The Concept of Culture Clusters Applied to the Belgian Congo Author(s): Alan P. Merriam, James M.

Brouwer, Paula Foster, Grace Ramke, Kathleen Sparshott Source: Southwestern Journal of Anthropology, Vol. 15, No. 4 (Winter, 1959), pp. 373-395 Published by: University of New Mexico Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3628900 . Accessed: 20/09/2011 21:30
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THE CONCEPT OF CULTURE CLUSTERS APPLIEDTO THE BELGIANCONGO*

ALAN P. MERRIAM
WITH JAMES M. BROUWER, PAULA FOSTER, GRACE RAMKE, AND KATHLEEN SPARSHOTT

in 1952,1P. H. Gulliversuggestedthe cultureclusteras a useful conceptin the orderingof ethnographicmaterials.Taking his example from the Nilo-Hamitic tribesof East Africa, he pointedout the Teso Dialect Cluster,"the tribesof which speak closely relateddialects,"which,in turn, he dividedinto two parts, the Teso on the one hand, and the Karamajong cluster,consistingof the Karamajong, Jie, Dodoth, Turkana, Toposa, Jiye, and Donyiro tribes,on the other. A numberof of the latter cluster was noted, includingmutually intelligiblediacharacteristics lects, strong emphasison pastoralismin which "values and attitudes connected with them,penetrateeveryaspectof sociallife,"2 with theirherds,and transactions a mixedeconomyof farming and animalhusbandry,patrilinealkinship based on rights in stock, the extendedfamily which providesthe core of almost all types of ritualand whosememsocialactivity,exogamous clans whosefunctionis primarily commonclan namesthroughout berscannottraceactual genealogicalconnections, the cluster,the absenceof segmentary lineages,age sets with politicalfunctionsand the establishment of an elaboratesystem of seniority,the absenceof indigenous of a High God, as well as diviners,the lack of ancestorworship, chiefs,the presence and materialculture,and a consistent little magic, commondress,ornamentation, accountof an originalunity and a story of the breakingup of this unity. Gulliver also pointed out the presenceof four unrelatedtribesin the area, and concluded by noting: In this papersome accounthas been given of the Karamajong Cluster,with its cluster A social and basicunityin history, customs, comparable organization. language, A MasaiClustermightcontainthe Masai of the Nandi-speaking peoplesis indicated. and others.Otherclusters might centreon the Samburu, proper, Njemps, Mumbwa, Such clustersmay be useful Tatog, the Teso, the Lotuko,and the Bari respectively. work.3 and comparative bothof generalethnology socio-cultural unitsfor the purposes
* We are grateful to Professors Melville J. Herskovits and Harold K. Schneider who have read variousdrafts of this paper and given us their suggestions for its improvement;they are not, of course, in any way responsiblefor its final form. Mr Schneider has also contributed the final the article. drawingof the map which accompanies 1 P. H. Gulliver, The KaramajongCluster (Africa, vol. 22, 1-22, 1952). 3 Idem, p. 21. 2 Idem, p.2. 373 VOL. 15, 1959

in the journal Africa Cluster, published IN AN ARTICLE,The Karamajong

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The concept of grouping cultures on thebasisof common traitsis, of together to new in the of sense either culture areas or culture course, nothing anthropology, clusters. of North Wisslerin 1917,laidout the culture areas Thus,for example, but alsodivided the tribesintovarious to the smaller America, groups according or absence of from traits and the intrusion of other traits presence marginal key areas.4 Muchmorerecently the Ethnographic Survey of Africaseries, published AfricanInstitute, the first hasusedthe concept of clusters; by the International in the of the series concerned the Akan and the publication Ga-Adangme peoples thenGoldCoast,andsuchgroupings havecontinued the series. throughout The concept of the culture of cluster seems usefulfroma number potentially in and the of clusters are some the standpoints, present BelgianCongo paper outalongwithsomeimplications of thedatafor futurestudy.The usefulpointed smallandhighly of study; for unitsforpurposes thatit allows second, comparable these for and clearer that it allows units; third, comparison among understanding of the relationship, bothhistoric thepeoples andcultural, concerned. among A problem not attacked arisesin connection with the difference by Gulliver between the two is probably not always of the cluster two characteristics precise, The firstof theseis size;whileit is conceivable tendto distinguish it fromthearea. as largea geographic thata culture cluster distribution as an area,this encompass be the case,for the cluster mostdirectly to smaller wouldseldom groups pertains of peoples whoseculture showsa degree of unityrather thansimply as similarity in a culture area.This is further in the second between the difference emphasized
two: the cultureclusterinvolvesa real commonality among the people concerned, betweenthe conceptsof culturearea and culturecluster;while the dividingpoint ness of the clusterseems to lie in three major areas, first, that it gives relatively

withrecognition of thiscommonality Thus the concept of by the various groups. the culture areais imposed whilethe concept of uponthedataby the ethnologist, the culture is bothimposed cluster and recognized to varying by the ethnologist the concerned. degrees by people
We are quite awareof the limitationsof the culturearea conceptand regard

it primarily as a taxonomic on this, descriptive, level the imdevice;considered the wayof life of the peoplewhichconsiders all aspects of theirbehavior. The cluster a adds dimension in the area in that it however, concept, lacking concept on the of basis historic fact in and what we have called suggests generic relationship
4 Clark Wissler, The American Indian (New York: Peter Smith, 3rd ed., 1950), passim,

portanceof a musicalinstrumentis equal to that of a particularmeansof social In describinga culturecluster,we attempt to give a brief sketch of organization.

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In a culturearea,diffusionfrom one or morecentersis assumedand commonality. can often be traced,but in a cluster,by definitionwe find not only diffusionbut also the factor of commonality. Thus, for example,the fact that the Mongo say they are all related and have myths and other means to "prove"it, makes them quite differentfrom the Flatheadand Sanpoil Indians who are groupedtogether in the samePlateau areaof North Americabut who deny any relationship to each other. The cluster involves an acknowledgedhistoricunity, while an area shows natureonly. unity,but of a descriptive In these terms,then, our primarygoal is a taxonomicdescription of peoplesin the Congo whose culturescan be groupedtogetherin small units on the basis of commontraits and complexesand, most important,a recognizedunity. The implicationinvolvedis that of genericrelationship becauseof the factorof commonality. An assessment of such relationship, to be beyondthe limits however,is considered of our materialat present;when and if it is carriedout, distinctionwill have to be made amongvariouslevels of generalization. Thus we should expect that a single musical instrument,for example,would diffuse much more easily than complex aestheticconceptsabout music or than systemsof social structure;while the latter may diffuse, of course,they are probablyless likely to do so. Again, the fact that a group of people have sex gender in their language does not necessarilymean the use of similarbasicmorphemes historicrelationship; would be a much stronger in a further caution be made indication.Finally, should respectto commonality. This concernsthe fact that while commonality may indicategeneric relationship, it may also be the result of culture diffusion among various tribes after their in an area. The Mangbetu-Azande establishment clusterseems to be of the latter sort, in whichthe two groupsoriginatedin differentareas,but later came to share a moreor less commonculture;thus, for example,both Mangbetuand Zande tales that exists and mythshavebeen createdto providejustificationfor the relationship betweentwogroups.The Lubaclusteris probably also of this sort. of some culture clusIt should be pointed out that the following descriptions ters in the Belgian Congo are general in nature, that they reflect the literature available,and that they do not cover the entire region of the Congo; this is a investigationwhich is subject to further modificationand correction, preliminary and whichwill call for moredetailedscrutinyin the future. It is presentedhere in the hope that it will stimulatediscussion,but primarilythat it will be useful as a taxonomic deviceand that it will point up problemsand areasfor furtherresearch.5
5 This paper is based upon a Seminar in African Ethnology, held in the Fall Quarter of 1958 in the Department of Anthropology of Northwestern University, under the direction of Alan P. Merriam.

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The Mongo,with a populationof approximately 1,500,000to 2,000,000people, arecharacterized Maes and Boone as a which "habitent une grandepartie by group de la couvette centrale."6It is generallybelieved that they have occupiedtheir presentlocation for a few hundredyears, coming originallyfrom the northeast. Van der Kerkenhas used the term Mongo in threesenses: the Mongo restricted, whichappliesto the centralcoreand includessuchgroupsas the Ntombe, Nkundu, Ekota, and a numberof others; the Mongo extended,which includes the Mongandu, Bambole, and Bakutu, and the Batelela Mongo who are the farthest detachedfrom the centralgroup both geographically and culturally. The social organizationof the Mongo revolvesaround the patrilineal,patrilocal extended family and possibly a system of exogamous,non-totemicclans. Descent and inheritance extendhorizontally througha generationuntil all possible inheritorsof that generationhave been exhausted,and then moves to the succeedinggeneration.Ties for the childrenare primarilyto the father'sgroup, but relationshipto the mother'sgroup is also recognized.Polygyny is preferred,although not usually attainable,and there is a tendency toward practice of the sororate. Bridewealth is an integral part of marriage, with gifts continuing throughoutits tenure;the complexof gift-giving both in and out of association with marriage,as well as a system of indemnities,is marked,and tends to be an of the Mongo. Gifts are given in installments to relatives identifyingcharacteristic as well as to the bride'sfamily, and gifts are also exchangedbetweenthe families of brideand groom.All gifts are returnable upon divorcewhichmay be instituted from either side of the marriage. Kinship terminology is classificatory;some generational principlesare also applied,and termsfor cognatesand affinalgroups appear. The largest political groupingamong the Mongo seems to be the village and there is little dominationof one group over another. Kingdomsor other large seems to be the rule. political entities are not found, and political fragmentation In religiousbelief, a supremebeing functionsas the creatorof the universeand all peoples within it, but there is no additionalpantheon of lesser gods. Forest spiritsare consideredvery powerful and are the givers of childrento the people; individualforest spirits have a malevolentattitude towardthe childrengiven by other forest spirits. Ancestralspirits are an integral part of the religious belief; to be part of the communityof the living and to have human they are considered
6 J. Maes et 0. Boone, Les Peuplades du Congo Belge (Tervueren: Musee du Congo Belge, Publications du Bureau de Documentation Ethnographique,Serie 2-Monographies Ideologiques 1935),p.292.

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attitudes, values, and appetites. Funeraryrites are especially importantto the ancestralspirits,with the second funeral noteworthy;funeralsare a furtheroccawith the manipulation of impersonal forces sion for gift-giving.Magic is concerned but the abilities of the magician may come from an ancestor who had strong

in the Belgian clusters FIG. 1. Culture 1959.) Congo.(Drawnby H. K. Schneider,

magicalpower. Both good and evil magic are practicedand contagiousmagic is the general rule. Magic specialistsare found, and some individualsare afflicted in the bodyoverwhichtheyhaveno control.Medical with a specialwitchsubstance includebone setting, herbs,and specialbathingpractices. measures of agriculture, The economicbasisof Mongo culturerestsupon a combination with the cultivation of bananas, manioc, maize, and other crops, and hunting carriedout eitheralone or in groupsby the men, fishingby men and women,and

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laboris basedupon Economic by bothsexesbut primarily by women. gathering whilethe women the familyunit;in agriculture, the menclearthe ground, sow, include carefor, andreapthe harvest. Maleactivities raffia-weaving, net-making, andbasketry. andworking in ironandothermetals, whilethe women do pottery All property to the males. belongs The graphic Aesthetic of full-time life is marked by the absence specialists. andplastic artsinclude on utilitarian created geometric design objects bybothmen andwomen, for wood statues painting, carving purposes, polychrome clay funerary notin theformof masks, work metal andmuch coffins, although designed specially in iron,copper, andbrassincluding ornaments andweapons. The musical system is notknown wellenough to make butin somepartsof theMongo generalizations, musical area,at least,drums, ratchets, lokombi, five-stringed pots,and otherinstruments areknown, andthe musical withpolyphonic styleis extremely complex linesusingas manyas fivevocalparts. in theseareas, Danceis alsocomplex with unison sometimes of an acrobatic nature. movements, corpsde balletperforming Drama is foundin the bobongo andotherdance-music-text of both performances sacred andprofane ritual.In oralliterature in variant verepicsarefoundwidely sionsamong theMongoin therestricted senseandoccasionally the Mongo among of othertales,as well as proverbs, in the extended sense.The existence has been noted. The Mongoseemclearlyto forma cultureclusterin the Congoby virtue, of culturalsimilarities. featuresof the clusterare the Outstanding primarily, the of to be and,if it proves structure, fragmented political complex gift-giving forms. of the music-dance The criterion is generalizeable, complex commonality metamongthe Mongos senseby genealogies whichindicate in the restricted the the variousconstituent between relationships groups,while the Mongoin the of relatedness to the Mongoin the reextended sensehavehistorical traditions of the populations havethe tradition of an ancestor, stricted sense.Certain or a themselves of called and some call "the children god, Mongo, Mongo." groups
THE MANGBETU-AZANDE

Thenucleus of theMangbetu-Azande foundin northeastern group, Congoand was from Sudanic invaders who states, probably neighboring political developed reached the present areabeforethe 16thcentury. At this time the areawas inhabitedby proto-Momvu and late Momvutypes who wereinvadedfrom the northwest Sudanic and fromthe southby the Bantu.The southern by peoples in the establishment invasions resulted of the Mangbetu about 1750-1800; the

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Azande invasion,possibly from Lake Tchad, came in approximately1830. The resultwas the establishment of a considerable kingdom. The habitat of the Mangbetu-Azande area is savannahand heavy forest; the populationis clusterednear the riverswhich cut through the area. Shifting and permanentcultivation is practiced,with cassava the chief Mangbetu crop and millet the chief crop of the Azande.Palm wine and maizebeer form an important part of the diet, and cotton and palm oil are the major cash crops. House types include both the rectangularand the round, and various outbuildingsare used. Clothing is made of animal skins or bark cloth, and for the womenincludes the attentionis paid to coiffure,and men wearcaps;bodypainting negbe.Considerable and cicatrization is practiced.Smithing is a majorspecialization, and pottery and are also In the material culture is woodcarving specializedoccupations. general, The economic is extremelycomplex. system characterized by money,markets,and barter, with a prestige wealth system operating for ceremonialexchange as in marriage. The social organizationof the Mangbetu-Azande group is based upon patriand totemicclans; there is no segmentary lineal, exogamous, lineagesystem.Clans are constituted of royalty or commoners;the royal clans may or may not be exogamous.Kinship terminologyis classificatory.Marriage involves a complex which is not termisystemof exchangescarriedout partiallythroughbridewealth nated until the birth of a femalechild. Polygynyis the ideal marriagesystem,and both the levirateand sororateare practiced.Divorceis not common,althoughit is becoming more frequent under European influence.Circumcisionfor males, a fairly recentpractice,includesindividualsfrom six to eighteen years of age who are sponsoredby selected adults and secluded for a period of time in the bush. Blood brotherhoods are formedfor purposesof friendshipor commerce, and imply with a secondfuneralheld two a joking relationship. Funeraryrites are important, to fiveyearslater. The politicalsystemforms a pyramidalstructurewith an absolutemonarchat the top who represents, and in a real sense is, the state. The king holds the power to tax, and has a large military force to which all able bodied men are subject. Labor, standardtribute, and gifts are extractedby the king, and all ivory and arehis by right;muchof his bootyis, however, redistributed to the people. prisoners The royal clan, the Avungara, providesthe rulers, and the highest commoners cannot attain any position higher than that of the lowest Avungara. Below the king, the political structureincludes chiefs and subchiefspersonallyinstalled by the king, as well as five major ministersrankedin order of importance.In view

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of the supreme importanceof the king as representingthe state, the political The systemtends to disintegrateupon his death until a new poweris established. is dominated of functionaries and the various oracles. legal system by by working Double judgmentsare demandedin that both positiveand negative questionsof guilt or lack of it are demandedfrom the oracles.Oracles are rankedaccording to the political powerof the owner,with that of the king most important.Legal, social, and political authoritystem ultimately from a single centralizedpolitical structure. The religioussystemrests upon an ultimatehigh god whosework is validated creation but naturespiritsarenot present. by myths.Ancestralspiritsareimportant A complexunderstanding of the soul providesthat one of its manifestationsbecomesthe totem animal.Magic is an everydayand all-pervading concern.Witches are accountedfor by a magic substancein the body which grows with the person and which is the ultimate cause of all misfortunes,illness and death; the witchsubstance goes to the body of the victimand eats the fleshof the soul. Witches are of the poisonoracle.Secretsocieties,a relatively soughtout throughthe mechanism new featureof the culture,are formed for protectionagainst magic and are participatedin by men, women,and children.At presentsuch societiesare organized primarily againstthe chiefs andEuropeans. Folklore includestricksterstories in which the spiderplays a prominentrole, as well as proverbsand other forms of oral literature.Musical instrumentsare varied,includingdrums,gongs, bells, lutes, lyres,harps,trumpets,and others;the musical style has not been the subject of detailed research.The graphic and plastic arts are complex; house painting and wood carving are particularly important. The Mangbetu-Azande cluster is characterized particularly by its centralized which a who features is the state and who has great political organization king of a mode a clan with and life, special privileges,certain prestige special chiefly features of clan organization,a probablymutually intelligible language, and a commonmaterialculture.Of somewhatlesserimportance as a distinguishingfeature is the magic system,characterized of It should be pointed the use oracles. by out that historicevidenceemphasizes the existenceof the cluster,although it was createdafter the movementof the two groupsinto the areanow occupied.
THELUBA

The originalpopulationof the area now inhabitedby the Luba was probably pygmoid,subjectedat an unknownperiodto invasionsof other populationsfrom the north, probablythe Kivu area, and possibly ultimately from Ethiopia. The

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Songe,Kunda,and Bui peoplessettledin the northern portionof the present from of and a series and territory, empires-theSonge Bui, founded by Kongolo, the Kunda,and the Kileondja-theLubaemerged. The presentpopulation of a rather subracial varied mixture. 1,400,000 represents approximately The habitat of plainslyingat approximately consists 1500-1600 ft andcut by the Lubilashi, and Lualaba Manioc is rivers. the subsistence Lomani, primary and maize other domesticated animals are usedfor and staple, supported by crops, feastsandas tribute. Maizebeer,andmilk,eggs,andsomegameobtained from is the diet; food storageis practiced; out hunting, supplement hunting carried theuseof weapons, andbushburning, andnetsareusedfor fishing. through traps, areplaced in a semicircle to formthevillage uniton theplains. Dwellings Clothing is of raffia andskins,andtattooing is practiced bodypainting by women; primarily in white is considerable Men'shairdress andredis found, andthere ornamentation. is elaborate; women's hairis shaved. andweavSmithing, wood-working, basketry, The kingor thecrafts; utilitarian arenot usually decorated. ingareamong objects chief is the theoretical land owner,but the headsof familiesare the ultimate distributors. thechiefly, freepersons, classdistinctions, features The social including system The basicsocialunitappears andslaves. andtribes, andclientvillages freedslaves andmatrilineal descent arefoundamong bothpatrilineal to betheextended family; with also is the tribes. the various form, marriage monogamy preferred Polygyny of and a involves and system bridewealth; complex longlasting practiced, marriage in marriage andsexualrelations beforemarriage of the girl is obligatory consent of bridewealth. involves redistribution Secretsocieties are Divorce arepermitted. theirpresence or absence cannotbe finally in the literature, although suggested of hunters associations and dancers whichrely There are, however, confirmed. does not The literature indicate the on sanctions. of clearly presence heavily magic from the social the it that is extended clans; probable goesdirectly system family
to the politicalunits.

fromtheindividual to the family, Thepolitical extended ranges upward system and tribe. The of leader province, majorpolitical family,village,group villages, chief whose or the absolute in is is the king,where power theory strictly present, includeornament, feathers in the coiffure, in fact. Chiefly necklimited insignia instruments, royalarms,and a cane.The peoplecontribute laces,belts,musical and roadwork,and a constant laborin the formof house-building, portaging, the leader. The judiciary of tribute reaches flow political systemis tied upward includes in withsocialandpolitical and fines,mutilation, leadership; punishment

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death. The political system supports a professionalmilitary staff, but not proand militarytacticsare used. fessionalcommonsoldiers,and fortification the is a art Luba, and dance is especiallyimamong Woodcarving complex which utilizes the call and response drums and by song by portant,accompanied of the chief most dance is individualistic. pattern; Special instruments expression include xylophones,gongs, two or three kinds of drums,and in addition double are used. Little is bells, rattles,flutes, and severalstringedand wind instruments knownof the oralliterature. Evidence for a Luba cluster rests largely upon the history of the groups inalso seems to be the volved and upon languagesimilarities. Of specialimportance of the to culture Luba ability synthesizecontrasting patterns,apparentlywithout feature Thus there is both patrilinealand matridominant. any single becoming lineal organization, in with the two apparently merged the politicalstructure;and other elementsof the cultureshow the same synthesisof contrastingtraits.
THE KONGO

The Kongokingdomwas formerlyboundedby the Kwiluin FrenchEquatorial Africa on the north, the Atlantic Ocean on the west, the Kwango River on the east, and the KwanzaRiver in Angola on the south. The origin of the people is said to be Lake Tchad, and the Kongo themselvesclaim that no one was in the evidence presentarea when they reachedit, althoughthere is some archaeological to the contrary.The Kongo apparentlymoved into the Kasai region about 500 AD, and duringthe next 300 yearsmovedwestward;by 1150 AD they were west along the CongoRiverto the Atlantic Ocean and werein this locationwhenDiego the mouth of the Congo in 1482. In approximately 1550 AD Cao "discovered" the Yaka beganpushingthe Kongo westwardfrom the southeastinto their present location,and there is also evidenceof internalmigrationwhich accounts for the formationof the varioustribal divisions.The five major tribeswhich formed the Kingdomof Kongo were the Mbamba,Mpemba,Mbata, Nsundi, and Mpangu; the Kingdomwas at its height from 1300-1500.The reignof Christiankings took 1500-1650,whilethe periodfrom 1650-1885was marked place fromapproximately and by competition disruptionduring which the kingdom split into three major factions. In 1885 the Portuguesetook over as political administrators, but at its the of was a cultural and height, political,social, Kingdom Kongo reality. The social organizationof the Kongo is based upon matrilineal,exogamous, probablynon-totemicclans, with some evidenceof a lineage structure.Clans are consideredimmortal,survivingalthough there are no living members,and each clan is identifiedby a nameconsistingof somesix or eight spokenlines which form

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a sortof rallying The avunculate is present, andpolygyny is the cryfor members. form. Bridewealth is an of and preferred marriage important part marriage, gifts are exchanged overa considerable is short,the periodof time;if the marriage bridewealth mustbereturned ondivorce ordeath. Divorce is obtainable ongrounds of barrenness, and some other causes. incompatibility, adultery, Kinshiptermiis Slaves were taken for debts and or by nology classificatory. misdemeanors, in war or and could work for themselves and their ambush, capture repurchase in some slaves were members of their own clan. freedom; cases, repurchased by Womenoccupya relatively statusin the society;in somecases, high unofficial female chiefsareappointed handovertheiroffice to a male although theyusually The socialclassesat the heightof the Kingdom relative. werethe King,councillors, nobility, chiefs of towns, court officers,the aristocracy,commoners,and slaves. In politicalorganization, the king was electedby the nobilityfrom a royal clan in the matrilineal succession.His principalprerogatives were expressed in his judiciarypowerwhichcontinuedeven after politicalcontrolhad slipped;althoughhis powersover the people were of life and death in theory, in practicehe was dependent on their good will. A number of court officerssupportedthe king, ina personalvalet, tax collectors,a primeminister,councillors, cluding messengers, and others.Clan chiefs were selectedfrom the oldest line; successionwas both to the officeand to the propertyof the deceased.In theory the chief owns the land it to clan members. His authorityis limitedby the people,who can and distributes deposehim. The economicbasisis agriculture; manioc,yams,peanuts,bananas,sugar cane, and palm productsare the majorcrops. Men clear the ground and prepareit for planting, while womenwork and harvestthe crops;the produceis consideredthe propertyof the women.Land is ownedby the clan throughthe ancestors;natural boundariesmark the individualplots. Agriculturalproduce is supplementedby huntingdoneby the meneitheraloneor in groups,with or withoutbelleddogs, and beaters,animalcries,and other techniques. using spears,bow and arrow,crossbow, Both men and womenfish, using poison, dams, and basket traps. Specialistswith assistantsare found in housebuilding,smithing, and woodworking;payment is made in goods. Men carve,weave,and are smiths;womenmake pottery and baskets. There is also specializationof labor along clan lines, and the major trades at the king's court. Small rotatingmarketsat four-dayintervals were represented are found, as well as larger regionalmarkets,in both cases strictly controlledby fixed rules of conductand functioningas social and political,as well as economic centers.Intertribaltrade takes place, and cloth, gunpowder,salt, copperand lead

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billets, copperwire,and blue glass beads formerlyservedas mediaof exchangein units of five. Villages are organizedin parallelrowsalong two or threestreetsand walls of vegetable form made of prefabricated housesare in squareor rectangular materialand wooden posts. Houses are painted where possible; there is also a village guest house, houses for ancestral images, cult houses, and stables for animals. The religioussystemis basedupon a high god, Nzambi, who createdthe world and objects and animalswithin it, and has since retired;there is no pantheonof lessergods. There are a few naturespirits,primarilyof waterand the sea, but the ancestralspirits form part of the communityof the living. The ghosts of good people remainnear the living; those of malevolentpeople are doomedto wander eternallywithout lodging, and many cause trouble for the living. There is some belief in an afterlife on the moon or sun. Some personsare witcheswithoutawareness of the fact; the poisonordealis used to determinetheir culpability.Diviners, sorcerers,and doctors form an importantpart of the society, and there are two major secret societies based on religious cults, as well as bachelors'clubs and circumcision lodges. and stools,headrests, Carvedwoodenfigures,possibleportraitsculpture, combs, and otherwoodenobjectsareproduced; thereareno masks.Potteryand clay-baked figurines,as well as carvedcalabashesare made; house painting forms a part of the graphicarts.Musicalinstruments includedrums,as well as gongs, bells, rattles, and other idiophones,and the lokombi, the five-stringedharp, is an important Folkloreincludeslegends,myths,andproverbs. instrument. The Kongo cluster is postulatedon the basis of seven major points: (1) the commonhistoric origin of the tribes, as evidencedby the mythology as well as Portugueserecords; (2) a commonhistoryfollowing the origin of the Kingdom; (3) commonlegendswhich,despitethe splittinginto tribesin the early historyof the Kingdom,point up the generalculturaland politicalrelationships;(4) the lack of invasionby other tribes,except for the Yaka; (5) the strengthof the political kingdom; (6) evidence of common material and nonmaterialculture of the people; (7) the fact that the neighborsof the Kongo are sharplydistinguishable and differentiated on all sides.
THEKUBA

The Kuba people, whose domain lies in the Kasai area of the Congo, are constitutedof a numberof units includingthe Kuba proper,Shilele, Wongo, and others;populationfigures in 1947 showed 73,211 Kuba, 25,978 Shilele, and approximately1,780 Wongo. Oral traditionspertainingto the group are numerous, and the genealogiesof the Kubakings go back 123 or 124 pointsin the succession,

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with the rule of the 93rd king dated somewherebetween 1600 and 1610. Many theoriesexist as to the source of the group, the most likely placing their origin somewhere towardthe west coast near the Kongo area.Their presentlocationwas possibly originally inhabitedby Mongo and pygmoid peoples whom the Kuba subjugatedand made part of their kingdom.The majorityof materialavailable the Mbala. appliesto the Kubagroupproper,particularly The basic social unit is the matrilinealexogamousclan; the residentalunit is the lineage which lives together in a particularportion of the village. Kinship terminologyis classificatory, running along generationallines, with parallel and cross-cousins distinguished. type; the Polygynyis at presentthe preferredmarriage is not some other bridewealth and marriagesystem complex,although obligations are assumed.The couvadeis practiced,as is circumcision. Twins are honoredand the birth of an albino is consideredto bring great fortune.Residenceis not fixed. Divorceis relativelysimpleand involvesreturnof the bridewealth unlessthe action is initiatedby the husband.A family in debt may contractmarriagefor a daughter for large bridewealth; the marriagemay be terminated of the brideby repayment wealth.Initiationceremonies for boysincludebushschools;thereis someindication of age.grading. Inheritance followsthe matrilineal line, and the levirateis practiced initiated in high-bridewealth marriage.Internalslavery by debt or as punishment for adulterywasformerlypracticed. is based,in ascendingorder,upon the eldest lineagechief Politicalorganization of the villagewhosepoweris nominal,two specialchiefs each of whomadministers one of the geographicalvillage halves, a group of villages, the district, and the king of the Kuba at Mushenge.The king ruleswith the aid of a councilmade up female relativesof the of land-titlednotables,armyleaders,guild representatives, king, and a son of a formerking, as well as two specialdignitariesof considerable power.Successionto the kingship follows the matrilinealline to the sister'ssons. of the supernatural; his feet The King is considered divine and the representative are placed upon him. are not allowed to touch the ground and other restrictions The Queen Mother,whosepositionis of an even more sacrednature,is consulted in matters of state. Justice is carriedout by district and lesser chiefs, and by special judges at the King's court; cases of murdermust be tried at the central tribunal.Oracles and the use of the poison ordeal figure in judiciaryprocedure. The religioussystemis basedupon a supremebeing who createdthe worldand all within it and who is now remote from living beings. There is no mention of nature spirits in the literature,but the ancestralcult is strong. Ancestorsremain near their original villages, and are consideredto guide the oracles. A complex systemof divinationemploysspecialistsin specifictypes of cases, and the bodies

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of sorcerersare thought to contain a special element which lingers after death. Magiciansare organizedas specialistsand teach the trade through an apprentice system.Secretsocietiesand a numberof large festivalsare found althoughthereis not muchinformation on theseaspectsof the culture. The economicsystemis basedupon agriculture, with the cultivationof manioc and maize,as well as othercrops,carriedout by the womenof a lineagewho work togetherin the fields. Granariesare used for food storage.Hunting by the men is collective and probablyof more social than economicimportance.Fishing is carriedon by womenand children,and those groups living on the riversfish professionally.Small domesticatedanimalsare kept. Industriesare markedby specializationof weavers,smiths,salt-makers, musicians,dancers,and others;there is also tribalspecialization, and all such industriesare carriedout by men. There is both internaland externaltrade, the latter carriedon with the Mongo and Luba primarily.Women are dominantin the market place, although men also trade there. There is some cross-trade in copperwhich is receivedfrom the Benalulua and tradedon to the Mongo. Money is found in the form of cowriesand copper bars. Houses are rectangularwith matworkwalls and thatched roofs, and are organized into small villages usually in parallel rows along a central street. head Clothing consistsof raffiaand bark cloth, and body painting, scarification, shaving and incisorremovalare practiced.Land belongs to the entire group and is not alienable;the chief receivespart of the produceof the land as tribute. The Kuba are notable for their art work, which includes woodworking, matwork,basketry,raffiacloth, and mask-making. Design weaving,embroidery, include the five-stringed tends to be geometric.Musical instruments lokombi,the double gong, drum, trumpets,and xylophones,but little is known of the musical are a part of the oral literature. style. Origin myths,legends,and proverbs The Kuba are consideredto be a cluster on the basis of a commonculture, mythologicaltraditions which draw them together, and their marked cultural differencesfrom their neighborsincludingthe Mongo on the north, the Luba on the east and south,and the Pendeto the west.
THE MAMVU-LESE

on the The Mamvu-Lese group is wedged in betweenthe Mangbetu-Azande southwestand north, the Logo on the east, and the pygmies on the south. Its populationof 158,000in 1940 had droppedto some 60,000 in 1950, due primarily to diseaseand to migrationto Uganda. Its historyis one of continualdefeat by in the originalhome, the upper Umbomu, its neighbors,beginningwith pressures whichdrovethe peopledown from the northwestbefore the great Bantu invasions

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of the 17th and 18th centuries.It is felt that in their present country, which is mountainous and rough,the Mamvu-Lese found an areain whichthey could make a stand and beat off their attackers.The origin of the tribes,mythologically, goes back to a male and female who had five sons, named Mamvu, Lese, Mangutu, Mvuba, and probablyBira; the people have no communalname for themselves, usinginsteadclannames. The economy is based upon hoe cultivation with the principal crops yams, bananas,manioc,and beans;cash cropstoday includerice and cotton. In addition, the Mamvu-Lese are noted for their cultivationof the oil palm and for theirskill in animalhusbandry.Hunting is not of particularimportance but the individual uses poison arrowsand traps,and in fishing,nets and dugouts are employed.The divisionof laborappearsto be in some respectscontraryto that practicedin most of sub-Saharan Africa, since agricultureis the work of men while womenremain in the home and are not allowed to leave the village for fear of attack. Women make pottery,while men carvein ivory and wood. There are no markets,but both internaland externaltrade exist in iron, goats, palm oil, and other products.The with the pygmieswho supply Mamvu-Lese haveestablished a symbiotic relationship them with meat in exchangefor bananasand vegetables.Iron, hoes, and axes may function as a money system.There are two major house types: (1) cone-shaped with the roof reachingthe ground,and with two levels, the upperfor sleeping,the lower for daily living; (2) a conical house of bent tree branchessimilar to that made by the pygmies.In addition,granariesand goat houses are built, as well as a meetinghousein the centerof the village. Houses are arrangedeitherin parallel rows or around a central square.While the material culture is not particularly head elongation,tooth filing, complex,the economicsystemis rich. Cicatrization, ear lobe perforation,and head shavingare all practiced.Clothing is of bark cloth, with specialcoloredcloths used for ceremonial purposes;hats, bracelets,and arm are also worn. bands is basedupon the localizedexogamousvillage Social and politicalorganization it clear whetherthis group is organizedas a make not does groups; the literature and social, political, and is The unit three-generational, lineage or clan structure. for the oldest grandfatherwho is responsible judicialauthorityis in the hands of is owned Land the intimate knowledge and history of the group. communally, On the death of the leader, althoughsome authorsindicateindividualownership. his goods are distributedto the individualsin the unit. There is some questionas to whethera totem animalexists,althoughit is sometimesheld that the soul of a good person becomes a totem animal after death, while that of an evil person althoughpolygynyis present;there Monogamypreponderates, simplydisappears.

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is no levirateor sororate.The kinshipsystemis classificatory, but no more precise is most of found. The functions the description kinshipunits occur at important this is the time the and Lese Mamvu come marriage; only together. Marriageis but father's brother. the Bridewealth,which is not very patrilocal, arrangedby of involves the iron extensive, usually exchange goods.Divorceis raresincewomen, and especiallybarrenwomen,are considered to have supernatural powers;whereit the reasons occurs, are, however,barrenness, principal impotency,and adultery. Circumcisionrites for boys take place between the ages of six and twelve, and there is a separateinitiation,and history,customsand religion of the group are taught at this time; initiatesare also allowedto see the sacredmusicalinstruments. One of the most importantfeaturesof Mamvu-Lese life is the preoccupation with the afterlife and transmigration of the soul. There is a supremebeing who createdthe worldand all withinit, but who has since retiredfrom active participation in it; ceremonies are directedtowardhim only in cases of severe crisis. It is that a possible group of lesser gods supports the high gods. Forest and water spiritsare found in variousforms,and ancestralspirits form an importantpart of the religiouscomplex.Magic is carriedon throughdiviners,oracles,and sorcerers in a pattern like that of the Azande. Secret societies also resemblethose of the Azande. Musical instrumentsare divided into sacred and profane classes, the former including mirlitons,small drums made from tree trunks, whistles, wooden and ivory bells, and the morendu,an instrumentnot describedin the literature,the latter including three kinds of drums, wooden gongs, the musical bow, ground bow, five stringedlyre, eight stringedharp, ivory trumpets,and whistles.Song is used on a great varietyof occasions,but no description of musicalstyle is known. There is little developmentof the graphic and plastic arts; what is present is stronglyinfluencedby the Mangbetuand Azande forms. Oral literatureincludes exists. legends,myths,and fables,but little documentation The Mambu-Lese group can be considereda cluster within itself or as a subcluster of the Mangbetu-Azande group. In support of the former view is the lack of centralized social and political organizationand the orientation complete of all such activitytowardthe local village unit as a social,economic,and political entity, and some secondaryfeaturessuch as the initiationgroups, the use of the the sacredmusicalinstruments, the great concernwith the soul, and the bullroarer, with the pygmies.On the otherhand,the culturehas clearly symbioticrelationship been heavilyinfluencedby the Mangbetu-Azande and bearsconsiderable relationto in material culture. ship it, especially

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The Waregagroupin the eastern an areaof heavy, Congoinhabits hillyrain to belongto the second of the threemajorBantu forest;its originis considered wavesfromthe northeast. that Ethiopia is It is sometimes migration postulated theultimate in of of in that as view the known well area, point origin Legagroup as a second is composed of the The Waregacluster LegagroupnearLakeAlbert. in some of the and the and addition Bembe, BongoWarega Songolo,Zemba, andTuku, the last of whichis not a geographically contiguous Bongo,Babuye, group. The economy carried includes basedon a slash-and-bum technique agriculture out withhoe andknife,whichproduces maize,hemp, bananas, manioc, peanuts, thelatter andhunting, Thisis supplemented withgathering cane,andbeans. sugar is an individual more than quiteprobably process important agriculture. Hunting the use of bowandarrow, knife,traps,birdlimes,andsomenets. through spear, animals include is carried on bybothmenandwomen; domesticated Fishing goats, a meeting with in two parallel rows sheepand chickens. Villagesare organized at oneendof themain house Housesarerectangular andmadeof a wooden street. consists barkwalls,anda leaf roof;thereis no housedecoration. frame, Clothing of barkcloth;ornamentation for men and women, coiffures elaborate includes leatherskull caps for Bwamemembers, knives,bandson the upperarm,body Womenare in chargeof the agricultural and tattooing. work,gather, coloring, in magic,sculpmendo ironwork,andaresometimes andarepotters; specialists ture,songand dance,as well as house-building, huntingand otheroccupations. in the literature littlematerial Thereis relatively organiconcerning political later authors zation.The earliest speakof a greatchief and a fief organization, of segmentary authors central authors of an elaborate court,andthe mostrecent In anycasethere on a lineage structure. based unitsanda stateless society political in judiciary matters. of elderson all levels,particularly are chiefsand councils in death. and extreme Theft is a major crime cases, banishment, fines, by punished is into the lineages and the Bwameorganizations A two-part socialdivision is segmentary with a the structure of the Warega.In the former, characteristic virilocal is endogamous, branches. Clanorganization nuclear andaffiliated lineage into new and the clansare constantly and patrilineal, groups.The splintering women all men and to and withmembership Bwame is a graded association open an Bwame as individual and within the is honored One internally. severely graded is characterized of his lineagegroup.The association as a representative by infor other of and ceremony exchange goods songs,initiations, signia,rites,dances, of a involves The initiation eachinternal high degree gift exceremony grade.

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elaborate;the associationis featured by a great change and is extraordinarily numberof complicated and rights prerogatives. The religiousstructure is characterized by two high gods, one of whom,Kalaga, is still active in the universe;the second,Kianga,simplyexists.There are creation myths involving Kalaga, and there is also some personal contact with him involving individualsacrifice.Nature spirits of the sky, particularlythe moon and sun, are a part of the system,but the ancestralcult does not seem to be of great importance.Few souls survive after death, and those that do are almost always bad, appearinglater in dreamsand causingtrouble.Magic, medicine,and divination roles are combinedin a single individualwho, however,is not a specialist There arealso sorcerers whoperformevil magic. economically. The Warega are noted for their ivory sculptureof small figurinesand masks; Proverbsare associated phallic symbols and circle-dotdesign are characteristic. with tangible objects.Dance is common,and musical instruments include drums struck with ivory sticks, message gongs, zithers, horns, ocarinas,flutes, rhythm sticks, likembes,and iron gongs; there are no music specialists.It has been noted that the arts tend to stress sorrow,the cruelty of the world, and the need for andsobriety. prudence of a commonorigin, origin The Warega clusteris characterized by awareness myths, and certain cultural features, including bananas as a staple crop, the and freedomof and respectfor women. of two high gods, ivorysculptures presence Perhapsmost importantis the emphasisplaced on the system of social grading within the associations,as well as the importanceand complexityof social relationshipsin general, coupled with a relative lack of interest in the supernatural world.
THE YAKA-PENDE

The Yaka-Pendegroupinvestigated includedthesetribes,as well as the Mbala, Yanzi, Bunda,Kwese,and others,and on the evidenceavailableit is not considered to be a cluster.The groupsinvolvedhave separateoriginsand histories,and there has apparently been no commonpoliticalrule unless it was as states of the Lunda even in the latter case, the peoplesof the area remainedseparatestates. kingdom; are marked,as for examplein the plastic arts, and thereseem Culturaldifferences to be few reasonsfor linkingthe groupstogether. While it is conceivable that all the peoplesof the KwiluBasincould be grouped a as the literature does not indicatethis as a definiteprobability. cluster, together The area is one into whichvariouspeoplesmovedunderpressurefrom the Kongo kingdomon the west, the Lunda kingdomand the Badjok on the south, and the Kubakingdomon the northeast. These unrelatedpeoplesof diverseorigindid not

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unite politically under ordinarycircumstances, but rather fought among themselves for possessionof the land. The Kwilu, further, is an area within which area are practically single, concentrated groupingsof peoplewithin a well-defined non-existent;instead, almost every group is scattered in small pockets among similarenclavesof otherpeople. amountof diffusion At the sametime, therehas apparently beena considerable of scatteredcultureelementsfrom one group to another,particularlyalong adjacent boundaries.This borrowing,however,was more or less promiscuous,and there does not seem to be any single major source of borrowedelements for any group, although some influenceshave diffused over relativelywide areas within certainreligiousbeliefs such the region,as for example,the craft of metal-working, as the recognitionof Moloki, the evil spirit, and practicesof body painting and these variouselementsare is not clear ornamentation. How deep and widespread at present. On eitherbasis,then-the groupingof Yaka and Pende,or of the Kwilu Basin does not make it possibleto postulateclusters. peoplesin general-our information Each groupin the areahas retainedits identityas a peopleand has kept separately its history and the record of its fortunes among its neighbors.Even within the scatteredpocketsof a given people,independent identityis emphageographically The other traits. and of sized by name, recognition origin, groups in the area do or descent be one to not feel themselves and, despite the people, politically by on the basis of it does not evidencesof culturalborrowing, presentknowlappear is edge, at least,that clusterorganization present.
GENERALCONSIDERATIONS

The previousdiscussionhas indicatedsix cultureclustersin the Belgian Congo -the Mongo, Mangbetu-Azande, Luba, Kongo, Kuba, and Warega; one group which is perhaps best describedon the basis of present information as a suband one groupingwhich is not considereda cluster, the cluster,the Mamvu-Lese, of thesevariousgroups,a numberof comments Yaka-Pende.Froman examination and problems suggestthemselves. One of these concernsthe literatureupon whichthis informationis based.The sourcesfor the Belgian Congo are at best spotty, both in respectto their coverage and perhapsparticularly,in respect to their date of publication.Relatively few of recentdate are available,and in many cases the ethnologistmust monographs ratherthan trained and missionaries rely for his informationupon administrators social scientists.For this reason,primarily,the above groupingof culture clusters

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for it is believed to further is considered tentative andsubject revision, although sources of lack of contemporary But the problem the mostpartaccurate. using here. is sharply outlined method anthropological contemporary of is alsoof varying culture for the various Ourinformation quantity aspects conlittle definiteinformation and quality.In aesthetic life, thereis relatively state At the of oral with the literature, present exception proverbs. cerning possible of our knowledge, it wouldbe difficult, indeed,to summarize typicalincidents, to be known little in and and characters and tale, appears very legend, plots, myth but art is of otherliterary Information such as riddles. better, concerning types and muchremains to belearned theartist, about about aesthetics, creativity, styles, in the Congohas beenfairlyextensive, othersimilar Musicrecording problems. on the butlittleanalytical workhasbeendone,andmusical stylesarelittleknown to the ethnolocallevel.Thereis verylittle information on danceof assistance is known of drama. andvirtually choreographer, nothing aremuchmorewidespread material culture Studiesof economic and systems the andaccurate, economic anda considerable of unityis to benotedamong degree all of the tribesstudiedhere.Thus, with the exception Warega, are perhaps with the diet agriculturalists, hunting,fishing,and gathering. supplementing andcrafts of trades and or all include Almost specialists semi-specialists, a number economic mark the other traits and are found. Markets,money,gift-giving, of the studied here. of mostpeoples Congo organization belt is emphamatrilineal the presence of the southern In socialorganization, is the whichneedsfurtherinvestigation, sized.A problem however, systemof of politicalpower,whichslideshorizontally along the inheritance, particularly beforemovingto the sucis exhausted, line until that generation generational The literature indicates clearlythe lack of contemporary ceedinggeneration. in andof the detailsof the socialstructure studiesof lineage generally; systems to be gained,and the clan-lineage no information somecases,thereis virtually undiscussed. is virtually problem for futureinvestigation. a major therearises In political problem organization, of large,centralized the Congoseemsto be an areaof kingdoms, poPrimarily, theselarge Yet among andothers. theKongo, liticalunits,as among Kuba, Luba, withno suchas theMongoandtheMamvu-Lese unitsexistgroups andcentralized if is the for this? reason is the What whatsoever. What, any, politicalunity of different two these between organizations? political types strikingly relationship to be foundin the studyof the religious central Thereis a similar problem of pantheons of the absence This concerns the of of the Congo. peoples system in to the Guinea Coast contrast all the almost for a fact indicated groups; gods,

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that the culturesof these two this respectis striking, and it will be remembered areasare so similarbasicallythat Herskovitsonce includedthem in the samearea.7 What reasonscan we learn for this absenceof pantheonsof gods? Where is the dividingline betweenthe GuineaCoast and the Congo areain this respect? Finally,we havea relativelyclearidea of the originof most of the groupsnoted in this paper;with the exceptionof the Kuba who came from the west, most have reachedtheir presentareas from the north and primarilyfrom the east. If this be the case, how can we explain the close cultural affinityof the Congo tribes with those of the west ratherthan those of the east? Does this point up an ultimate easternorigin for the peoples of the Guinea Coast, or does it indicate that the classicEast African cattle culturewas not formed until a relativelylate date? Is there a strongersuggestionthan we might suspect that the habitat has played a Congo cultures?What is the historic majorrole in the formationof contemporary basisfor the close culturalrelationship of the peoplesof the Congo and the Guinea Coast? These, and other suggestionsand problemsemphasizethe importanceof the fact. It is hopedthat applicationof the conceptof cultureclustersto ethnographic the presentpaperwill form the basis for furtherdiscussionand will stimulatethe searchfor furtherclustersin the Congo such as the Buniabungu,the Lunda, the pygmies,the Ubangi groups,and others.
BIBLIOGRAPHY

Note: Although many sourceswere used for each group, only the principalones are given here.

The Mongo des Nkundo (Africa,vol. 21, pp. 218-223, E. Terminologie Boelaert, classificatoire 1951). des Nkundo (Congo,vol. 17, pt. 2, pp. 668-676, Hulstaert,G. Les ideesreligieuses InstitutRoyalColonialBelge, Section Le mariagedes Nkundo (Bruxelles: Memoires in 8?, tome8, 1938). Moraleset Politiques, des Sciences InstitutRoyalColonialBelge,Secvan derKerken, G. L'ethnie Mongo (Bruxelles: Memoires in 8?, tome 13, fasc. 1-3; tion des SciencesMoraleset Politiques, vol. 1, pt. 1, bks.1-3,1944). Religion,scienceet magie au pays des Mongo (Bruxelles:Institut Royal vol. 9, pt. 2, pp. 202-292,1938). Colonial Belge,Bulletindes Seances, TheMangbetu-Azande Bauman,Herman Die MaterielleKultur der Azande und Mangbetu (Baessler ArchivfurVolkerkunde, vol. 11, 1927).
7 Melville J. Herskovits, A Preliminary Consideration of the Culture Areas of Africa (American Anthropologist, vol. 26, pp. 50-63, 1924).

1936).

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Baxter,P., and A. Butt The Azandeand RelatedPeoplesof the Anglo-Egyptian Sudanand BelgianCongo (London:International AfricanInstitute,Ethnoof Africa,EastCentral Africa,pt. 9, 1953). graphic Survey E. E. Witchcraft, andMagicamongtheAzande(Oxford: Evans-Pritchard, Oracles, Clarendon Press,1937). A. Histoiredespeuplades de l'Uele et de l'Ubangi (Bruxelles: Hutereau, Goemaere, Bibliotheque Congo,1922). Collection de Overbergh, Cyrilvan, and Ed. de JongheLes Mangbetu(Bruxelles: vol.4, 1909). Monographies Ethnographique, The Luba A. La corporation des chasseurs Baluba(Zaire,vol. 8, pp. 563-594,1954). Bouillon, de Colle, Rev. Les Baluba (Bruxelles:Robertde Wit et l'InstitutInternational Collectionde Monographies nos. 10, 11, Bibliographie, Ethnographiques, 1913:2 vols.). de Marchovelette, E. d'OrjoLa Divinationchez les Balubaau moyendu 'Lubuko' ou du 'Katakola' vol.8, pp.487-505,1954). (Zaire, EdmundBalubaet Balubaises du Katanga(Antwerp: L'Avenir Verhulpen, Belge, 1936). chezeux (Luxembourg, Weydert, JeanLesBalubas 1938). TheKongo KarlThe Kongo,I (Stockholm: StudiaEthnographica vol. 4, Laman, Upsaliensia, The Kongo,II (Stockholm: StudiaEthnographica vol. 8, 1957). Upsaliensia, Philippart,L. Le Bas-Congo(Louvain:Imprimerie Saint-Alphonse, 1929). Van Wing, R. P. Etudes Goemaere, Bakongo(Bruxelles: 1921). Weeks,JohnH. AmongthePrimitive Bakongo(London: Seeley,Service,1914). The Kuba Tew, MaryAlternateGenerations amongthe Lele of the Kasai,South-west Congo (Africa,vol. 22, pp. 59-65,1952). A Formof Polyandry amongthe Leleof the Kasai(Africa,vol. 21, pp. 1-12, 1951). Torday,EmilThe Influences of the Kingdom of Kongoon Central Africa (Africa, vol. 1,pp. 157-179, 1928). surles peuples communement Torday,Emil,andT. A. JoyceNotes ethnographiques Les Bushongo appeles Bakuba,ainsi que sur les peupladesapparentees. Anthro(Bruxelles:Annales du Musee du Congo Belge, Ethnographie, pologie,serie4, tome2, fasc. 1, 1910). AfricanInstitute,EthnoVansina,J. Les tribusBa-Kuba(London:International graphic Surveyof Africa,CentralAfrica,BelgianCongo,pt. 1, 1954). The Mamvu-Lese A. Azande(Bruxelles: Calonne-Beaufaict, Lamertin, 1921).
1953).

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A. Histoiredespeuplades de l'Uele et de l'Ubangi (Bruxelles: Hutereau, Goemare, Bibliotheque Congo,1922). Bacomrier, Lelong,O. P. Mesfreresdu Congo(Alger:Editions 1946). Schweinfurth, Leow,Marston, GeorgeIn the Heart of Africa (London:Sampson, vol.2, 1873). Searle, vanGeluwe, H. Mamvu-Mangutu et Balese-Mvuba African International (London: of Central Institute,Ethnographic Africa, Africa, Survey BelgianCongo, pt. 3, 1957). The Warega D. La monnaieMusangades Balega (Zaire,vol. 7, pp. 675-686,1953). Biebuyck, et droitsdu pangolin chezles Balega (Zaire,vol. 7, pp. 899-924, Repartitions 1953). Burk,EllenI. The LegaSchoolof Circumcision (Zaire,vol. 10, pp. 375-377,1956). Les Warega (Bruxelles:Albert de Wit et l'Institut Delhaize, Le Commandant International de Monographies de Bibliographie, Collection Ethnographiques, no. 5, 1909). Orientale des Bantousde la Province Moeller,A. Lesgrandes lignesdes migrations du Congo Beige (Bruxelles:Institut Royal Colonial Belge, Section des Morales Sciences et Politiques, vol. 6, 1936). The Yaka-Pende secretes M. Lessocieties chezles Bayaka(Louvain: Kuyl-Otto,1930). Plancquaert, des Bapendeet des Bambunda(Congo,vol. 1, pp. 667-670, Struyf,I. Migrations 1931). Anof the Southwestern CongoFreeState (Journal, Torday,E. On the Ethnology vol. 37, 133-156, Institute, 1907). pp. thropological of the Bayaka (Journal, Torday,E., and T. A. JoyceNotes on the Ethnography vol. 278-299, 36, Institute, 1906). pp. Anthropological Van de GinsteAnthropometric Study on the Bapendeand Basuku,with Notes on of Physical Habitatand History (American n.s., vol. Anthropology, Journal 4, pp. 125-152, 1946).
UNIVERSITY NORTHWESTERN ILLINOIS EVANSTON,