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Clinical Establishments (Registration and Regulation) Act, 2010

The Clinical Establishments (Registration and Regulation) Bill, 2010 was introduced in the Parliament in order to achieve the mandate of Article 47 of the Constitution for improvement in public health. The Act has taken effect in the four states namely; Arunachal Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Mizoram, Sikkim, and all Union Territories since 1st March, 2012 vide Gazette notification dated 28th February, 2012. The states of Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan and Jharkhand have adopted the Act under clause (1) of article 252 of the Constitution. The main purpose of the law is to provide a legislative framework for the registration and regulation of clinical establishments in the country and also seeks to improve the quality of health services through the National Council for Standards by prescribing minimum standards of facilities and services which may be provided by them. This would permit categorization and classification of different clinical establishments depending on their geographical location as well as services offered. It will also initiate the process for the creation of a national registry of clinical establishments existing in the country. Salient features of the Act are: a) The Bill seeks to register and regulate clinical establishments. Clinical establishment is defined as hospitals and clinics and similar facilities that offer treatment for illness in any recognized system of medicine (allopathy, yoga, naturopathy, ayurveda, homoeopathy, siddha and unani). It also includes any laboratory which offers pathological, chemical and other diagnostic services. An establishment can be owned by the government, a trust, and a single doctor establishment. The Bill does not apply to any clinical establishment owned or managed by the Armed Forces. b) The central government shall establish a National Council of Clinical Establishments to (a) determine the minimum standards of health care by a clinical establishment; (b) classify them into categories; and (c) maintain a national register of clinical establishments. The Council shall be chaired by the Director General of Health Services (DGHS) and 22 other members (includes consumer groups and Associations of Indian Systems of Medicine). c) Every clinical establishment has to be registered to admit patients for providing treatment. Norms required to be met prior to registration include (a) minimum standards of facilities; and (b) minimum qualifications for the personnel. It may prescribe different minimum standards for each category of clinical establishment. d) National Register shall be compiled within two years from the date of commencement of the law and determine the first set of standards for clinical establishments within two years of setting up the Council. e) Every state government shall establish a State/Union Territory Council for clinical establishments. Members shall include Secretary, Health; Director of Health Services; elected representatives from state Medical Council, Nursing Council and Pharmacy Council, and state-level consumer groups or reputed NGOs etc. f) The state government shall set up a district registering authority for registering clinical establishments at district level. Members shall be the District Collector, the District Health Officer and 3 members with such qualifications to be prescribed by central government. However, the District Health Officer and Chief Medical Officer shall act as registering authority for provisional registration. g) The functions of the Council include compiling state registers and hearing appeals against orders of the authority for registration. h) The central government shall notify standards for each type of clinical establishment. The Bill provides for a system of provisional and permanent registration. Provision registration may be granted for a year. For clinical establishment whose minimum standards have been notified, provisional registration will only be

granted for a specified time-limit. Permanent registration shall be valid for five years and application for renewal should be made six months before expiry of registration. i) A clinical establishment, applying for permanent registration, has to submit evidence of it having complied with the prescribed minimum standard. j) The registering authority may authorize an inspection or an inquiry of any clinical establishment through a multi-member inspection team to be prescribed. A show cause notice may be issued if the authority feels that a clinical establishment is not complying with the conditions of its registration. It may also cancel the registration. The authority may enter and search in the prescribed manner after giving notice of its intention to the clinical establishment, if it suspects that an establishment is operating without registration.

Biotechnology Regulatory Authority of India Bill,2013

The Biotechnology Regulatory Authority of India Bill, 2013 was introduced in the Lok Sabha to promote the safe use of modern biotechnology by enhancing the effectiveness and efficiency of regulatory procedures. A Bill provides for setting up the Biotechnology Regulatory Authority of India (BRAI). It will consist of a chairperson, two full time members, and two part time members. The functions of the Authority shall include regulating the research, transport, import, containment, environmental release, manufacture and use of organisms and products of modern biotechnology. The Authority has the power to call for information, conduct an inquiry and issue directions for the safety of products or processes of modern biotechnology. Field trials for certain organisms or products cannot be conducted unless the Authority permits them as aiding the development of modern biotechnology such as genetically engineered plants, animals used in food or any animal clones that can be applied in agriculture, fisheries or food products. The Bill will not apply to the clinical trials of drugs, under the Drugs and Cosmetics Act, 1940, and food or food additives or any material under the Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006. The Authority will not disclose confidential commercial information made available in an application to the Authority. However, the Authority may disclose it in public interest or if this disclosure will not harm any person. Regulatory divisions of the Authority have been created for the implementation of safety assessment procedures and processes. The divisions are: (i) agriculture, forest and fisheries, (ii) human health and veterinary products, and (iii) industrial and environmental applications. Other institutional bodies: A Risk Assessment Unit will appraise applications for proposed research, transport or import of an organism or product, before final approval is granted. The Product Rulings Committee will make recommendations to the Authority for the manufacture or use of organisms or products. The Environmental Appraisal Panel will make recommendations on environmental

safety of organisms and products. An Inter-Ministerial Governance Board has been established to promote inter-ministerial or departmental co-operation for the effective discharge of the functions of the Authority. A Biotechnology Advisory Council will render strategic advice to the Authority regarding developments in modern biotechnology and their implications in India. A State Biotechnology Regulatory Advisory Committee will act as a nodal agency between the state government and the Authority with regard to the regulation of modern biotechnology. A Biotechnology Regulatory Appellate Tribunal will hear appeals against the decisions, orders or directions of the Authority. The Tribunal will consist of a full-time chairperson, who has been a judge of the Supreme Court of India or a Chief Justice of a High Court, and five part time expert members. The Bill imposes a penalty for providing false information (imprisonment for three months and fine extending to Rs five lakh) and conducting an unapproved field trial (imprisonment for six months to one year and a fine extending to Rs two lakh).

Street Vendors (Protection of Livelihood & Regulation of Street Vending) Bill, 2012 India has over 10 million street vendors or hawkers, currently at the mercy of local administration. Thus the Union Minister of Urban Housing & Poverty Alleviation has introduced the Street Vendors (Protection of Livelihood & Regulation of Street Vending) Bill, 2012 in the Lok Sabha. The Bill aims to protect the livelihood rights of street vendors as well as regulate street vending through demarcation of vending zones, conditions for and restrictions on street vending. Bill defines street vendor as a person engaged in vending of articles, goods, wares, food items or merchandise of everyday use or offering services to the general public, in a street lane, side walk, foot path, pavement, public park or any other public place or private area or by moving from place to place and includes hawker, peddler, squatter and all other synonymous terms which may be local or region specific. Any person intending to undertake street vending needs to register with the Town Vending Committee. He may then apply for a vending certificate that will be issued based on various criteria. The state government shall frame a scheme for street vendors. The local authority shall, in consultation with the planning authority, frame a street vending plan once every five years. The Town Vending Committee comprises of the municipal commissioner, representatives of street vendors, local auth Union Minister of Urban Housing & Poverty Alleviation ority, planning authority, local police, resident welfare association and other traders associations. This Bill shall not apply to Railways land, premises and trains. The Town Vending Committee cannot reject any application without giving the applicant an opportunity to rectify deficiencies, if any, and affording him an opportunity of hearing. The Bill which also given preference to members of the Scheduled Castes, the Scheduled Tribes, women and physically disabled

persons in granting certificate of registration. Currently, street vending is regulated under municipal laws enacted by state legislatures. Parliaments competence to legislate on this issue depends on whether the Bill is interpreted as substantively addressing rights and obligations of street vendors (Concurrent List) or relating to municipal zoning (State List).

Ex-situ methods of conservation of biodiversity Ex-situ conservation is the preservation of components of biological diversity outside their natural habitats. This involves conservation of genetic resources, as well as wild and cultivated or species, and draws on a diverse body of techniques and facilities. Some of these include: a) Botanic Gardens Botanic gardens can be defined as "public gardens which maintain collections of live plants mainly for study, scientific research, conservation and education. Botanic gardens are able to rehabilitate indigenous and threatened species and restore them to protected portions of their former habitats; to exploit commercially those species which are plentiful; and to promote wildlife education to a broad range of target groups such as politicians, school and college students, and communities living in and around wildlife areas. b) Translocations Sometimes conservation of faunal species involves or necessitates translocation of animals. This means the movement of individuals from its natural habitat, or from captivity, to another habitat. Translocations are carried out in connection with introductions or reintroductions, and should be handled with extreme caution. They are generally justified when: Land development will definitely destroy wildlife habitat and translocation is the only way of preserving the animals in the area. Boosting the numbers of a threatened wild population to ensure its survival by adding other individuals of the same species. Splitting an existing population that is at risk, to prevent loosing the entire population. These operations are carried out often with support from international captive breeding programs and receive the cooperation of zoos, aquaria, etc. Such programmes have to be carefully planned and carried out to ensure success. The success rates of the establishment of translocated species vary. Overall, the translocation of game species (species used for hunting) appears to have been more successful than efforts connected with threatened or rare species. The success rates of establishment for translocated amphibians and reptiles are particularly low at 19% and 25% respectively. c) Artificial Insemination:

Artificial insemination, or AI, is the process by which sperm is placed into the reproductive tract of a female for the purpose of impregnating the female by using means other than sexual intercourse or natural insemination. Artificial insemination is widely used for livestock breeding, especially for dairy cattle and pigs. Techniques developed for livestock have been adapted for use in humans. Artificial insemination of farm animals is very common in today's agriculture industry in the developed world, especially for breeding dairy cattle. (75% of all inseminations).Swine is also bred using this method (up to 85% of all inseminations). It provides an economical means for a livestock breeder to improve their herds utilizing males having very desirable traits. d) Somatic Cell Cloning Somatic Cell Cloning holds some promise for propagating from one or a few survivors of an almost extinct species. The nucleus of a somatic cell is removed and kept, and the host's egg cell is kept and nucleus removed and discarded. The lone nucleus is then fused with the 'deprogrammed' egg cell. After being inserted into the egg, the lone (somatic-cell) nucleus is reprogrammed by the host egg cell. The egg, now containing the somatic cell's nucleus, is stimulated with a shock and will begin to divide. After many mitotic divisions, this single cell forms a blastocyst (an early stage embryo with about 100 cells) with almost identical DNA to the original organism. The technique of transferring a nucleus from a somatic cell into an egg that produced Dolly was an extension of experiments that had been ongoing for over 40 years. In the simplest terms, the technique used to produce Dolly the sheep somatic-cell nuclear transplantation cloning involves removing the nucleus of an egg and replacing it with the diploid nucleus of a somatic cell. e) Seed bank The preservation of plant germplasm in seedbanks, (or genebanks), is one of the techniques of ex-suit conservation of plant species. Seeds have a natural dormancy feature, which allows for their suspended preservation for long periods of time with little damage, provided the conditions are favourable. Banking dormant seeds enables to keep genetically representative samples of rare and endangered plant species as a kind of genetic insurance. Storing germplasm in seedbanks is both inexpensive and space efficient. It allows preservation of large populations with little genetic erosion. Seedbanks also offer good sources of plant material for biological research, and avoid disturbance or damage of natural populations. Two types of seeds may be considered. The orthodox seed those that can be dried at low humidity and stored at low temperatures. These orthodox seeds can remain viable for many years and are rather easily stored in seedbanks. The recalcitrant seeds do not tolerate low humidity and temperature, and thus are not good material for seedbanking conservation. Preparation for storage is different for each species and has to be assessed before any conservation planning. Roughly, the different processes imply first collection of the seeds, then drying to a moisture content of less than 6%. The seeds are then stored at low temperature (below -18 degree C). As seeds tend to lose germinative power over time monitoring of viability and regeneration processes must be done frequently.

Ocean Acidification When carbon dioxide (CO2) is absorbed by seawater, chemical reactions occur that reduce seawater pH, carbonate ion concentration, and saturation states of biologically important calcium carbonate minerals. These chemical reactions are termed "ocean acidification". Calcium carbonate minerals are the building blocks for the skeletons and shells of many marine organisms. But excessive carbon in the atmosphere from the burning of fossil fuels over the last two centuries has caused increased acidity in the oceans, which is threatening ecosystems, sea creatures and their food supplies. These rising levels of acidity, along with the effects of global warming, could affect the ability of the oceans to absorb greenhouse gases. Since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, the pH of surface ocean waters has fallen by 0.1 pH units. Ocean acidification is expected to impact ocean species to varying degrees.Photosynthetic algae and seagrasses may benefit from higher CO2 conditions in the ocean, as they require CO2 to live just like plants on land. On the other hand, studies have shown that a more acidic environment has a dramatic effect on some calcifying species, including oysters, clams, sea urchins, shallow water corals, deep sea corals, and calcareous plankton.

Impacts of ocean acidification a) On living organisms

Pteropods The pteropod, or sea butterfly, is a tiny sea creature about the size of a small pea. Pteropods are eaten by organisms ranging in size from tiny krill to whales and are a major food source for North Pacific juvenile salmon. Pteropods shell when placed in sea water with low pH the shell slowly dissolves after 45 days Shellfish In recent years, there have been near total failures of developing oysters in both aquaculture facilities and natural ecosystems on the West Coast. These larval oyster failures appear to be correlated with naturally occurring upwelling events that bring low pH waters under-saturated in aragonite as well as other water quality changes to nearshore environments. Lower pH values occur naturally on the West Coast during upwelling events, but recent observations indicate that anthropogenic CO2 is contributing to seasonal undersaturation. Coral Many marine organisms that produce calcium carbonate shells or skeletons are negatively impacted by increasing CO2 levels and decreasing pH in seawater. For example, increasing ocean acidification has been shown to significantly reduce the ability of reef-building corals to produce their skeletons. b) On coastal communities and economies Coastal tourism generates billions of dollars in revenue each year for local communities through recreational fishing, diving and boating. Coastal tourism activities support local businesses, such as hotels, restaurants and shops. As in Goa over 90% of new economic development is dependent on coastal tourism. Healthy coral reefs generate tourist money and provide protection for coastal infrastructure (hotels, resorts, etc.) from storm surge and other natural phenomena. The coral ecosystems that underpin these commercial activities are highly threatened by ocean acidification because their calcium carbonate structures will experience high erosion rates.

Financial Sector Legislative Reforms Commission The Finance Minister announced the formation of the Financial Sector Legislative Reforms Commission (FSLRC) (B. N. Srikrishna as Chairman) during his Budget speech of 2011-2012 to rewrite and harmonize financial sector legislations, rules and regulations. There are over 60 Acts and multiple Rules/Regulations in the sector and many of them date back decades when the financial landscape was very different from what is obtaining today. Large number of amendments made in these Acts over time has increased the ambiguity and complexity of the system. The Commission would simplify and rewrite financial sector legislations, including subordinate legislations, to bring them in line with the requirements of the sector to achieve harmony and synergy

among them. This will remove ambiguity, regulatory gaps and overlaps among the various legislations making them more coherent and dynamic and help cater to the requirements of a large and fast growing economy in tune with the changing financial landscape in an inter-connected financial world. In the long-term, it would help usher in the next generation of reforms, contribute to efficient financial intermediation enhancing the growth potential of the nation Structure of the regulator proposed by FSLRC The proposed regulatory architecture, therefore, will consist of: The central bank as the monetary authority, banking regulator and payment system regulator. A unified regulator for the rest of the financial sector. A deposit insurance-cum-resolution agency. A public debt management agency. A financial redressal agency. A financial sector appellate tribunal. A mechanism for coordination, systemic risk, financial development and other issues where the role of multiple agencies are involved (FSDC/similar to FSDC). The functions of each of these seven proposed agencies are as follows: a) Reserve Bank of India It is proposed that RBI will perform three functions: monetary policy, regulation and supervision of banking in enforcing the proposed consumer protection law and the proposed micro-prudential law, and regulation and supervision of payment systems in enforcing these two laws. b) Unified Financial Agency The Unified Financial Regulatory Agency would implement the consumer protection law and microprudential law for all financial firms other than banking and payments. This would yield benefits in terms of economies of scope and scale in the financial system; it would reduce the identification of the regulatory agency with one sector; it would help address the difficulties of finding the appropriate talent in Government agencies. This proposed Unified Financial Regulatory Agency would also take over the work on organized financial trading from RBI in the areas connected with the Bond-Currency-Derivatives Nexus, and from FMC for commodity futures, thus giving a unification of all organised financial trading including equities, government bonds, currencies, commodity futures and corporate bonds. The unification of regulation and supervision of financial firms such as mutual funds, insurance companies, and a diverse array of firms which are not banks or payment providers, would yield consistent treatment in consumer protection and micro-prudential regulation across all of them. c) Financial Sector Appellate Tribunal

The present SAT will be subsumed in FSAT, which will hear appeals against RBI for its regulatory functions, the Unified Financial Agency, decisions of the FRA and some elements of the work of the resolution corporation. d) Resolution Corporation The present Deposit Insurance and Credit Guarantee Corporation (DICGC) will be subsumed into the Resolution Corporation which will work across the financial system. e) Financial Redressal Agency The FRA is a new agency which will have to be created in implementing this financial regulatory architecture. It will setup a nationwide machinery to become a one stop shop where consumers can carry complaints against all financial firms. f) Public Debt Management Agency An independent debt management oice is envisioned. g) Financial Stability and Development Council Finally, the existing FSDC will become a statutory agency, and have modified functions in the fields of systemic risk and development. Regulators will have an empowered board with a precise selection-cum-search process for appointment of members. The members of a regulatory board can be divided into four categories: the chairperson, executive members, non-executive members and Government nominees. In addition, there is a general framework for establishing advisory councils to support the board. All regulatory agencies will be funded completely by fees charged to the financial system. Steps to prevent soil erosion? Soil erosion and its prevention:

Soil erosion by water, wind and tillage affects both agriculture and the natural environment. Soil loss, and its associated impacts, is one of the most important (yet probably the least well-known) of today's environmental problems. It is mostly due to poor land use practices, which include deforestation, overgrazing, unmanaged construction activity and road or trail building.

Soil is a complex mixture of living and non-living materials. It provides anchorage and sustenance to plants. Natural agents like water and wind, constantly tend to remove the top soil and cause erosion. Rain falling upon the unprotected top soil, washes it down into the streams. Due to the absence of plant covering, eroded soil cannot hold water. Water rushes into the rivers and overflows as flood. Dust storm also causes soil erosion. The particles of top soil are picked up in such quantities that they form clouds of dust. Human beings also cause soil erosion. The

growing human habitation and expansion of urban areas lead to removal of vegetation. Once vegetation is removed, the naked soil gets exposed to wind and water. Improper tillage is another cause of soil erosion. Farmers often loosen the top soil for removing weeds and preparing seed beds. They also leave agricultural fields lying fallow for long time. These practices expose the top soil to the wind and cause erosion.

Soil erosion is always a result of mankind's unwise actions, such as overgrazing or unsuitable cultivation practices. These leave the land unprotected and vulnerable. Accelerated soil erosion by water or wind may affect both agricultural areas and the natural environment, and is one of the most widespread of today's environmental problems. Soil erosion is just one form of soil degradation. Other kinds of soil degradation include salinisation, nutrient loss, and compaction.

Prevention of soil erosion: Plants provide protective cover on the land and prevent soil erosion for the reasons: (a) plants slow down water as it flows over the land (runoff) and this allows much of the rain to soak into the ground; (b) plant roots hold the soil in position and prevent it from being washed away; (c) plants break the impact of a raindrop before it hits the soil, thus reducing its ability to erode; (d) plants in wetlands and on the banks of rivers are of particular importance as they slow down the flow of the water and their roots bind the soil, thus preventing erosion.

Preventing soil erosion requires technical changes to adopt. Aspects of technical changes include: (i) use of contour ploughing and wind breaks; (ii) leaving unploughed grass strips between ploughed land; (iii) making sure that there are always plants growing on the soil, and that the soil is rich in humus (decaying plant and animal remains). This organic matter is the "glue" that binds the soil particles together and plays an important part in preventing erosion; (iv) avoiding overgrazing and the over-use of crop lands; (v) allowing indigenous plants to grow along the river banks instead of ploughing and planting crops right up to the water's edge; (vi) encouraging biological diversity by planting several different types of plants together; (vii) conservation of wetlands (see Enviro Facts "Wetlands" and "River Catchments").

We can check soil erosion by adopting the following additional practices:

Intensive cropping and use of proper drainage canals.

Terracing on the sloping fields. This retards the speed of the flowing water.

Planting trees and sowing grasses.

Extensive aforestation practices to be carried out.

Know where to use erosion controls. Erosion controls are used in natural areas, agricultural settings or urban environments. In urban areas erosion controls are often part of storm water runoff management programs required by local governments.

2 Choose the appropriate kind of barrier. Erosion controls often involve the creation of a physical barrier, such as vegetation or rock, to absorb some of the energy of the wind or water that is causing the erosion. On construction sites they're often implemented in conjunction with sediment controls such as sediment basins and silt fences. 3 Prevent erosion. Ideally, soil erosion control begins with soil erosion prevention, and certain plants are excellent at soil erosion prevention. But when it's too late for soil erosion prevention, you simply have to fix a problem that already exists. 4 Build retaining walls. These address both kinds of soil erosion control issues -- both preventing it and fixing an existing problem. 5 Grow more trees. This seems to be the best way there is to prevent the soils being washed away. Trees, especially those with big, sturdy roots, can hold the soils intact. Growing a line of trees around a farm, if possible, can be a good idea for preventing most mechanical methods of erosion. A lot of afforestation (also known as reforestation) activities are being managed on a global scale to preserve the soils. A special modification of this is the riparian vegetation that is grown at the interface of any land and water line. The intention is to prevent the soils from migrating into the water line, or to prevent the water from seeping onto the land and carrying the soils away with it. 6 Use rubble. In some places, the shorelines of rivers, streams, etc. are mechanically blocked by depositing some kind of rubble at the land-water interface. This becomes a mechanical blockage, preventing the water from eroding the soil on the land. This kind of a barrier is colloquially called as a riprap. Sometimes, wire baskets are specifically designed and erected at the land-water interfaces, which are known as gabion strips. 7 Don't till. The most prominent technique agriculturists use for erosion control is the zero tillage method. This method, also known as conservation tillage, is farming practiced with a minimum amount of tillage. The tillage process, while enriching for the crop, also displaces the soil layers and makes it loose. Such a loose soil layer is more prone to get eroded. Hence, agricultural practices that can produce a good crop without necessitating tilling are being put into use, as a

measure for erosion control. 8 Consider contour farming. Contour farming is very commonly practiced on sloping land areas. Here, planes of land are constructed by cutting off the land according to its contours. Small plane walls are erected along the contours of the land, which are called as bunds. Agriculture is practiced in the land areas that these contours provide. The main effectiveness of this form of agriculture lies in the fact that the horizontally flat lands and the bunds slow down the runoff of rain water considerably. 9 Enrich the soil. Erosion control is not just about preventing the soil from getting washed or swept away. Methods to enrich whatever soil is present are also covered under erosion control practices. One example is keeping the land fallow, like most Asian farmers do. Here, after three or four successive seasons of farming, the land is kept free for one season. During this time, the soil can regenerate some of its nutrients. Another method is to grow a single crop before the main cropping season in order to provide nutrients to the soil. Growing a leguminous crop can provide nitrogen to the soil because these crops can harbor the beneficial nitrogen-fixing Rhizobi in their root nodules. Another example is Mucuna puriens, a crop that adds phosphorus to the soil. 10 Use mulch and compost. Methods like adding mulch, fertilizers, etc., all contribute to increasing the productivity of the soil, and are also covered under erosion control. Methods of soil conservation Methods Agronomic practices: Normally, the land will possess a vegetational cover so as to prevent erosion. The measures to be followed must be patterned along the nature's own methods of conservation. The following are some of the methods. Contour farming: Crops are cultivated along the contour of the land. The plough marks will be on level and can hold the rain. Even in heavy rain, the runoff is checked by the plants growing along the contour. Tillage: contour tilling will prevent the excess run of water. Mulching: Interculturing operations will kill weeds and soil mulches help the plants to be rooted firmly in the soil. Crop rotations:

Alternatively growing a cereal and a legume in the same field will not only increase the yield, but also increase the fertility of the soil. They also help in checking soil erosion. Strip cropping: This is an agricultural practice of growing plants in suitable strips in the field. This is of the following types. Contour strip cropping: This is cultivation of soil protecting crops in strips alternating with erosion permitting crops. The strips should be across the slope. Field strip cropping: Plants are cultivated in parallel strips across the slopes. Wind strip cropping: Crops are planted across the slopes to prevent soil loss. These may be legumes or grasses. Agrostological measures: Cultivation of grass in a land which is heavily eroded is called an agrostological measure. This is of two types. In ley farming grass is cultivated in rotation with regular crops. This helps in soil protection as well as produce fodder to cattle. If a land is heavily eroded it is best to allow it to the growth of grasses for few years. This will help in the checking of erosion. Dry farming method: This may be practised where rainfall is low, indefinite and variable. In dry farming methods only crops are grown that can sustain even a very low rainfall. The most important aspects of dry farming are conservation of soil moisture and fertility. Mechanical -Measures: The main aims of mechanical measures are to allow for the absorption of run off, dividing the slope into short ones and protection against run off. A few of the mechanical measures are discussed below: Basin listing: Small basins are formed along the contour with an implement called basin lister. These will hold water for some time. Sub soiling: Soil is broken with a sub soiler into fine grains to increase their absorptive capacity. Contour terracing: Along the contour, series of ridges or bunds of mud are formed to check the run off. This is of four types. In channel terrace a shallow channel is dug and the mud is deposited along the lower edge of the canal. In

broad base ridge terrace a canal is formed on the contour by exavating the mud. The canal is wide. If it is narrow it is called narrow based ridge terrace. In bench terracing a series of platforms are formed along the contour across the general slope of the plant. Contour trenching: Several 2 feet by one foot trenches are formed across the slopes at suitable intervals. Tree seedlings are to be planted above the trench. Terrace outlet: Outlets are to be constructed for the safe disposal of runoff water. Gully control: Suitable water conservation measures are to be taken so as to prevent the formation of gullies. Ponds: Construction of small ponds at suitable places to store water is a good practice. Stream bank protection: Banks of channels or rivers usually cave in during floods. To prevent this, construction of stone or concrete protective walls should be undertaken. In addition to this, planting some useful tree species will also prevent stream bank erosion. Diclofenac? Diclofenac (cf. INN with trade names) is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) taken to reduce inflammation and as an analgesic reducing pain in certain conditions, supplied as or contained in medications under a variety of trade names. Use of diclofenac in animals has been reported to have led to a sharp decline in the vulture population in the Indian Subcontinent, a 95% decline in 2003,[26] 99.9% decline as of 2008. The mechanism is, it is presumed, renal failure, a known side effect of diclofenac. Vultures eat the carcasses of livestock that have been administered veterinary diclofenac, and are poisoned by the accumulated chemical,[27] as vultures do not have a particular enzyme to break down diclofenac. At a meeting of the National Wildlife Board in March 2005, the Government of India announced it intended to phase out the veterinary use of diclofenac.[28] Meloxicam is a safer candidate to replace use of diclofenac.[29] It is more expensive than diclofenac, but the price is coming down as more drug companies begin to manufacture it.[30]

"The loss of tens of millions of vultures over the last decade has had major ecological consequences across the Indian Subcontinent that pose a potential threat to human health. In

many places, populations of feral dogs (Canis familiaris) have increased sharply from the disappearance of Gyps vultures as the main scavenger of wild and domestic ungulate carcasses. Associated with the rise in dog numbers is an increased risk of rabies"[29] and casualties of almost 50,000 people.[31] The Government of India cites this as one of those major consequences of a vulture species extinction.[28] A major shift in transfer of corpse pathogens from vultures to feral dogs and rats can lead to a disease pandemic causing millions of deaths in a crowded country like India; whereas vultures' digestive systems safely destroy many species of such pathogens.

The resulting multiplication of feral dogs in India and Pakistan has caused a multiplication of leopards feeding on those dogs and invading urban areas looking for dogs as prey, resulting in occasional attacks on human children.[32]

The loss of vultures has had a social impact on the Indian Zoroastrian Parsi community, who traditionally use vultures to dispose of human corpses in Towers of Silence, but are now compelled to seek alternative methods of disposal.[29]

Diclofenac has been shown also to harm freshwater fish species such as rainbow trout. Diclofenac the mystery solved Pat Benson/The Peregrine Fund The drug diclofenac appears to be the cause of these vulture deaths Zoom In

Although the drug, diclofenac, has been used in human medicine for decades, it has only recently been introduced for veterinary use in India and Pakistan. Vultures appear to have been exposed to the drug while scavenging livestock carcasses.

Several anomalies remained with the new theory: experiments suggested that diclofenac had a rapid effect on birds, with death following a few days after exposure, while birds observed in the field lingered for several weeks. Diclofenac is also toxic to dogs (though at much higher levels),

but dog populations were increasing at sites where Gyps vultures had declined. Lesions more characteristic of infectious disease than a contaminant had been found in dead birds; and diclofenac is excreted by mammals within a few days, which means that a very high proportion of the cattle scavenged by vultures would need to have been treated with diclofenac within a few days of death for the drug to be present in quantities toxic to the birds.

Concerned that the decline of the three species could still be caused by an infectious disease, rather than the drug, BirdLife announced that it was keeping an open mind, pending the results of tissue sample analysis in India.

"The decline of Asian vultures is one of the steepest declines experienced by any bird species." Dr Debbie Pain, RSPB

However, new research published in the scientific journal Nature in January 2004 has confirmed that veterinary use of diclofenac is responsible for the recent devastating declines in south Asian vulture populations.

These findings are the result of a three-year study by The Peregrine Fund and Ornithological Society of Pakistan (BirdLife in Pakistan) investigating vulture mortalities in the Pakistan Punjab. The study found that 85 percent of 259 vultures examined had died of visceral gout, a condition caused by renal failure. Exhaustive testing failed to find evidence of viral or bacterial infectious disease, pesticides, poisons, heavy metals, or nutritional deficiency sufficient to explain the renal failure observed in dead vultures.

Having eliminated the classic causes of renal failure, researchers tested the theory that vultures were encountering a toxin while feeding on livestock carcasses (their main food source). Surveys of veterinarians and pharmacists identified diclofenac as a recently introduced and widely used non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID), known to be toxic to the kidneys of mammals.

Residue testing found diclofenac in all the analysed vultures that had died with visceral gout (25 birds), while vultures that had died of other causes (including trauma, gunshot and lead

poisoning) tested negative for diclofenac residues.

As few as one in 760 carcasses containing diclofenac at a dose lethal to vultures would be sufficient to cause the observed decline in vulture numbers (30% per year). Clearly, even smallscale usage of the drug can have catastrophic consequences.

Further investigation showed that diclofenac was fatal to vultures at 10 percent of the recommended mammal dose. Tissue residues in livestock treated at the labelled dose rate were sufficient to cause gout and death in vultures. These findings, coupled with the high incidence of visceral gout in wild vultures found dead in Pakistan, India and Nepal confirm that diclofenac is the primary cause of the Asian vulture decline.

Diclofenac is widely used in human medicine globally, but was introduced to the veterinary market on the Indian subcontinent during the early 1990s. The drug is cheap (less than US$1 for a course) and widely used in the treatment of inflammation, pain and fever in livestock. In Pakistan 92 percent of 84 veterinary stockists surveyed sold the drug on a daily basis. CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) is an international agreement between governments. It aims to ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten their survival. Roughly 5,000 species of animals and 28,000 species of plants are protected. Bears, dolphins, cacti, corals, orchids and aloes are some examples.

Which one of the following methods is most appropriate to check soil erosion on steep slopes? shelter belts (b) mulching (c) terrace cultivation Intercropping is the practice of growing two or more crops in proximity. The most common goal of intercropping is to produce a greater yield on a given piece of land by making use of resources that would otherwise not be utilized by a single crop. Careful planning is required, taking into account the soil, climate, crops, and varieties. It is particularly important not to have crops competing with each other for physical space, nutrients, water, or sunlight. Examples of intercropping strategies are planting a deep-rooted crop with a shallow-rooted crop, or planting a tall crop with a shorter crop that requires partial shade. Inga alley

cropping has been proposed as an alternative to the ecological destruction of Slash-and-burn farming.[1]

When crops are carefully selected, other agronomic benefits are also achieved. Lodging-prone plants, those that are prone to tip over in wind or heavy rain, may be given structural support by their companion crop.[2] Creepers can also benefit from structural support. Some plants are used to suppress weeds or provide nutrients.[3] Delicate or light sensitive plants may be given shade or protection, or otherwise wasted space can be utilized. An example is the tropical multi-tier system where coconut occupies the upper tier, banana the middle tier, and pineapple, ginger, or leguminous fodder, medicinal or aromatic plants occupy the lowest tier. Intercropping of compatible plants also encourages biodiversity, by providing a habitat for a variety of insects and soil organisms that would not be present in a single-crop environment. This in turn can help limit outbreaks of crop pests by increasing predator biodiversity.[4] Additionally, reducing the homogeneity of the crop increases the barriers against biological dispersal of pest organisms through the crop. The degree of spatial and temporal overlap in the two crops can vary somewhat, but both requirements must be met for a cropping system to be an intercrop. Numerous types of intercropping, all of which vary the temporal and spatial mixture to some degree, have been identified.[5] These are some of the more significant types: Mixed intercropping, as the name implies, is the most basic form in which the component crops are totally mixed in the available space. Row cropping involves the component crops arranged in alternate rows. Variations include alley cropping, where crops are grown in between rows of trees, and strip cropping, where multiple rows, or a strip, of one crop are alternated with multiple rows of another crop. Intercropping also uses the practice of sowing a fast growing crop with a slow growing crop, so that the fast growing crop is harvested before the slow growing crop starts to mature. This obviously involves some temporal separation of the two crops. Further temporal separation is found in relay cropping, where the second crop is sown during the growth, often near the onset of reproductive development or fruiting, of the first crop, so that the first crop is harvested to make room for the full development of the second. Iron-ore in north Sweden, copper and nickel deposits in Ontario, Canada, iron, nickel, chromites and platinum in South Africa are examples of minerals found in igneous and metamorphic rocks.

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