.

Decomposition of Poisson Problems

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Chapter 2: DECOMPOSITION OF POISSON PROBLEMS

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page

2.1. INTRODUCTION 2.2. THE POISSON EQUATION 2.3. STEADY-STATE LINEAR HEAT CONDUCTION 2.3.1. The Field Equations . . . . . . . . 2.3.2. The Boundary Conditions . . . . . . 2.3.3. Summary of Governing Equations . . . 2.3.4. Tonti Diagrams . . . . . . . . . 2.3.5. Alternative Notations . . . . . . . . 2.4. STEADY POTENTIAL FLOW 2.5. ELECTROSTATICS 2.6. *MAGNETOSTATICS EXERCISES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

23 23 24 25 26 26 27 27 29 210 211 213

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23 2.1. INTRODUCTION

2.2

THE POISSON EQUATION

In the rst Chapter it was emphasized that the classical formulation of mathematical models in mechanics and physics leads to the Strong Form (SF). These eld equations are ordinary or partial differential equations in space or spacetime in a primary variable. They are complemented by boundary and/or initial conditions. Field equations and boundary plus initial conditions are collectively called the governing equations. The distinguishing property of the SF is that governing equations and conditions hold at each point of the problem domain. Passing from the Strong Form to Weak and Variational Forms is simplied if the governing equations are presented through a scheme called Tonti decompositions.1 Such schemes introduce two auxiliary variables that often have physical signicance. One is called the intermediate variable and the other the ux variable. Examples of such variables are stresses, strains, pressures and heat uxes. The equations that connect the primary and auxiliary variables in the decomposed SF are called Strong Links or Strong Connectors. Tonti decompositions offer two important advantages for further development: (I) The construction of various types of Weak and Variational Forms can be graphically explained as weakening selected links.

(II) The interpretation of the so-called natural boundary conditions is facilitated. This Chapter illustrates the construction of the Tonti decomposition for boundary value problems modeled by the scalar Poissons equation. We start with these problems because the governing equations are considerable simpler than for the elasticity problem of structural and solid mechanics. The simplicity is due to the fact that the primary variable is a scalar function whereas the intermediate variables are vectors. On the other hand, in elasticity the primary variable: displacements, is a vector, whereas the intermediate variables: strains and stresses, are tensors. Despite this simplicity the Poisson equation governs several interesting problems in engineering and physics. The next Chapter illustrates the construction of Weak and Variational Forms. 2.2. THE POISSON EQUATION Many steady-state application problems in mechanics and electromagnetics can be modeled by the generalized Poissons partial differential equation. This includes the famous Laplace equation as a special case. Suppose that u = u (x1 , x2 , x3 ) is the primary scalar function that solves a linear, steady-state (time-independent) application problem involving an isotropic medium. The problem is posed in a three-dimensional space spanned by the Cartesian coordinates x1 , x2 , x3 . The generalized Poissons equation is ( u ) = s , (2.1)

where the rst is the divergence operator, the second is the gradient operator, s is a given source function, and is a constitutive coefcient. (This coefcient becomes a tensor i j in anisotropic media).
1

A name suggested by a graphical representation introduced by the mathematician E. Tonti.

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Chapter 2: DECOMPOSITION OF POISSON PROBLEMS

24

Both and s may depend on the spatial coordinates, that is, = (x1 , x2 , x3 ) and s = s (x1 , x2 , x3 ). Equation (2.1) must be complemented by appropriate boundary conditions. These are examined in further detail in connection with the specic examples in 2.3. If is constant in space, (2.1) reduces to the standard Poissons equation 2u = s. (2.2)

where 2 is the Laplace operator. Furthermore if the source term s vanishes this reduces to the familiar Laplaces equation 2 u = 0. (2.3) Solutions of (2.3) are called harmonic functions, which have been extensively studied over the past two centuries. The extension of the foregoing equations to an unknown vector function u is straightforward. In such a case the rst in (2.1) is the gradient operator and the second the divergence operator.
REMARK 2.1

In unabridged component notation the Poissons equation (2.1) in one, two, and three dimensions takes the following form: u = s, x1 x1 x1 x1 If k is not space dependent: 2u = s, 2 x1 2u 2u + 2 2 x1 x2 = s, 2u 2u 2u + + 2 2 2 x1 x2 x3 = s. (2.5) u x1 + x2 u x1 u x2 + + x2 x3 u x2 u x3 = s, = s. (2.4)

By specializing the primary variable u to various physical quantities, we obtain models for various problems in mechanics, thermomechanics and electromagnetics. Three specic problems: thermal conduction, potential ow, electro and magnetostatics are examined below. Other applications are given as Exercises. 2.3. STEADY-STATE LINEAR HEAT CONDUCTION Consider a thermally conducting isotropic body of volume V that obeys Fouriers law of heat conduction, as illustrated in Figure 2.1. The body is bounded by a surface S with external unit normal n. The body is in thermal equilibrium, meaning that the temperature distribution T = T (x1 , x2 , x3 ) is independent of time. The temperature is the primal variable of this formulation. If the body is thermally isotropic, the of the previous section becomes the thermal conductivity coefcient k , with a sign to account for the positive ux sense denition. wThis coefcient may be a function of position. 24

25

2.3

STEADY-STATE LINEAR HEAT CONDUCTION

n x3 ^ =q Sq : q n

x1

x2

Volume V
^ Heat source production in V : h specified per unit of volume

ST : T = T

Figure 2.1. A heat conducting body obeying Fouriers conduction, in thermal equilibrium.

The source eld called s in the previous section is the distributed heat production h = h (x1 , x2 , x3 ) in V measured per unit of volume. This heat may be generated, for instance, by combustion or by a chemical reaction.2 A negative h would indicate a volumetric heat dissipation or sink. 2.3.1. The Field Equations The temperature gradient vector is called g = T , which written in full is g1 g2 g3 = T / x1 T / x2 T / x3 . (2.6)

The temperature gradient along a direction d dened by the unit vector d is T / d = g d = gT d. In particular the boundary-normal temperature gradient is T / n = g n = gT n evaluated on the surface S . The heat ux vector q is dened by the constitutive equation q = k g = k T , which is Fouriers law of heat conduction. In full this is q1 q2 q3 = k g1 g2 g3 . (2.7)

The heat ux along a direction d dened by the unit vector d is denoted by qd = q d = qT d. This is a scalar that characterizes the transport of thermal energy along that direction, and is measured in heat units per unit area. In particular, the boundary-normal heat ux is qn = q n = qT n evaluated on S .
2

In the human body, the heat source are calories produced from food intake.

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Chapter 2: DECOMPOSITION OF POISSON PROBLEMS

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g = grad T in V

div q + h = 0 in V

q = k g in V

Figure 2.2. Tonti diagram for steady-state heat conduction problem, showing only the eld equations.

The balance equation, which characterizes steady-state thermal equilibrium, is div q + h = 0. Written in full: q2 q2 q1 + + + h = 0. (2.8) x1 x2 x3 Equations (2.6), (2.7) and (2.8) complete the eld equations of the heat conduction problem. 2.3.2. The Boundary Conditions The classical boundary conditions for this problem are of two types: over a portion ST of the boundary S ( ST is 1. The temperature T is prescribed to be equal to T colored red in Figure 2.1). 2. n over The boundary-normal heat ux qn = q.n = k ( T / n ) is prescribed to be equal to q the complementary portion Sq of the boundary S : ST Sq ( Sq is colored blue in Figure 2.1).

Other boundary conditions that occur in practice are those due to radiation and to convection. Those are more complex (in fact, thay are nonlinear) and are not considered here. 2.3.3. Summary of Governing Equations The eld equations, expressed in direct notation, are now summarized and labeled: KE: CE: BE: T = g kg = q q+h =0 in V , in V , in V .

(2.9)

The kinematic equation (KE) is simply the denition of the temperature gradient vector g. The constitutive equation (CE) is Fouriers law of thermal conduction. The balance equation (BE) is the law of thermal equilibrium: the heat ux gradient must equal to the heat created (or dissipated) per unit volume. These three labels: KE, CE and BE, will be used throughout this course for wide classes of problems governed by differential equations in space variables. Fields g and q are called the intermediate variable and the ux variable, respectively. 26

27
^ T

2.3
^ T=T on S T g = grad T in V

STEADY-STATE LINEAR HEAT CONDUCTION

div q + h = 0 in V q = k g in V
^ q n = q.n = q

^ q

on Sq

Unknown field

Data field

Strong connection

Figure 2.3. Expanded Tonti diagram for the steady-state heat conduction problem, showing BCs.

Elimination of the intermediate variables g and q in (2.9) yields the scalar Poissons equation ( T ) = h . (2.10)

This shows that steady-state Fourier heat conduction pertains to the Poisson-problem class typied by (2.1), in which k , u T and s h . The two classical boundary conditions are labeled as PBC: FBC:
T

T =T n q n = qn = q

on ST , on Sq .

(2.11)

Here labels PBC and FBC denote primary boundary conditions and ux boundary conditions, respectively. These labels will be also used throughout the course. The set of eld equations: KE, CE, BE, and boundary conditions: PBC and FBC, are collectively called the governing equations. These equations constitute the statement of the mathematical model for this particular problem. This formulation is called a boundary value problem, or BVP. 2.3.4. Tonti Diagrams A convenient graphical representation of the three eld equations is the so-called Tonti-diagram, which is drawn in Figure 2.2. This diagram can be expanded as illustrated in Figure 2.3 to include the boundary conditions. Graphical conventions for this expanded diagram are explained in this gure. The term strong connection for a relation means that it applies point by point. A data eld is one that is given as part of the problem specication. The expanded Tonti diagram has been found to be more convenient from the instructional standpoint than the reduced diagram, and will be adopted from now on. Figure 2.4 shows the generic names of the components of the expanded Tonti diagram. 27

Chapter 2: DECOMPOSITION OF POISSON PROBLEMS

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Specified primary variable

Primary boundary conditions

Primary variable

FIELD EQUATIONS

Source function

Kinematic equations

Balance or equilibrium equations Flux variable Flux boundary conditions Specified flux variable

Intermediate variable

Constitutive equations

Figure 2.4. Names of the components of the expanded Tonti diagram.

2.3.5. Alternative Notations To facilitate comparison with reference works, the governing equations are restated below in three alternative forms: in grad/div notation, in compact indicial notation and in full (unabridged) component notation. For the second form the summation convention is implied. Indices run from 1 through 3 for the three-dimensional case. The range is reduced to 2 or 1 if the number of space dimensions is reduced to two and one, respectively. Matrix/vector form: KE: CE: BE: PBC: FBC: grad T = g kg = q div q + h = 0 T =T n , q.n = qn = q in V , in V , in V , on ST , on Sq . (2.12)

Indicial form: KE: CE: BE: PBC: FBC: T,i = gi kgi = qi qi,i + h = 0 T =T n , qi n i = q n = q 28 in V , in V , in V , on ST , on Sq .

(2.13)

29 Unabridged: KE: CE: BE: PBC: FBC:

2.4

STEADY POTENTIAL FLOW

T T T = g1 , = g2 , = g3 , x1 x2 x3 kg1 = q1 , kg2 = q2 , kg3 = q3 , q2 q3 q1 + + +h =0 x1 x2 x3 T =T n q1 n 1 + q2 n 2 + q3 n 3 = q

in V , in V , in V , on ST , on Sq . (2.14)

2.4. STEADY POTENTIAL FLOW As next example consider the potential ow of a uid of mass density that occupies a volume V .3 The uid volume is bounded by a surface S with external unit normal n. The ow is characterized by the velocity eld 3-vector v(x1 , x2 , x3 ), which is independent of time. For irrotational ow this eld can be expressed as the gradient v = of a scalar function (x1 , x2 , x3 ) called the velocity potential. This potential is chosen as primal variable. Note the physical contrast with the thermal conduction problem discussed in 2.3. In heat conduction the primal eld the temperature has immediate physical meaning whereas the temperature gradient g is a convenient intermediate variable. On the other hand, in potential ow the eld of primary signicance uid velocity is an intermediate variable whereas the primal eld the velocity potential has no physical signicance. Despite this contrast the two problems share the same mathematical formulation as explained below. The forcing and boundary conditions are as follows: 1. 2. 3. The source eld is , the uid mass production per unit of volume. Such production is rare in applications. Thus for most potential ow problems = 0. over a portion S of the boundary S . The potential is prescribed to be equal to n over the complemenThe uid momentum density m n = v.n is prescribed to be equal to m tary portion Sm of the boundary S : S ) Sm .

In practice the most common boundary condition is that of prescribed normal velocity v.n = vn = v n . This can be easily transformed to the prescribed momentum density B.C. on multiplying by the density. Mathematically the momentum density B.C. is the correct one. The eld equations, expressed in direct notation, are: KE: CE: BE:
3

= v v = m m=

in V , in V , in V .

(2.15)

In uid mechanics, potential ow is short for steady barotropic irrotational ow of a perfect uid.

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Chapter 2: DECOMPOSITION OF POISSON PROBLEMS

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The kinematic equation (KE) is simply the denition of the velocity potential. The constitutive equation (CE) is the denition of momentum density. The balance equation (BE) expresses conservation of mass. Elimination of the intermediate variables v and m in (2.15) yields the scalar Poissons equation ( ) = . (2.16)

This shows that steady potential ow pertains to the Poisson-problem class (2.1), in which u and s . As noted above, usually = 0 whereas is constant, whereupon (2.16) reduces to the Laplaces equation 2 = 0. The boundary conditions are: PBC: FBC: = n, m.n = m n = m on S , on Sm .

(2.17)

It should be obvious now that steady potential ow and steady heat conduction are mathematically equivalent problems, despite the great disparity in the physical interpretation of primal and intermediate quantities. 2.5. ELECTROSTATICS Electrostatics is concerned with the calculation of the steady-state electrical eld 3-vector E(x1 , x2 , x3 ) in a volume V lled by a dielectric material or medium of permittivity (this property measures the inductive capacity of the medium; it is also called the dielectric constant). As in the case of potential ow, E is not the primal eld but is derived from the electric potential (x1 , x2 , x3 ) as E = . Thus E plays the role of intermediate variable. The ux-like variable is the 3-vector D = E, which receives the names of electric eld intensity or the electric ux density. The forcing and boundary conditions are as follows: 1. The source eld is , the electric charge per unit of volume. (This symbol should not be confused with mechanical density). For many electrostatic problems all charges migrate to the surface S , thus = 0 in the volume. The potential is prescribed to be equal to over a portion S of the boundary S . n over the complementary The normal electric ux Dn = D.n is prescribed to be equal to D portion S D of the boundary S : S ) S D .

2. 3.

The electric potential has more physical signicance than the (mathematically equivalent) velocity potential in potential ow. In electric circuits this potential can be directly measured as voltage. Similarly the ux condition has direct physical interpretation as electric ow, or current. Thus both boundary conditions are physically important. The eld equations, expressed in direct notation, are: 210

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2.6 *MAGNETOSTATICS

KE: CE: BE:

=E

in V , in V , in V . (2.18)

E=D D=

The kinematic equation (KE) is the denition of the electric potential. The constitutive equation (CE) relates electric intensity and ux through the dielectric constant. The balance equation (BE) expresses conservation of charge (this last relation is also called Gauss law and is one of the famous Maxwell equations). Elimination of the intermediate variables E and D in (2.18) yields the scalar Poissons equation ( ) = (2.19) is

This shows that electrostatics pertains to the Poisson-problem class. Often = 0 and constant, whereupon (2.19) reduces to the Laplaces equation 2 = 0. The boundary conditions are: PBC: FBC: = n, D.n = Dn = D on S , on S D .

(2.20)

2.6. *MAGNETOSTATICS Magnetostatics is concerned with the calculation of the steady-state magnetic ux density 3-vector B(x1 , x2 , x3 ) in a volume V lled by a material or medium of permeability . The magnetic eld B is a solenoidal vector (meaning that its divergence is zero). Thus it can be derived from the 3-vector magnetic potential A(x1 , x2 , x3 ) as B = A. Hence B plays the role of intermediate variable, but unlike the three previous examples, the primal variable A is a vector and not a scalar. The ux-like variable is the 3-vector H = (1/)B, which receives the name of magnetic eld intensity. The forcing and boundary conditions are as follows: 1. 2. 3. The source eld is J, the electric current density, which is a 3-vector. n over a portion S A of the boundary S . The quantity A n = An is prescribed to be equal to A n over the complementary portion S H of the The quantity Hn = H n is prescribed to be equal to H boundary S : S A ) S H .

The eld equations, expressed in direct notation, are: KE: CE: BE: A=B 1 B = H H=J in V , in V , in V . (2.21)

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Chapter 2: DECOMPOSITION OF POISSON PROBLEMS

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The kinematic equation (KE) is the denition of the magnetic potential. The constitutive equation (CE) relates magnetic intensity and ux through the permeability constant. The balance equation (BE) expresses conservation of current (this last relation is one of the famous Maxwell equations). Elimination of the intermediate variables B and H in (2.21) yields (1 A) = J, (2.22)

This can be transformed into a vector Poissons equation given in any book on eld electromagnetics. Finally, the boundary conditions are: PBC: FBC: n A n = An = A n , H n = Hn = H on S A , on S H .

(2.23)

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Homework Exercises for Chapter 2 Decomposition of Poisson Problems

Exercises

EXERCISE 2.1

[A:5] Show that div is the transpose of grad when these operators are treated as vectors.
EXERCISE 2.2

[A:20=15+5] A bar of length L , elastic modulus E and variable cross-sectional area A(x ) is aligned along the x axis, extending from x = 0 through x = L . The bar axial displacement is u (x ). It is loaded by a force q (x ) along its length. At x = 0 the the displacement u (0) is prescribed to be u 0 . At x = L the bar is loaded by a an axial force N L , positive towards x > 0. The eld equations are e = du /d x , N = E Ae, d N /d x + q = 0, L. and the boundary conditions are u (0) = u 0 and N ( L ) = N (a) (b) Is this problem governed by the Poisson equation, and if so, what is the correspondence with, say, the rst of (2.4)? Draw the expanded Tonti diagram for this problem.

EXERCISE 2.3

[A:25=10+10+5] A steady-state heat conduction problem is posed over the cylindrical two-dimensional domain ABC D depicted in Figure E2.1. with dimensions and boundary conditions as shown. (Axis x3 comes out of the plane of the paper. Domain ABC D extends indenitely along x3 , and all conditions are independent of that dimension.) The conductivity k is uniform over the domain ABC D .

x2 ^ T = 100 A D

^ =0 q

^ =0 q Perfect insulator

Perfect insulator

h= 0 ^=0 T 10

x1

Figure E2.1. A steady-state heat conduction problem.

(a) (b) (c)

Indicate which portions of the boundary form ST and Sq . Can something clever be said about the symmetry plane x1 = 0 that may allow the problem to be posed on only half of the domain? Does the temperature distribution satisfy the Laplace equation 2 T = 0? Does the guess solution T = 100x2 /3 satisfy the eld equations and boundary conditions?

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Chapter 2: DECOMPOSITION OF POISSON PROBLEMS

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x3 x2 x1

Cross section

Figure 2.2. The Saint-Venant torsion problem for Exercise 2.4.

EXERCISE 2.4

[A:25] The Saint Venant theory of torsion of a cylindrical bar of arbitrary cross section (cf. Figure E2.2) may be posed as follows.4 The problem domain is the bar cross section A, delimited by boundary B . This domain is assumed simple connected, i.e. the section is not hollow. The bar material is isotropic with shear modulus G . The primary variable is the two-dimensional stress function (x1 , x2 ). This function satises the standard Poisson equation (E2.1) 2 = 2G , where the torsion angle of rotation (about x3 ) per unit length. The function must be constant over the boundary B : = C . In the case of singly-connected cross-section domains (solid bars) this constant can be chosen arbitrarily and for convenience may be taken as zero. The applied torque is given by Mt = 2 are
A

d A = G J , where J is the torsional rigidity. The shear stresses , x2 . x1

13 =

23 =

(E2.2)

The shear stresses satisfy the equilibrium equations 13 23 + = 0. x1 x2 (E2.3)

Draw an expanded Tonti diagram for this problem, in which is the primary variable, the shear stresses are taken as ux variables, the gradient of is the intermediate variable, and angle is the source. Where would you place the specied-moment condition in the diagram? (Hint: connect it to the source).

See, for example, Chapter 11 of Timoshenko and Goodier Theory of Elasticity, McGraw-Hill, 1951.

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EXERCISE 2.5

Exercises

[A:10] Draw the expanded Tonti diagram for potential ow (2.4). Identify governing equations along the strong links in direct form. Where in the diagram would you specify a prescribed velocity boundary condition?
EXERCISE 2.6

[A:10] Draw the expanded Tonti diagram for electrostatics (2.5). Identify governing equations along the strong links in direct form.

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