches) 0.5 0.9 1.5 2.1 1.1 0.8 0.3 0.1 78.0 2.8 Cumulative Precipitation (inches) 0.5 1.4 2.9 5 6.1 6.9 7.2 7.3 0.71 0.78 0.06 inches inches inches

time (hrs) 0-1 1-2 2-3 3-4 4-5 5-6 6-7 7-8

Cumulative Q (inches) 0 0.1 0.9 2.5 3.5 4.2 4.5 4.5

Incremental Q (inches) 0.00 0.11 0.79 1.62 0.95 0.71 0.27 0.09

Hour 5-6 rainfall for AMC II = Hour 5-6 rainfall for AMC III = diff =

10. The 1-hour unit hydrograph for a watershed is given below. What is the peak runoff in cfs for the 3-hour unit hydrograph? D: 295.2 cfs
1 hr unit hydrograph Time (hr) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Q (cfs) 0.0 154.0 423.5 308.0 154.0 77.0 38.5 19.3 0.0 Effective rainfall hyetograph Time (hr) 1 2 3 Peff (in) 1 1 1 Time (hr) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Individual hydrographs (cfs) due to Peff of 1 in 0.0 154.0 423.5 308.0 154.0 77.0 38.5 19.3 0.0 + + + + + + + + 1 in 0.0 154.0 423.5 308.0 154.0 77.0 38.5 19.3 0.0 1 in = = = = = = = = = = = 3 hr unit hydrograph (cfs) /3= /3= /3= /3= /3= /3= /3= /3= /3= /3= /3= 0.0 51.3 192.5 295.2 295.2 179.7 89.8 44.9 19.3 6.4 0.0

Total DRH (cfs) 0.0 154.0 577.5 885.5 885.5 539.0 269.5 134.8 57.8 19.3 0.0

+ + + + + + + +

0.0 154.0 423.5 308.0 154.0 77.0 38.5 19.3 0.0

16

11. The 1-hour unit hydrograph for a watershed is given below. What is the time in hours and magnitude in cfs of the peak runoff generated by the storm with effective rainfall shown below? B: 1107 cfs at hour 3
1 hr unit hydrograph Time (hr) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Q (cfs) 0.0 270.0 742.5 540.0 270.0 135.0 67.5 33.8 0.0 Effective rainfall hyetograph Time (hr) 1 2 3 Peff (in) 0.3 1.2 0.2 Time (hr) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Individual hydrographs (cfs) due to Peff of 0.3 in 0.0 81.0 222.8 162.0 81.0 40.5 20.3 10.1 0.0 + + + + + + + + 1.2 in 0.0 324.0 891.0 648.0 324.0 162.0 81.0 40.5 0.0 + + + + + + + + 0.2 in = = = = = = = = = = =

Total DRH (cfs) 0.0 81.0 546.8 1107.0 877.5 472.5 236.3 118.1 54.0 6.8 0.0

0.0 54.0 148.5 108.0 54.0 27.0 13.5 6.8 0.0

12. A residential area with 1 acre average lot size has a percent impervious of 28% and 50% of the impervious area is unconnected. The Curve Number for the pervious area is 61. What is the composite Curve Number? A: 69
% impervious = 28% = Pimp

% of unconnected impervious = 100 * unconnected/total impervious = 50% = R CN for pervious area = 61 = CNp CNc = CNp+(Pimp/100)*(98-CNp)*(1-0.5*R) =

69

13. A very flat rural watershed with an area of 1,700 acres has an average slope of 1%, a Curve Number of 77, and the distance from the watershed outlet to the basin divide is 10,750 ft. For a 1-hour synthetic unit hydrograph, what is the approximate runoff in cfs at hour 2.0? B: 78 cfs
NRCS synthetic unit hydrograph Ad = Y= Very flat rural --> peaking factor = L= 1,700 2.7 1 100 10,750 acres mi^2 % ft

17

CN = S = 1000/CN - 10 = tlag = (L^0.8)*(S+1)^0.7/(1900Y^0.5) = tp = 0.5*tr+tlag= Qp = 100*Ad/tp =

77 2.99 2.33 2.83 95.5 Q (cfs) 0.0 2.9 9.6 18.1 29.6 44.9 63.0 78.3

hr hr cfs

t/tp 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7

t (hr) 0.0 0.3 0.6 0.8 1.1 1.4 1.7 2.0

Q/Qp 0.000 0.030 0.100 0.190 0.310 0.470 0.660 0.820

14. What is the time of concentration to the outlet (hours) for the watershed shown below? D: 1.4 hours
Segment A-B: First 300 ft:

Sheetflow

L = 300 ft Landuse = short grass, then n = 0.15 2-yr, 24-hr rainfall = 0.8 inches S = 2% tsheet = 0.007*(n*L)^0.8/(P2^0.5)/(S^0.4) =
Remaining 900 ft: Shallow concentrated flow

0.79

hrs

L = 900 ft Landuse = short grass S = 2% vshallow = 1.0 ft/s Read from graphic tshallow = Lshallow/vshallow = 900/1.0 = 900 sec =
Segment B-C: 5,000 ft of Open channel flow

0.25

hrs

L = 5,000 ft Base = 10 ft Side slope = 1:1 Channel slope = 2% Water depth = 3 ft Manning's n = 0.1 Manning's equation: 18

A = 39 ft^2 Pw = 18.5 ft R = 2.1 ft vchannel = 1.49/n*(R^0.66)*(S^0.5) = = 1.49/0.1*(2.1^0.6666)*(0.02^0.5) tchannel = Lchannel/vchannel = 5000/3.46 =

tc = tsheet + tshallow + tchannel = 0.79 hrs + 0.25 hrs + 0.40 hrs =

3.46

ft/s

1445 1.44

sec = hrs

0.40

hrs

15. Using the NRCS graphical peak discharge method, what is the peak discharge in cfs for a watershed with an area of 1.25 mi2, a time of concentration of 2 hours, and an average curve number of 69? The 24-hour cumulative rainfall is 3 inches and the watershed is characterized by type II rainfall distributions? Note: 3% of pond and swamp areas are NOT included in the time of concentration. D: 116 cfs
P24 = Ad = tc = CN = S = 1000/CN 10 = Q= 3 1.25 2 69 4.5 inches mi^2 hours inches Type II rainfall distribution

( P Ia )

P + S Ia
Ia = 0.2S = Ia/P = Qu = Fp = Qp =

0.67 0.90 0.30 185 0.75 116.1

inches inches cfs/mi^2/in From Exhibit 4-II of NRCS TR-55 for a 3% pond and swamp areas cfs

19

16. The 1-hour S-hydrograph for a watershed is shown below. What is the peak flow for the 3-hour unit hydrograph? B: 556 cfs
Lagged 1-hr Shydrograph (cfs)

Time (hr) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1-hr Shydrograph (cfs) 0 290 1088 1668 1958 2103 2176 2212 2212 2212 2212

Diff. 0 290 1088 0 1668 1668 1015 508 254 109 36 0 /3= /3= /3= /3= /3= /3= /3= /3= /3= /3= /3=

3-hr UH 0 97 363 556 556 338 169 85 36 12 0

290 1088 1668 1958 2103 2176 2212

17. The streamflow measured at the outlet of a 300 acre watershed during a storm event is tabulated below. Assuming a constant baseflow of 20 cfs, what is the effective rainfall in inches produced by the storm? D: 11.6 inches
Total Streamflow (cfs) 20 101 567 1127 898 493 256 138 74 27 20 DR Volume (ft^3) 145,800 1,130,400 2,977,200 3,573,000 2,431,800 1,276,200 637,200 309,600 109,800 12,600 12,603,600 289.34 0.96 11.57 ft^3 acre-ft ft in

Time (hr) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Baseflow (cfs) 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 = = = = = = = = = = =

DRH (cfs) 0 81 547 1107 878 473 236 118 54 7 0 Total DRV

20

18. An agricultural field is drained by a ditch which runs north to south as shown below. What is the peak runoff (cfs) produced at point 2 if the rainfall intensity for a 1 in 100 year storm is given by the equation below? i (in/hr) = 350 / (tc + 40) where tc is in minutes E: 35.1 cfs
Time of concentration to point 2 is made of: overland flow time of concentration = max(tc A, tc B) = max (45 min,15 min) = ditch flow from point 1 to point 2 = tc to point 2 = 45 min + 6.24 min =

45 min 6.24 min 51.24 min

1,000 ft of Open channel (ditch) flow

L = 1,000 ft Base = 10 ft Channel slope = 2% Water depth = 2 ft Manning's n = 0.1 Manning's equation: A = 20 ft Pw = 14 ft R = 1.43 ft vchannel = 1.49/n*(R^0.66)*(S^0.5) = = 1.49/0.1*(1.43^0.6666)*(0.02^0.5) tchannel = Lchannel/vchannel = 1000/2.67 =
Intensity: I = 350 / (tc + 40) = 350 / (51.24 + 40) = Average runoff coefficient: Only areas A and B contribute to flow at point 2
ID A B Area (acres) 15 23 Runoff Coefficient C 0.15 0.30 C* A 2.25 6.9

2.67 ft/s 374.5 sec = 6.24 min

3.84 in/hr

Total area = Peak flow: Qp = (average C)*I*A = 0.24*3.84*38 =

average C = sum (C*A) 38 /sum(A) =

0.24

35.1 cfs

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Groundwater
Depth Problems
1. What is the equivalent hydraulic conductivity (gal/day/ft2) of the aquifer shown below? A: 0.02 gal/day/ft2

Layer 1 2 3 Sum (m) =

m (ft) 10 17 5 32

K (gal/day/ft^2) 1000 0.01 1

m/K 0.01 1700 5 1705 =32/1705=

=Sum (m/K) 0.02

Keq (gal/day/ft^2)

2. When is a variable head permeability test recommended instead of a constant head permeability test? E: For fine-grained soils (e.g. clays) 3. What is a perched water table? A: Aquifer that occurs above the main regional water table when the descent of water percolating from above is blocked by an impermeable lens. 4. What is the hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer shown below in gal/day/ft2? E: 680 gal/day/ft2 Since the water level is below the top of the aquifer, the fluid is not under pressure and the unconfined equation applies.
y1 = r1 = y2 = r2 = Q= K= Q*ln(r1/r2)/pi()/(y1^2y2^2)= 12.5 100 14.5 1,000 50,000 ft ft ft ft gal/day

678.6

gal/day/ft^2

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5. What is the hydraulic conductivity in ft/s of the soil sample shown below if the water level in the standpipe drops as shown in a period of 30 minutes? C: 9.4 * 10-6 ft/s
standpipe diameter d = standpipe area a = 0.25*pi*d^2 sample diameter D = sample area A = 0.25*pi*D^2 sample length L = initial water level h1 = final water level h2 = time t = K = a*L*ln(h1/h2)/(A*t) = K= 1 0.79 4 12.57 8 18 12 30 0.00676 9.4E-06 in in^2 in in^2 in in in min in/min ft/s

6. What is the storativity of the confined aquifer shown below if the hydraulic conductivity is 500 gal/day/ft2 and the well diameter is 2.0 feet? A: 2.8 * 10-4 This is a case of transient pumping, then Theis equation most be used. Q Q sr ,t = W ( u) W ( u) = 4 T 4 Kb Solving for W(u): 4Kbs r ,t 4 * * 500 gal / day / ft 2 (70 ft )(150 ft 120 ft ) W (u ) = = = 22 Q 0.6 * 10 6 gal

From Table 21.3 of the CERM, for a W(u)=22, u~2*10-10 r2S r2S u= = 4 Kbt 4Tt Solving for S: 4 Kbtu 4 * (500 gal / day / ft 2 )(70 ft )(75day )(2 * 10 10 ) gal ft S= = = 0.0021 (0.13368 ft 3 / gal ) = 2 2 r 1 ft ft 4 2.807*10-4 7. What is the source of water when pumping from a confined aquifer? E: Water comes from both compression of the material and expansion of the water

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8. Which of the following is NOT true about the unsaturated zone? D: Pressure is above atmospheric

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