Chapter 22: The Ordeal of Reconstruction (1865-1877)

Four big issues after the war: How the South would be rebuilt How the blacks would fare as a free people How the South would be reintegrated into the Union Who (the South, the president, or Congress) would direct the process of Reconstruction The Problems of Peace 1868 President Johnson pardoned the captured Confederate leaders, despite popular desire to have them executed A transformed South: The economy was stagnant because of runaway inflation and a war-ruined transportation system Agriculture was crippled because the slave-labor system was no more and because the Union soldiers had plundered their livestock The wealthy planters were left in poverty because their investments in slaves evaporated with emancipation and their property was destroyed by Union troops Many Southerners still felt that their secession was an ongoing and just cause Emancipation took place erratically; often came and went with the Union armies, and planters opposed it with violent or legal means Slaves reaction to emancipation was mixed; some loyally refused to leave their masters, while others joined the Union armies in pillaging their masters property But all Southern whites were eventually forced to free their slaves Effects of emancipation on blacks: Fought for a higher place on the social ladder, ex. Bought fine goods and changed their names Strengthened family by allowing them to search for separated relatives and to officially marry Converged into black communities in towns and cities, providing support and protection and sometimes even relocating together, ex. 1878-1880 the black Exodusters who moved en masse from Louisiana, Texas, and Mississippi to Kansas Founded their own churches that grew rapidly, and the church became the focal point of black community Increased education because wanted to rise socially and read the Bible, with help from white Northern teachers from the American Missionary Association and the government The newly freed blacks were unskilled, uneducated, poor, and unsure of how to survive as freemen So March 3, 1865 Congress created the Freedmens Bureau under Union general Oliver O. Howard The goal of the bureau was to provide food, clothing, medical care, and education to freedmen and white refugees; was a primitive welfare agency Effects of the Bureau: Successfully provided education Was supposed to settle blacks on land confiscated from the Confederates, but often worked with the planters to expel blacks from towns and have then sign labor contracts with their former masters

Freedmen Define Freedom

The Freedmen's Bureau

 The South viewed the Bureau as a meddling federal entity that threatened white dominance 1872 President Johnson, sharing white-supremacist views, killed the Bureau Johnson: The Tailor President Johnson's origins were the humblest of all the presidents'; was born into poverty in NC, orphaned, and apprenticed to a tailor Became politically active when became a champion of the poor whites against the planter aristocrats in Tennessee Was elected to Congress and gained the North's attention when we refused to secede with Tennessee, so after some of Tennessee was taken over by the Union army, was appointed war governor The Union party made him, a Democrat, Lincoln's running mate because needed to attract support from the War Democrats and other pro-Southerners Was heavily religious and a strong supporter of states' rights and the Constitution But was stubborn, contentious, hotheaded, and out of place (was a Southerner who did not understand the North and who had earned the distrust of the South, a Democrat never accepted by Republicans, and a president who was never elected) Under Lincoln: Lincoln believed that the Southern states had never legally withdrawn from the Union 1863 proclaimed his 10 percent Reconstruction plan; when 10% of a states' voters in the 1860 presidential elections had taken an oath of allegiance to the United States and pledged to follow emancipation, a state government would be set up and the state would be recognized as part of the Union But Republicans in Congress feared that the 10% plan would allow the planter aristocracy to return to power and the blacks to be re-enslaved, so 1864 passed the Wade-Davis Bill that required 50% to take the oath and other stronger safeguards, but Lincoln pocket-vetoed the bill by refusing to sign it, so the Republicans were outraged Unlike Lincoln, many Congressmen believed that the Southern states had committed suicide as republican states, so had forfeited all their rights, so were to be treated as conquered provinces Division among the Republicans; the majority moderates wanted the Southern states to be reintegrated simply and quickly under Congress' terms, while the minority radicals wanted them to be punished for their crimes Under Johnson: Against expectations, agreed with Lincoln that the Southern states never legally seceded, so recognized several of Lincoln's 10% governments May 29, 1865 proclaimed his own Reconstruction plan that disfranchised leading Confederates (though he pardoned many who requested pardon) and called for state conventions to repeal ordinances of secession, repudiate Confederate debts, and ratify the Thirteenth Amendment that abolished slavery So in later 1865, the Southern states rapidly organized governments

Presidential Reconstruction

The Baleful Black Starting with the Mississippi government in November 1865, the new Southern state governments passed Black Codes Codes Goals of the Black Codes:

 To ensure a stable and subservient labor force; heavy and slavery-like penalties for blacks who jumped their unjust labor contracts To restore the pre-emancipation system of race relations; though blacks were legally recognized as free and had some other privileges, were forbidden from serving on a jury, voting, and sometimes even renting or leasing land Effects of the Black Codes: Though the worst of the Codes would be repealed, blacks would for a long time remain economically dependent, often as sharecropper farmers Northerners were angry that the war seemed to have been in vain Congressional Reconstruction December 1865 congressional delegates, mostly Democrats, from the newly reintegrated Southern states presented themselves in the Capitol with the intention of claiming their seats: Was the natural thing for Southern voters to do But many of these delegates were actively associated with the secession movement, esp. exvice president of the Confederacy Alexander Stephens The Republicans were outraged because while the Southern delegates were absent during the war, they passed many bills the Southerners would have blocked, ex. The Morrill Tariff, the Pacific Railroad Act, and the Homestead Act The Southern states would have more influence than ever politically because now slaves counted as 5/5ths of a person, up from 3/5ths; if they joined with the Northern Democrats, they could become the majority party December 6, 1865 Johnson announced that all the rebellious states had met the conditions to rejoin the Union The Republicans were worried February 1866 Johnson vetoed a bill (later repassed) that would have maintained the existence of the Freedmens Bureau So March 1866 the Republicans passed the Civil Rights Bill that made blacks American citizens and undermined the Black Codes; Johnson vetoed it, but Congress overrode his veto and passed it anyway Congress would increasingly override Johnsons veto June 1866 Congress passed the Fourteenth Amendment in order to secure the principles of the Civil Rights Bill to the Constitution: The Republicans would not welcome a state back to the Union unless it ratified the amendment, but Johnson advised the Southern states to reject it, so all of them except for Tennessee rejected the amendment Stipulations of the Fourteenth Amendment: Blacks gained civil rights, including citizenship but excluding the franchise States which did not grant blacks the franchise would have their representation in Congress and the Electoral College reduced Former Confederates who had sworn to remain loyal to the Union were forbidden from federal and state office The federal debt was guaranteed, while the Confederate debt was repudiated Congress had tried to temper the Black Codes passed by Johnsons 10% governments by extending the Freedmens Bureau and passing the Civil Rights bill, but Johnson had vetoed both; so now Republicans only wanted Reconstruction with the Fourteenth Amendment For the 1866 congressional elections, Johnson wanted to gain a majority of Congress that

Johnson Clashes with Congress

Swinging 'Round the Circle with Johnson

would favor his soft policy towards the South So starting late summer of 1866, Johnson took his swing round the circle and traveled to give speeches to stimulate pro-South support, but ended up winning more votes and securing a 2/3rds majority for the Republicans instead because of his raucous speeches and behavior Republican Principles and Programs Though the Republicans now had a great majority in Congress, radical and moderate Republicans still disagreed over how best to Reconstruct Radicals: In the Senate, were led by Charles Sumner, earlier beaten with a cane and supporter of racial equality In the House, were led by Thaddeus Stevens, a vicious defender of blacks and opponent of rebellious white Southerners Wanted to keep the Southern states from rejoining the Union until the federal government could bring about drastic social and economic changes in the South Moderates wanted policies that kept the states from abridging citizens' rights rather than direct federal intervention; made up the majority of the Republicans But by 1867, both radicals and moderates agreed that blacks must be given the franchise, even if it meant using federal power

Reconstruction by March 2, 1867, after several violent race riots in Southern cities, the Reconstruction Act was passed that divided the South into five military-controlled and -occupied districts and the Sword disfranchised many former Confederates Also, Congress (unsuccessfully) laid down strict conditions for Southern states' readmission because the moderates wanted to create a Southern electorate that would vote the states back into the Union on favorable terms, so the federal government would not have to get involved; the states had to ratify the Fourteenth Amendment and guarantee suffrage to adult male blacks But radicals still feared that the states could rescind the rights the gave to the blacks once they rejoined the Union, so 1869 Congress passed the Fifteenth Amendment and 1870 it was ratified by the required number of states Military reconstruction was of questionable constitutionality, ex. in the 1866 Ex parte Milligan case the Supreme Court ruled that military tribunals could never try civilians when civil courts were open, but was necessary in the extreme circumstances By 1870, all the Southern states had reorganized their governments But by 1877, after the Northern troops left because the new governments appeared to be entrenched, pro-South Democratic whites regained control No Women Voters Women saw their cause as similar to that of the slaves, since both groups lacked basic civil rights, esp. the right to vote The Thirteenth Amendment brought hope that gender reforms were to come, the Fourteenth shock that for the first time sex was mentioned in determining a citizen's right to vote, and the Fifteenth action to include sex on the list of prohibited bases of denial of franchise (race, color, or previous condition of servitude) But it would be 50 years until the Constitution granted women the franchise The Realities of Radical Reconstruction in the South Before the 1870 Fifteenth Amendment, blacks' right to vote was far from guaranteed; many wanted education, property, or military requirements, the Fourteenth Amendment only gave citizenship without suffrage, and even the black minority in the North was denied the franchise Once the Fifteenth Amendment granted all adult male blacks the franchise, blacks quickly

organized and acted politically: Main political group was the Union League that was pro-Union and based in the North; formed a network of churches, schools, and political clubs to educate members in civic duties and campaign for Republican presidents, represented black grievances, and recruited militias to protect blacks against white retaliation Though black women could not vote, they still attended and contributed to political events Black men elected as delegates to state constitutional conventions held the most political authority among blacks; with the whites, hammered out new state constitutions Black political participation was small but growing rapidly Former slave owners were offended by former slaves wielding power, and were especially angry at the scalawags, or Southerners who supported the blacks, and carpetbaggers, or Northerners perceived to have resettled in the South in search of power and money The black-infused governments established better public schools, launched public works, and guaranteed property rights to women, and many of the reforms were retained when all-white Redeemer governments returned to power But many manipulated politically inexperienced blacks for their own gain The Ku Klux Klan 1866 in Tennessee, angry whites formed the Ku Klux Klan that used intimidation and violence to keep blacks in their place and discourage whites from helping the blacks So 1870 and 1871 Congress passed the Force Acts that sent federal troops to stamp out the Klan, but many groups continued operations in secret For decades, Southern whites would openly disobey use intimidation, fraud, and trickery to keep blacks from voting, justified by the goal of white supremacy Johnson Walks the The radicals wanted to impeach Johnson because disliked his obstructionism; he would be Impeachment replaced temporarily by radical Bluff Ben Wade of OH Plank 1867 Congress passed the Tenure of Office Act that required the approval of the Senate if Johnson wanted to remove his appointees, esp. secretary of war Edwin M. Stanton because he was secretly a spy and informer to the radicals Early 1868 Johnson dismissed Stanton, so the House voted to impeach him for high crimes and misdemeanors and violations of the Tenure of Office Act A Not-Guilty Verdict for Johnson Later 1868 an open-to-public trial was held to try Johnson; Johnsons attorneys argued that he had thought the Tenure of Office Act unconstitutional so had intentionally violated it to put a test case before the Supreme Court, while House prosecutors found it harder to build a compelling case for impeachment May 1868 Johnson avoided a 2/3rds majority vote for his impeachment by 1 vote Influences on the outcome of the trial: Fear of creating the destabilizing precedent of a weak president and a strong Congress Opposition to abusing the system of checks and balances The president pro tempore would have been disliked radical Ben Wade Johnson agreed to cease obstructing Republican policies if he were to remain in office The radicals were furious that Johnson avoided impeachment, but the country as a whole accepted the decision Johnsons only crime had been obstructing Congress By 1867, Russia wanted to sell Alaska because: Were dangerously overextended in North America and likely to lose Alaska to the British The fur resources had been used up, so now Alaska was an economic liability

The Purchase of Alaska

 Wanted to sell to specifically America because wanted to strengthen against Britain So 1867 Secretary of State William Seward accepted Russias offer and bought Alaska for $7.2 million because: Did not want to offend Russia because it had been very friendly to the North during the Civil War There could be valuable natural resources in Alaska The public, focused on Reconstruction, thought Alaska was worthless The Heritage of Reconstruction Many Southerners thought that Reconstruction was more damaging than the war had been, because of the transformed social and racial system, empowerment of blacks, and federal intervention in their local affairs But Reconstruction policy was not as harsh as it could have been; no one had a clear plan of how to Reconstruct, so made it up along the way taking cues from Southern reactions Republicans wanted to protect the blacks and promote their party, but their actions caused only fleeting benefits for blacks and the death of the Republican party in the South Moderate Republicans did not fully realize the difficulties in empowering blacks and overcoming the Souths desire to retain their own system So the Old South was more resurrected than reconstructed