Best Welding Practices (Pernis) : Doel / Scope

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BBS handleiding 04.05.9030
HANDLEIDING
BEST WELDING PRACTICES (PERNIS)
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Nee Nee Ja Nee Nee
Comm. Index : Risico : Classificatie : HSE kritisch : Referentie :
n.v.t. M Unrestricted Ja 04.03.2030
Doel / scope
To give background information/rules for the best practices of welding, experience gained from the past. It is a supplement for DEP 30.10.60.18 GEN Welding of metals, in which this part is deleted. In BBS doc 04.00.4052 Amendment to DEP-Gen requirements and reference are given to this doc. Materials, Corrosion & Welding Engineers, Inspection, Welding Inspectors, Shop, Contractors. CEI/2, REA/2 M. Het niet opvolgen van deze werkinstructie heeft als consequentie dat best practices niet worden gebruikt. Laatste revisie A Datum 27-01-2011 Reden First issue, document 04.00.2030 has been renumbered.
Doelgroep
Toetsers Risico
Revisie info
Meer revisie info
Inhoudsopgave
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.
ACTIVITEITENBESCHRIJVING.......................................................... 3 REFERENTIE...................................................................................... 3 BEST WELDING PRACTICES GENERAL .......................................... 3 WELDING QUALITY ........................................................................... 4 WELDING OF CARBON STEELS WITH UTS < 490 MPA................ 14 WELDING C-STEELS WITH UTS > 490 MPA .................................. 19 RUN OUT LENGTH/VELOCITY OF FINE GRAINED STEELS ......... 25 WELDING GUIDELINES FOR INSERT PLATES.............................. 28 WELDING LOW ALLOY CHROME MOLYBDENUM STEELS .......... 31
10. PRE-HEAT AND POST WELD HEAT TREATMENT ........................ 38 11. WELDING OF LOW ALLOY NICKEL STEELS ................................. 41 12. WELDING OF AUSTENITIC STAINLESS STEELS .......................... 44 13. WELDING OF SUPER AUSTENITIC STAINLESS STEELS. ............ 49 14. WELDING OF DUPLEX AND SUPER DUPLEX STAINLESS STEELS.52 15. WELDING OF MARTENSITIC STAINLESS STEELS ....................... 56 16. WELDING OF NICKEL ALLOYS ....................................................... 59
Filenaam: 04059030.doc Rev.: A Inhoudelijk beheer: CEI/6, REA/3 Eigenaar: Voorzitter BBS proces 04 Pagina: 1 van 91 Niveau: 2
17. WELDING OF DISSIMILAR METALS ............................................... 64 18. WELDMENTS OF CLAD MATERIALS .............................................. 67 19. WELDING OF ALUMINIUM AND ITS ALLOYS ................................. 71 20. WELDING OF COPPER AND COPPER ALLOYS ............................ 74 21. WELDING OF TITANIUM, TANTALUM AND ZIRCONIUM ............... 77 22. HARDFACING................................................................................... 79 23. CAST IRON ....................................................................................... 84 24. GENERAL REQUIREMENTS FOR REPAIR WELDING ................... 85 25. PREFERRED WELDING CONSUMABLES SHELL MOERDIJK AND SHELL PERNIS................................................................................. 90
Filenaam: 04059030.doc
Rev.: A
Inhoudelijk beheer: CEI/6, REA/3 Eigenaar: Voorzitter BBS proces 04
Pagina: 2 van 91 Niveau: 2
1.
ACTIVITEITENBESCHRIJVING
In this document a background information/rules is given for the best practices of welding, experience gained from the past. It is a supplement for DEP 30.10.60.18 GEN Welding of metals, in which this part is deleted. In BBS doc 04.00.4052 Amendment to DEP-Gen requirements and reference are given to this doc.
2.
REFERENTIE
API 582 DEP 30.10.60.18-Gen BBS doc. 04.00.4052 EN ISO 3834 Welding Guidelines for the Chemical, Oil and Gas Industries Welding of Metals Amendment to API 582 Amendments to DEP 30.10.60.18-Gen Quality requirements for fusion welding of metallic materials
3.
BEST WELDING PRACTICES GENERAL

The Best Welding Practices are deleted from the Welding of Metals DEP 30.10.60.18-Gen. Shell Global Solutions International has collected these Best Practices separately but not published. Shell Pernis/ Moerdijk have these Best Welding Practices written down in this BBS document. Practical guidelines and requirements are given for the welding of: Welding Quality. Carbon steel. Run out length/velocity of fine grained steels. Welding guidelines for Insert Plates. Low alloy steel (Mn, Mo, Ni etc.). Pre-heat and Post Weld Heat Treatment temperatures by welding. Stainless steels ((super-)Austenitic, Martensitic, (super-) duplex stainless steel). Nickel alloys (Inconel, Hastelloy etc.). SS cladding on carbon steel. Dissimilar materials. Aluminium (all applicable series). Copper (and copper alloys). Titanium, Tantalum and Zirconium. Repair welding Cast Iron. General requirements for Repair Welding. Hard facing. Preferred welding consumable brands Shell Pernis and Moerdijk.
Both metallurgical and practical aspects of welding are discussed as well as the different applicable types of welding and the use of shielding gasses.
Rev.: A
4.
WELDING QUALITY
Shell International Oil Products Best Welding Practice and Procedures
4.1
INTRODUCTION Welding is considered to be a special process because the final result cannot always be entirely verified. The quality of the weld has to be manufactured into the product, not inspected. This means that welding requires continuous control and/or documented procedures to follow. Based on these circumstances the standard series EN ISO 3834 concerning quality requirements in welding has been prepared. Equivalent systems are described in the various Codes that may be used for manufacturing conform to this BWP. EN ISO 3834 is intended for arc welding of metallic materials and it is independent of products. However, the principles and many of the detailed requirements are relevant also for other welding processes, as well as welding related processes. The implementation of EN ISO 3834 may also coincide with new or revised requirements in product standards (codes etc. for welded structures and products), or more stringent requirements as regards welding procedure testing, approval testing of welders, etc. as possibly described in DEP 30.10.60.18. In all cases the latter document (DEP) is leading. Use of a standard for quality The use of a standard for control of weld quality is voluntary. It does not matter whether the standard is harmonised by a directive or enforced by any other control mechanism or not. It is just a solid basis for an organisation that in principle should be considered capable of fulfilling the requirements as set forth in DEP 30.10.60.18 and is therefore highly recommended. Sometimes it might be necessary for other reasons to follow a recognized standard (like ISO 3834), e.g. where the law on product reliability is anticipating that welding is performed properly. The EN ISO 3834 has been prepared to cover: Independency of the type of construction manufactured. Quality requirements for welding in workshops and/or site. Guidance for describing a manufacturers capability to produce constructions to meet specified requirements.
EN ISO 3834 contains many attributes that contribute to a full quality management system (QMS). This section identifies those QMS elements that the manufacturer should consider implementing to support the manufacturer's EN ISO 3834 quality requirements: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Control of documents and records. Management responsibilities and organisational structure. Provision of resources. Training, assessment and qualification of operational personnel. Assessment and qualification of processes. Determination of requirements related to the product. Review of requirements related to the product. Planning of product realization. Subcontracting, purchasing.
10. Monitoring and measurement of product. 11. Control of non-conforming product. 12. Corrective and preventive action. 13. Internal audit. 14. Customer property.
If there is any need to use one specific standard for a certain contract, this shall be stated so by the principal in the contract. 4.2 QUALITY OF WELDS A welded joint must possess those qualities which are necessary to enable it to perform its expected function in service. The joint must have the required physical and mechanical properties. It may need to have a certain microstructure and chemical composition to meet the minimum requirements. Welded joints by their nature contain discontinuities of various types and sizes. Below some predetermined acceptable level, these are not considered harmful. The acceptance levels are specified in design codes like ASME VIII div. 1 or div. 2, EN 13445 for pressure vessels and ASME B31.3, B31.4, B31.8 for piping systems. These standards may refer to supporting standards where the levels may be detailed such as ISO 5817 and ISO 10042. Control of welding production quality In order to ensure repeatable quality to be achieved in welding operations, all standards require welding procedure specifications (WPS) to be used for all welding activities. An example of such a WPS achieved through the application of WPSelect ( see DEP 30.10.60.18 of June 2003), covering all reasonable requirements of any Code is attached to this document. Type of defects/imperfections In general, imperfections may occur in welding. Depending on the welding process, position, condition, welders skill and the required weld quality, one or more of the following weld imperfections may be present in variable quantities: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Porosity. Slag inclusions. Lack of fusion. Lack of penetration. Cracks. Undercut. Oxide inclusions. Heavy metal inclusions. Shrinkage cavities.
A number of the welding defects mentioned above are more or less typical for specific welding processes. Welding defects Porosity Slag particles Lack of Fusion Lack of Penetration Cracks Undercut Oxide inclusions Heavy metal inclusions Shrinkage cavities Characteristic for welding process(es) SMAW, GMAW, GTAW, SAW, FCAW SMAW, FCAW, SAW All welding processes All welding processes without backing strip All welding processes All processes used in position GTAW of aluminium GTAW All welding processes
Defects in welds may originate from a number of different causes. No corrective steps can be taken unless the actual cause is known. It must, however, be kept in mind that in practice several factors may contribute simultaneously as sources of welding defects. To enable the user to deduce the underlying causes, a listing of possible defect causes is given.
Porosity SMAW Arc too long Root gap to wide Moist electrodes Wind, rain Dirt, rust, grease, paint etc. Amperage too low Wrong polarity Travel speed too high GMAW Insufficient gas flow Excessive gas flow Deposit built up in nozzle Wind, rain, draught Dirt, rust, grease, paint etc. Wire stick out too long Wrong gas composition Wrong parameters Insufficient degree of filling of the welding wire. Diameter gas cup too small Leaking gas tubes Slag inclusions SMAW, SAW, FCAW Arc too short Current too low/high Root bead to convex Wrong electrode position Weaving too wide and too fast Wrong electrode diameter Improper cleaning between beads Incomplete penetration SMAW, GMAW, GTAW Root gap too small Current too low Electrode too high up in the weld prep Electrode diameter too large Back chipping or gouging insufficient High-Low effect Wrong weld preparation Welding speed too high Wrong torch/gun/electrode position Lack of fusion SMAW Arc too long Current too low Travel speed too high Electrode manipulation GMAW Low voltage/amperage Worn contact tube Wire extension too long Wrong gun manipulation Travel speed too high
GTAW Arc too long Diameter gas cup too small Leaking gas tubes Wind, rain, draught Dirt, rust, grease, paint etc Wrong manipulation Too much shielding gas Too less shielding gas
GTAW Amperage too low Travel speed too high Wrong torch manipulation
Undercut SMAW, GMAW, GTAW Amperage/voltage too high Travelling speed too high Wrong electrode manipulation Too large electrode diameter Heavy Metal Inclusions GTAW Amperage too high Wrong polarity Electrode diameter too small Stick out too long Wrong electrode material Strike starting Cracks SMAW, GMAW, GTAW Root bead too thin Insufficient weld pre-heat Wrong welding procedure Wrong design Metal pick up Wrong welding parameters Chemical composition Wrong electrode coating Insufficient filling of end-crater 4.3 HEALTH RELATED TOPICS When welding, both the welder and its environment are exposed to a variety of fumes and gases related to the welding process. In most countries there are rules that may limit the exposure of personnel to welding fumes and gases. Some countries however dont have any rules. It is important for mankind to realize what kind of problems may occur during welding and how to prevent physical contact with welding fumes and gases. The type of hazards can be subdivided into two main groups: Metal fumes and gases. Both groups are listed below. 4.3.1 Metal fumes Source; Abstracted from Internet: National Occupational Health and Safety Commission Australia. Lead Potential lead exposure occurs during welding and cutting of any metal coated with lead or leadbased paint. Lead poisoning is rare in welders, but may occur in persons employed in operations such as cutting lead-painted steel in ship breaking and bridge demolition. Occupational lead poisoning, which in welders results from exposure to lead oxide fume, may affect the blood, gastrointestinal tract and nervous system.
Rev.: A
Cadmium Cadmium may be present as a coating on certain materials being welded. Cadmium oxide fume inhalation may cause acute irritation of the respiratory passages, bronchitis, chemical pneumonia or excessive fluid in the lung tissues (pulmonary oedema). There may be a latent period of several hours between exposure and onset of symptoms. The effects of overexposure to cadmium fumes may resemble metal fume fever initially. A single exposure to a very high concentration of cadmium oxide fume may be fatal. Chronic cadmium poisoning results in injury to lungs and kidneys. Manganese Potential exposure to manganese occurs whenever this metal is used in electrode cores and coatings or in electrode wire. Acute poisoning from oxides of manganese is very rare in welding, although respiratory tract irritation from the fume may occur. Exposure to fume from welding on manganese steel may give rise to acute inflammation of the lungs. Metal fume fever is also a possibility after exposure to manganese fume. Chronic manganese poisoning, characterised by a severe disorder of the nerves system, has been reported in welders working in confined spaces on high-manganese steels. Zinc Zinc may be present as a surface coating on steel products, that is, galvanised steel. Exposure to freshly formed zinc oxide fume may produce a brief acute self-limiting illness known as metal fume fever, zinc chills or brass founders ague. The symptoms, which resemble those of an acute attack of influenza, usually occur several hours after exposure to fume and usually with complete recovery within about 24 to 48 hours. Freshly formed oxide fume from several other metals has also been reported to cause metal fume fever. Leucocytes, a transient increase in white blood cell counts, is reported to be a common finding in metal fume fever, but is not known to be common among welders. Iron Most welding involves ferrous materials. The most abundant constituent of ferrous alloy welding fume is iron oxide. Long, continued exposure to such welding fume may lead to the deposition of iron oxide particles in the lungs. When present in sufficient quantities, the deposition is demonstrable on chest X-ray films as numerous fine discrete opacities (nodulation and stripping) resembling silicosis. The technical name for this is siderosis and it is a benign form of pneumoconiosis. Siderosis tends to clear up when the exposure to metallic particles stops. Molybdenum Molybdenum is found in some steel alloys. Molybdenum fumes may produce bronchial irritation and moderate fatty changes in the liver and kidneys. Cobalt Cobalt is a component in some high-strength, high-temperature alloys. Inhalation of cobalt fumes can cause shortness of breath, coughing and pneumonitis. Hypersensitivity appears to be involved because lung changes occur at low incidence and are varied in intensity and time of onset. In most cases, the symptoms disappear after exposure ends. Vanadium Vanadium may be present in some filler wires and special alloy steels. Exposure to oxide fume, especially pentoxide (V2O5), gives rise to severe irritation of the eyes, severe throat and respiratory tract irritation, and may also cause chemical pneumonia. Nickel Nickel is a potentially carcinogenic metal found in fumes from the welding of nickel-plated mild steel, stainless steel, nickel base alloys and high-strength low-alloy steel electrodes. Nickel oxide has been found to be carcinogenic in laboratory animals. There is, however, very little direct information on the health effects of nickel-bearing welding fume on welders. Irritation of the respiratory tract has occurred in stainless steel welders.
Rev.: A
Chromium Chromium may be present as a coating on the work piece, and mainly in stainless steel, hardfacing and chrome-alloy electrodes. Chromium is normally not present in any significant amount in aluminium alloys. Chromate, which may be generated in stainless steel welding fumes or in fumes from hardfacing and chrome-alloy electrodes, is an irritant to the mucosal tissue in the respiratory tract. Exposure to fume containing high concentrations of water-soluble chromium (VI) during the welding of stainless steel in confined spaces has been reported to result in both acute and chronic chrome intoxication, dermatitis and asthma. Epidemiological studies and animal tests have confirmed certain chromium (VI) compounds as occupational carcinogens. These health risks were determined from non-welding occupations. GMAW stainless steel welders are usually likely to be exposed to much smaller concentrations of chromium (VI) than MMAW stainless steel welders. A considerable amount of stainless steel welding is carried out nowadays using GMAW and GTAW methods. Chromium (III) compounds are generally believed to be biologically inert. Welding fumes may contain Cr 2O3 (a chromium (III) compound), or double oxides, such as FeO Cr2O3, or both. Silica and silicates The silica and silicates formed in welding fumes are amorphous, that is, not crystalline, and are generally believed not to be harmful. Fluorides Welders may be exposed to fluoride dust, fume and vapours from certain MMAW, FCAW and GMAW operations and SAW fluxes. Fluoride fumes may produce irritation of the eyes, throat, respiratory tract and skin. Chronic fluorosis is a syndrome characterised by an increased density of bones and ligaments due to fluoride deposition. However, no corroborating data are available which identify a relationship between exposure to fluoride-containing welding fumes and disorders of bones or ligaments. Other metals Welding may produce fume from other metals, including aluminium, copper, magnesium, tin, titanium and tungsten. Within the confines of the current information available, no serious health disorders in welders are known to occur from exposure to fume from these metals but, under certain conditions, copper, aluminium and magnesium may give rise to metal fume fever and others to irritation of the respiratory tract. Beryllium is a volatile and toxic component that may be present in many copper alloys being welded, that is, in the work piece itself. Beryllium oxide fume is very toxic to the respiratory tract, lungs and skin, and is quick-acting. Beryllium is a suspect human carcinogen. Note that beryllium may also be present in some aluminium or magnesium brazing alloys. 4.3.1.1 Preventive measures In all cases the best action to prevent long term exposure to the up mentioned metal fumes, is the use of local fume extraction, together with additional ventilation. Local rules may give stringent action to be taken!
Rev.: A
4.4
GASES Oxides of nitrogen The oxides of nitrogen, nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide, are frequently formed by the direct combination of oxygen and nitrogen in the air surrounding the arc or flame, as a result of heat from the electric arc or gas torch (oxidising flames) during welding and cutting. In outdoor or open shop welding, hazardous abnormal concentrations are unlikely, except perhaps for short periods. In confined spaces, hazardous concentrations of nitrogen oxides may rapidly build up in welding operations. High concentrations of nitrogen oxides have also been found during plasma-arc cutting of stainless steel. Exposure to oxides of nitrogen may not always produce immediate effects but may result in fatal excessive fluid in the lung tissues (pulmonary oedema) some hours after the exposure stops. Ozone Ozone is formed only in small amounts in SMAW and in gas welding. It is, however, produced in significant amounts in GTAW, GMAW when welding with argon, especially when high amperages are used. High ozone concentrations are especially a problem when welding on reflective surfaces, such as aluminium and its alloys and stainless steel, and with high-energy processes such as plasma arc welding. Ozone is actually formed a short distance away from the arc. The persistence of ozone under certain conditions may be explained as an inverse function of the amount of fume produced. The greater the mass of fume (particulate), the less the penetration by ultraviolet radiation and thus the less ozone produced by the ultraviolet radiation acting on oxygen. Ozone also reabsorbs ultraviolet radiation of wavelengths of 200 to 290 nm and can spontaneously decompose back to oxygen. Harmful levels of ozone may be found in welding in confined spaces. The gas is very irritant to the upper respiratory tract and lungs and its effects may be delayed. Ozone is capable of reacting explosively with combustible materials. Carbon monoxide Carbon monoxide is derived from carbon dioxide-shielding atmospheres by reduction of shielding gas, and to a much lesser extent in all welding of steel by partial oxidation of carbon in the consumables. Carbon monoxide will also be produced in gas welding when combustion of acetylene is incomplete, as with a reducing flame. Carbon monoxide levels may build up in confined spaces and poorly ventilated spaces. Over exposure may cause drowsiness, headache and nausea. If carbon monoxide exposure is sufficiently severe, unconsciousness may occur. Carbon dioxide Carbon dioxide at high concentrations can act as an asphyxiant. It is therefore necessary in GMAW in confined spaces to maintain adequate air and oxygen to avoid asphyxiation of the welder. Note that high oxygen concentrations should also be avoided since they constitute a fire hazard. Phosgene The toxic gas phosgene, also known as carbonyl chloride, is not a normal component of welding gases, but is formed by the oxidation of chlorinated hydrocarbons (for example, trichloroethylene, trichloroethane and perchloroethylene), such as when welding is carried out in the presence of solvent vapours escaping from a nearby degreasing tank or when solvent is left behind after degreasing. Exposure to phosgene produces, after a latent period of several hours, irritation of the respiratory tract or perhaps serious lung damage. Phosgene formation is promoted by ultraviolet radiation, hot metal surfaces, flame and cigarette smoking. The gas-shielded arc welding processes (GMAW and GTAW) and plasma processes provide greater ultraviolet light intensity than the flux-shielded arc welding processes (MMAW, SAW, FCAW). Note also that heat and ultraviolet radiation from the welding arc may react with solvent vapour to produce irritant gases such as acetylchloride and acetylchloride derivatives such as dichloroacetylchloride. Phosphine Phosphine is generated when steel coated with a rust proofing compound is welded. High concentrations of phosphine gas are irritating to the eyes, nose and skin. There may also be serious effects on the lungs and other organs.
Rev.: A
Insufficient oxygen In GMAW, the presence of inert gases (argon, helium) in confined work environments may reduce the oxygen content of the atmosphere to dangerous levels, with the threat of asphyxiation. See also the section on carbon dioxide in this appendix. Pyrolytic products of resins used in primers/paints The main products of thermal decomposition of resins used in primers and paints are carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide. Specific toxic or irritant chemicals given off from the resins used in priming materials include such hazardous substances as phenol, formaldehyde, acrolein, isocyanides and hydrogen cyanide. Usually, a very complex mixture of organic gases is formed. 4.4.1 Preventive measures In all cases the best action to prevent long term exposure to the up mentioned metal fumes, is the use of local fume extraction, together with additional ventilation. Local rules may give stringent action to be taken! Note: Fume particles may be filtered adequately; gases however can never be filtered!
Rev.: A
Example of first page of a WPS
Rev.: A
Example of the second page of a WPS
Rev.: A
5.
WELDING OF CARBON STEELS WITH UTS < 490 MPA

Shell Global Solutions Best Welding Practice and Procedures
5.1
INTRODUCTION Carbon steel with an UTS < 490 MPa is an iron alloy, containing carbon (C < 0,25%), manganese (Mn < 0,8%) and silicon (Si < 0,5%). It belongs to the group of unalloyed steels; this group may also contain up to 0,5% Mo. These materials belong to the following groups: According ASME: P1 and P3. According EN ISO 15608: Group 1, 2, 3 and 11.
An increase of the carbon content will lead to higher UTS and yield strengths and lower elongations. For steels, having an UTS < 490 MPa, the yield strength is < 320 MPa and the elongation about 20 24%. These steels are mostly delivered in the normalised condition (N), that means that after rolling a heat treatment (normalising) has been carried out. These steels are generally used for construction material for pressure vessels, piping, supports and building structures. The readily weldable low-carbon steels are applied for most cases. The weldability of ferritic steels depends on the carbon content and the carbon equivalent (Ceq). The carbon content can be calculated according the IIW-formula: Ceq. = % C + % Mn/6 + % (Cr + Mo + V)/5 + % ( Ni + Cu)/15 Good weldability, without the need of PWHT is obtained when the following product analyses are met: 5.2 C 0,23 % for plate material. C 0,25 % for forgings and castings. Ceq < 0,45 %.
WELDABILITY The weldability is directly related to the carbon content and Ceq. If the values are beyond the above limits, more precautions shall be taken. The main problems are hardening in the weld metal and HAZ, with a high risk of hydrogen cold cracking. If the specifications for the carbon content and Ceq are not met, a PWHT may be required to comply with the design code. Generally no special precautions are required for welding. Suitable welding electrodes are of the rutile, cellulose or basic low-hydrogen types. For wall thicknesses above 25 mm, basic low hydrogen electrodes shall be applied.
5.3
APPLICABLE WELDING PROCESSES These steels may be welded with one or more of the following welding processes (see API 582 clause 5): SMAW GMAW FCAW GTAW SAW FCAW-S OFW
Rev.: A Inhoudelijk beheer: CEI/6, REA/3 Eigenaar: Voorzitter BBS proces 04 Pagina: 14 van 91 Niveau: 2
5.3.1 5.3.1.1
Welding consumables SMAW (ISO process number 111) According to API 582 Appendix A table A1, the electrodes to be used shall be of the type: E70XX low hydrogen (according to AWS A 5.1) or E 42 X B XX H4 (according EN 499)
The hydrogen content of the weld deposit shall be 10 ml/100 g maximum. For rootpassing electrodes type E6010 (according tot AWS 5.1) or E 42 X C XX (according to EN 499) may be used.
For references see: API 582 Appendix A table A-1 and DEP 30.10.60.18 clause 6.1 and 6.6. The use of dried basic electrodes is preferred when: 5.3.1.2 Thick materials have to be welded (wall thickness above 25 mm). Welding at temperatures below + 5C (see DEP 30.10.60.18 clause 8.3: welding conditions). The materials are critical to porosity, e.g as found in good machinable steels.
GMAW with solid wire (ISO process number 135) Welding with solid wire is allowed. For solid wires, all types according to AWS 5.18: EN 440: ER 70S-6 G 46 4 M G3 Si1
may be used. The filler wires used shall be compatible with the type of gas. De-oxidizing elements shall be present in the filler wire. Only for welding structural steels CO2 can be used. Disadvantages are a globular metal transfer and weld spatter (metal losses about 15%). Other suitable gasses are Argon with additions of CO 2 like i.e. 80% Ar 20% CO2 and 85 Ar 15 CO2. These gasses maintain a stable arc and give little spatter. The latter mixture is recommended when deeper penetration is required (e.g. for welding thicker plates). The purity of the shielding gasses used and its flow shall be stated on the WPS. For references see: DEP 30.10.60.18 clause 6.1 and 6.6. 5.3.1.3 FCAW (ISO process number 136) For flux-cored arc welding, basic-, rutile as well metal-cored wires may be used. The deposit shall have a maximum hydrogen content of 10 ml/100 g weld metal. Classification according to: AWS 5.20: EN 758: E 7X T-X T 46 R/B/M XX
The flux cored wires to be used shall be compatible with the type of shielding gas. The purity of the shielding gasses used and its flow shall be stated on the WPS. For references see: DEP 30.10.60.18 clause 6.1, 6.6 and 7.6.
Rev.: A
5.3.1.4
GTAW-welding (ISO process number 141) For root-passing the GTAW-process may be used, applying the type of wire as shown below. Classification according: AWS 5.18: EN 1668: ER 70 S-6 W 42 5 W2 Si
There shall be no oxidizing element as oxygen in the shielding gas; such to avoid oxidation of the tungsten electrode. When welding the root and the first pass, the backside of the weld can be protected to prevent oxidation. When welding unalloyed carbon-manganese steels the backing gas may be N2 or Ar (99,99%). 5.3.1.5 SAW (ISO process number 121) The SAW-process may be used using solid or flux-cored wires. The type of welding flux to be used depends on the application and shall be compatible with the welding wire: Welding thick plates (< 20 mm) basic fluxes shall be used (aluminate-basic or fluoride-basic). Welding fillet welds rutile fluxes may be used.
The consumables shall be of the low-hydrogen type, that means that the hydrogen contents of the deposited weld metal shall be below 10 ml/100 g. Recycling of the welding flux is permitted only when it can be stated as conditioned recycling. For references see: API 582 clause 6.1 and DEP 30.10.60.18 clause 6.1and 6.6. 5.3.1.6 FCAW-S (ISO process number 114) With respect to API 582 clause 5.2.4 the self shielded flux cored arc welding process may be used, for welding carbon steel structural items only. The welding wire types identified by the manufacturer for multipass application should be used. For references see: API 582 clause 6.1. 5.3.1.7 OFW (ISO process number 311) With reference to DEP 30.10.60.18 clause 5.2 this process may only be used for pipe welding, if all of the following requirements are met: 5.4 The base material has an UTS < 460 Mpa. Service temperature is above +10C. Pipe diameter < 50 mm. Wall thickness < 5 mm.
WELD PREPARATION Flame cutting, plasma cutting as well as cold shearing may be used for weld preparation. Cold shearing may be applied up to 25 mm material thickness. For the demands for the weld preparation see DEP 30.10.60.18 clause 8. To prevent excessive carbon pick-up during arc-air gouging, a power source with a minimum open circuit Voltage over 80 V shall be used. In addition, the pressure and the amount of compressed air must be in accordance with the recommendations of the electrode manufacturer. When gouging has been carried out, the edges shall be dressed back for at least 2 mm by grinding or machining to eliminate the zone with carbon pick up. Also after cold shearing the edges shall be dressed back for 2 mm., unless the pate thickness is less than 10 mm. For references see: DEP 30.10.60.18 clause 8.
Rev.: A
5.5
WELDING TECHNIQUE SMAW Welding can be carried out using the stringer bead method as well using the weaving method; the latter with the restriction of the maximum weaving-width of 3x diameter of the core wire. GMAW GMAW can be used in both the short circuiting and the spray-transfer mode. When welding plate thicknesses over 10 mm the short circuiting mode is prohibited. Pre-heating Pre-heating of these types of steels is hardly necessary. Pre-heating shall be done when welding: thick materials (> 20 mm). at ambient temperatures below + 5C.
Minimum pre-heat requirements shall follow the applicable code, such as ASME Section VIII and others as specified in API 582, clause 8.1. If EN 1011 is used, the pre-heat temperature may be calculated based on the wall thickness, the heat-input, the hydrogen content of the consumable to be used and the thermal efficiency of the welding process. Requirements for the application of the pre-heating are given in APT 582 clause 8.2 and DEP 30.10.60.18 clause 8.1. Heat-input The heat input range shall be specified in the WPS, so the maximum hardness in the base material, heat affected zone and weld metal shall not exceed: 248 HV10 for steels in process service. 325 HV10 for structural steels.
For references see: DEP 30.10.60.18 clause 12.6.1.3 Interpass temperature The interpass temperature is the maximum temperature the material may have the moment the arc passes this spot. The maximum interpass temperature shall be specified in the WPS when impact testing is required. This maximum temperature for these types of steel is 315C. See API 582 clause 8.3 and 8.4. Bead shape These materials can be welded with stringer beads as well as using the weaving technique. For optimum mechanical properties only stringer beads with a maximum thickness of max. 4 mm shall be used. In DEP 30.10.60.18 clause 8 more information (e.g. weld fit-up, the use of backing materials a.s.o) is given. In API 582 clause 5.2.2 and 5.2.3 restrictions are given for using the GMAW-S process (short circuiting gas metal arc welding) as well as for the GMAW-P-welding (pulsed gas metal arc welding). 5.6 WELDING PLATES When welding plates, common practice should be used. For weld fit-up, the use of backing, welding conditions, weld application and so on: see DEP 30.10.60.18 clause 8.1. Pre-heating should be used when welding plates with a wall thickness > 20 mm and at ambient temperatures below + 10C. For references see: DEP 30.10.60.18 clause 8.
Rev.: A
5.7
WELDING PIPES The OFW may be used for welding pipes when: Service temperature is above 0C Pipe diameter DN 50 mm Wall thickness < 5 mm.
For root passing the GTAW process may be used for piping with a diameter equal or less than DN 80. Cellulose type coated electrodes may be used for the root pass and the second pass of single groove welds in pipes with diameter > 8, regardless to base material thickness. For references see: API 582 clause 6.1.1 DEP 30.10.60.18 clause 5.2.7 and 5.2.8. 5.8 POST WELD HEAT TREATMENT After welding, no heat treatment is needed. Any heat treatment shall be specified on the WPS. For references see: API 582 clause 9 DEP 30.10.60.18 clause 9.1 For decreasing the hydrogen content after welding, a soaking treatment shall be done for 2 hrs at 200C, without cooling down to ambient temperature directly after welding. For post heat treatment and holding times: see DEP 30.10.60.18 clause 13.2. Depending the amount of weld metal, the welding-sequence, the wall thicknesses and the application, stress relieving may be considered, if not specified by the design code. 5.9 REPAIR WELDING For repair welding, the processes mentioned in clause 4 of this document shall be used, except the SAW-process for the applications as mentioned in DEP 30.10.60.18 clause 5.2.6.3. For repair welding all demands for welding these types of steel as stated in this document shall be applied, in conjunction with the requirements as given in Shell Best Welding Practice and Procedures: General requirements for repair welding. 5.10 REFERENCES API 582, edition march 2001. Design and engineering practice DEP 30.10.60.18, edition June 2003.
Rev.: A
6.
WELDING C-STEELS WITH UTS > 490 MPA

6.1
INTRODUCTION Within the group of steels with an UTS > 490 MPa there are two possibilities: Steels having a carbon content > 0,25%; they are supplied in the so called Normalized condition, that means that after rolling a heat treatment has been carried out to get the desired strength. Steels having a carbon content < 0,20% with small additions of other alloying elements, such as Cr, Mo, N2, Ni, V. These elements make it possible to get the desired strength after a heat treatment in combination with the rolling process. These type of steels belong to the group so called fine-grained steels. Other names for these type of steels: AC-steels (accelerated cooled steels) QT-steels (quenched and tempered steels) and TM-steels (themo-mechanically treated steels).
These materials belong to the following groups: According to ASME: P1 and P3. According to EN ISO 15608 Group 1, 2 and 11.
These steels are generally used for construction material for pressure vessels, piping, supports and building structures. The weldability of ferritic steels depends on the carbon content, the carbon equivalent (Ceq) and the thermal history. The carbon content can be calculated according the IIW-formula: Ceq. = % C + % Mn/6 + % (Cr + Mo + V)/5 + % ( Ni + Cu)/15 Good weldability, without the need of PWHT is obtained when the following product analyses are met: C 0,23% for plate material. Ti + Nb 0,15%, each element not being over 0,05%. C 0,25% for forgings and castings. Ceq < 0,45%.
The weld quality is directly related to the carbon content and Ceq. If the values are beyond the above limits, more precautions shall be taken. The main problems are hardening in the weld metal and HAZ, with a high risk of hydrogen cold cracking. If the specifications for the carbon content and Ceq are not met, a PWHT may be required to comply with the design code. 6.2 WELDABILITY Normalized steels In most cases these normalized steels do not meet the above mentioned C and the Ceq requirements, and approval by the principal is required. If they are considered acceptable by the principal, special precautions shall be taken to avoid unacceptable hardening and cold cracking. Basic low-hydrogen welding consumables shall be used and pre-heating shall be performed in accordance with the applicable design code. Nonmatching consumables may cause hydrogen cracking under corrosive conditions , e.g. water with H2S, HF, etc. For more information see clause 6 of this BWP.
Rev.: A
Fine grain steels On the other hand, the chemical composition of the AC-steels is tuned in such a way that after rapid cooling, immediately after rolling, the structure consists of fine grains. The TM-steels also have a slightly different chemistry in respect to the AC-steels, to make it possible to get fine grains after a rolling sequence at a lower temperature as common practice. Due to the low carbon content, resulting in a low carbon equivalent, hardening of HAZ Is not likely to occur, even when welding with a low heat-input. As these steels have their strength caused by the existence of fine grains, due to the thermal history, excessive growth of the grains must be prevented. So welding with a limited heat input shall be carried out. See clause 6: Welding technique. For the fine grain steels with an UTS > 490 MPa precautions are required to avoid hydrogen cold cracking and hardening. Basic low-hydrogen electrodes shall be used. Pre-heating between 100 and 150C in accordance with the design code shall be performed for wall thicknesses above 25 mm. Fine grained steels have improved impact properties. 6.3 APPLICABLE WELDING PROCESSES These steels can be welded with one of the following welding processes ( see API 582 clause 5): SMAW GMAW FCAW GTAW SAW FCAW-S
When repair welding pressure vessels, storage tanks or pipeline, the SAW-proces shall not be used. (DEP 30.10.60.18 clause 5.2.6.3). 6.3.1 6.3.1.1 Welding consumables SMAW (ISO process number 111) According to API 582, appendix A-table A.1, the electrodes to be used shall have a basic coating (type E7016 or E7018, according AWS SFA 5.1, and E 46 X B XX H5 according EN 499) However, for high strength steels, the tensile strength of electrodes to be used shall, at least be equal or higher than the UTS of the steel itself. So electrodes of the types E80XX, E 90XX, and with even higher classification according to AWS SFA 5.5 or E 55XB H5 according EN 757 should be used. All the electrodes shall have a low hydrogen content, that means that the hydrogen content of the deposit shall not exceed 10 ml/100 g deposit. When not delivered and stored in the standard vacuum packages, the electrodes shall be rebacked according the prescriptions of the supplier. 6.3.1.2 GMAW with solid wires (ISO process number 131) The strength of the weld deposit, being the result of a combination of the wire and the shielding gas, shall at least meet the strength of the base material to be welded. So wires, meeting the AWS SFA 5.28 classifications ER 80S, ER 90S and even higher classifications, shall be used when welding higher strength steels. The filler wires used should be compatible with the type of gas. In case of active gasses like CO 2, de-oxidizing elements shall be present in the filler wire. For welding these materials, only gas mixtures shall be used. Disadvantages are a globular metal transfer and weld spatter (metal losses about 15%). Other suitable gasses are Ar with additions of CO2 like i.e. 80% argon 20% CO2 and 85 Ar 15 CO2). These gasses maintain a stable arc and give little spatter. The latter mixture is recommended when deeper penetration is required (e.g. thicker plate).
The purity of the shielding gasses used and its flow shall be stated on the WPS. For references see: DEP 30.10.60.18 page 6 clause 6.1 and 6.6. 6.3.1.3 Flux cored wires (ISO proces number 136) Welding with flux cored wires can be done with either rutile, basic or metal cored wires. The strength of the weld deposit, being the result of a combination of the wire and the shielding gas, shall at least meet the strength of the base material to be welded. So wires, meeting the AWS SFA 5.29 classifications E 8XT, E 9XT and even higher classifications, shall be used when welding higher strength steels. As already stated: the chemical composition of the wire shall be based upon the type of shielding gas to be used, resulting in the strength as desired For welding pressure containing equipment, the diffusible hydrogen limit for FCAW electrodes (as manufactured) shall be capable of meeting the specification as shown below: Where the specified minimum tensile strength for the electrode is 70 ksi (483 MPa) (per AWS SFA 5.29), the maximum diffusible hydrogen designation for the electrode shall be H4. Note: When welding with 70 ksi (438 MPa) electrodes to steels having a tensile strength of 80 ksi (522 MPa) or greater, H4 designated electrodes shall be used. Comparable: T 42 X B/C/M XX H5 according to EN 758. 6.3.1.4 TIG-welding (ISO process number 141) For root-passing the TIG-process may be used, using the type of wire matching the desired tensile strength. AWS 5.2: ER 80 S-G, ER 90-G or with even higher classifications There shall be no oxidizing element as oxygen in the shielding gas used; such to avoid oxidation of the tungsten electrode. When welding the root and the first pass, the reverse side of the weld may be protected to prevent oxidation. When welding un alloyed carbon-manganese steels the backing gas may be N 2 or Ar (99,99%). 6.3.1.5 SAW (ISO process number 121) The SAW-process may be used, using solid or flux-cored wires. Due to the mechanical properties of these type of steels, only basic welding fluxes shall be used. The welding fluxes shall give a weld metal deposit with a diffusible hydrogen content, which shall not exceed 10 ml/100 g weld metal. (See DEP 30.10.60.18 clause 6.6). The fluxes shall be stored in a dry place and be re-backed, according the prescription of the manufacturer. 6.3.1.6 FCAW-S (ISO proces number 114) With respect to API 582 clause 5.2.4 the self shielded flux cored arc welding process may be used, for welding carbon steel structural items only. The welding wire types identified by the manufacturer for multipass application should be used. For references see: API 582 clause 6.1. 6.4 WELD PREPARATION Flame cutting, plasma cutting as well as cold shearing may be used for weld preparation Cold shearing may be applied up to 25 mm material thickness. When thermal cutting or arc-air gouging the normalised types, pre-heating shall be considered to prevent hardening. To prevent excessive carbon pick-up during arc-air gouging, a power source with a minimum open voltage over 80 V shall be used. Besides, the pressure and the amount of compressed air shall be in accordance with the recommendations of the supplier.
When gouging has been carried out, the edges shall be dressed back for a minimum of 2 mm by grinding or machining, to eliminate the zone with carbon pick up. Also after cold shearing the edges shall be dressed back for 2 mm, unless the pate thickness is less than 10 mm. For references see: DEP 30.10.60.18 clause 8. 6.5 WELDING TECHNIQUE General SMAW can be carried out in the stringer bead technique or the weaving technique, the latter with maximum weaving width of 3x the diameter of the core wire. GMAW can be used in both the short circuiting and the spray-transfer mode. When welding plate thicknesses over 10 mm the short circuiting mode is prohibited. 6.5.1 Normalized steels When welding these type of steels (basic) low hydrogen consumables shall be used (see DEP 30.10.60.18 clause 6.6). Pre-heating Pre-heating of these types of steels is necessary to prevent hardening of the HAZ. Minimum pre-heat requirements shall follow the applicable code, such as ASME Section VIII and others as specified in API 582, clause 8.1 According to EN 1011 it is possible to calculate the pre-heat temperature on basis of the wall thickness, the heat-input, the hydrogen content of the consumable to be used and the thermal efficiency of the welding process. Requirements for the application of the pre-heating are given in APT 582 clause 8.2 and DEP 30.10.60.18 clause 8. Welding techniques All normal welding techniques can be used, from weaving till stringer beads. For optimum mechanical properties, welding with stringer beads shall carried out. If closing of the gap cannot be done in the middle of the weld but next to the base material, the use of the temperbead technique shall be considered.
a
'Temperbead technique'
206
376
HAZ
322
274
Tempered HAZ
262
270 270
Tempered HAZ
274 Vickers micro-hardness
Basematerial
270
The effect of tempering
Rev.: A
Heat-input Special attention shall be payed to the heat-input. The heat input range shall be specified in the WPS, so the maximum hardness in the base material, heat affected zone and weld metal shall not exceed: 248 HV10 for steels in process service. 325 HV10 for structural steels.
For references see: DEP 30.10.60.18 clause 12.6.1.3. Interpass temperature The interpass temperature is the maximum temperature the material may have the moment the arc passes this spot. The maximum interpass temperature shall be specified in the WPS when impact testing is required. This maximum temperature for these types of steel is 315C. See: API 582 clause 8.3 and 8.4. 6.5.2 Fine grain steels Fine grained steels have improved impact properties. When welding these type of steels (basic) low hydrogen consumables shall be used (see DEP 30.10.60.18 clause 6.6). Pre-heating In general, for the lower strength steels, pre-heating is hardly necessary, when low hydrogen consumables, having a deposit of which the hydrogen content does not exceed 10 ml/100 g deposit, are used. For the higher strength steels precautions are required to avoid hydrogen cold cracking and hardening. Basic low hydrogen electrodes shall be used. Pre-heating between 100 and 150C in accordance with the design code shall be performed for wall thicknesses above 25 mm. Requirements for the application of the pre-heating are given in APT 582 clause 8.2 and DEP 30.10.60.18 clause 8.1 on page 8. Welding techniques All normal welding techniques can be used, from weaving till stringer beads. The weaving technique with a maximum weaving width of 3 x the diameter of the core wire. For optimum mechanical properties, welding with stringer beads shall be done. If closing of the gap cannot be done in the middle of the weld but next to the base material, the use of the temperbead technique shall be considered. Heat- input The heat input shall be specified in the WPS, so the maximum hardness in the base material, heat affected zone and weld metal shall not exceed: 248 HV10 for steels in process service 325 HV10 for structural steels
For references see: DEP 30.10.60.18 clause 12.6.1.3 Interpass temperature The interpass temperature is the maximum temperature the material may have the moment the arc passes this spot. The maximum interpass temperature shall be specified in the WPS when impact testing is required. This maximum temperature for these types of steel is 315C. See: API 582 clause 8.3 and 8.4. 6.6 WELDING PLATES When welding plates common practice should be used. For weld fit-up, the use of backing, welding conditions, weld application and so on: see DEP 30.10.60.18 clause 8.1.
When root passing joints where high stresses can occur, i.e. great wall thicknesses, the use of low yield consumables can be considered. However, these consumables may only be used after agreement from the principal. For weld fit-up, the use of backings, welding conditions, weld application and so on: see DEP 30.10.60.18 clause 8.1. Pre-heating should be used when welding plates with a wall thickness > 20 mm and at ambient temperatures below + 10C. The weld shall be completed before the pre-heat temperature is lowered, if at least 50% of the weld has been completed. See DEP 30.10.60.18 clause 8.1 6.7 WELDING PIPES For welding pipes all the processes as mentioned in clause 4 may be used, except OFW. Besides, above pipe diameters of 4, the use of cellulosic electrodes can be considered as well for root passing as for the second pass, unless the strengths of the base material cannot be achieved. For root passing the GTAW process may be used for piping with a diameter equal or less than DN 80. 6.8 POST WELD HEAT TREATMENT After welding no heat treatment is needed. If a heat treatment has to be carried out it shall be specified on the WPS. For references see: API 582 clause 9 DEP 30.10.60.18 clause 9.1 For decreasing the hydrogen content after welding, soaking may be advisable for 2 hrs at 200C, without cooling down to ambient temperature directly after welding. For post heat holding times: see DEP 30.10.60.18 clause 13.2. Depending the amount of weld metal, the welding-sequence, the wall thicknesses and the application stress relieving, may be considered. 6.9 REPAIR WELDING For repair welding these types of steel, the processes, mentioned in clause 4 of this document, may be used, except the SAW-process for the applications as mentioned in DEP 30.10.60.18 clause 5.2.6.3. For repair welding all the requirements for welding these types of steel, as stated in this document, shall apply, in conjunction with the requirements as given in Shell Best Welding Practice and Procedures: General requirements for repair welding. 6.10 REFERENCES API 582, edition march 2001. Design and engineering practice DEP 30.10.60.18, edition June 2003.
Rev.: A
7.
RUN OUT LENGTH/VELOCITY OF FINE GRAINED STEELS

Fine grained steels have improved impact properties. Steels with guaranteed impact values below 20C (see DEP 30.10.02.31-Gen. Fine-grained steels are sometimes referred to as killed steel. In order to avoid the occurrence of grain growth or too high a hardness in the heat-affected-zone (risk of cold cracking) due to welding, fine grain steels must be welded with a wall thickness related heat input. The run-out length i.e. welding velocity determines the heat-input and subsequently the cooling time 800 500C (t 800 - 500). See also Figure 7-1 and Figure 7-2 for the relationship between heat input, plate thickness and t 800 - 500 for respectively fine grained steels with -and without pre-heat. The t 800 - 500 is the determining factor for the grain size in the heat-affected-zone (satisfactory ductility in HAZ). For that reason the WPS, for this type of material, must contain the run-out-length (welding velocity) and the gross heat-input.
Rev.: A
Figure 7-1: Relation between heat-input, plate thickness and t 800-500 for fine-grained steels without pre-heat.
Rev.: A
Figure 7-2: Relation between heat-input, plate thickness and t 800 - 500 for fine-grained steels with pre-heat 100-150C.
Rev.: A
8.
WELDING GUIDELINES FOR INSERT PLATES

The set in plates can be applied with the following guidelines: Using a set in plate welding construction is regarded as complex welding. Therefore the required documentation for complex welding shall be made. A set in plate is applied without a welding gap, with a minimum tip height of 2-3 mm. The corners of the plate have a minimum roundness of R=5t with a minimum of 50 mm. The only exclusion is a set in plate near a long seem construction, then 90 corners are used at the weld side. This location has to be welded last. Crossings of weld seems have to be prevented where possible. Welding the corners at the last stage of welding, to prevent cold cracking by shrinkage. Always welding toward the stopping place of the other weld; so not welding further from the stopping place. Always use internal supports to prevent deformation in circumferential direction.
Plate in line Maintain welding sequence 1 to 8 (see Figure 8-1), only one electrode per run may be used. Start next run welding away from the stopping place of the last run towards the last run. Welding towards Corners must be welded at the end of the sequence. The arrow direction in the sketch is valid in the so-called 1G position only. If welding in the 3G position is needed only vertical-up welding is allowed.
Figure 8-1: Welding sequence for plate insert Circular plate in line This method is also valid for oval shaped insert plates. Maintain welding sequence 1 to 8 for welding in the 1G position (see Figure 8-2). For welding in the 3G position maintain the same sequence, however only vertical-up welding is allowed.
Rev.: A
Weld fit-up Weld configuration must be selected in such a way that a symmetrical weld configuration is achieved. The insert plates must be fitted into the wall in such a way that no gap is present. This requirement is not applicable for single side welds.
Figure 8-2:
Weld sequence for circular plate insert
Rev.: A
Insert plates in tanks
Rev.: A
9.
WELDING LOW ALLOY CHROME MOLYBDENUM STEELS

1 Cr thru 9 Cr, including modified versions. Shell Global Solutions Best Welding Practice and Procedures
9.1
INTRODUCTION Steels alloyed with molybdenum and chromium are designed for higher temperature application 550C; additionally, these steels have an improved creep-resistance and hot hydrogen resistance. Creep can be defined as the appearance of a permanent elongation, due to long-term stresses (far) below the yield strength. Creep can be propagated by elevated temperatures. Additions of molybdenum, chromium, vanadium, titanium and niobium increase the resistance to creep. WELDABILITY First of all, with respect to the carbon-manganese construction steels, the carbon-equivalent will be higher. So pre-heating shall be applied to control excessive hardening of the HAZ. Secondly, the low alloy composition promotes the forming of martensite, and as the ability to deform this martensite is much less at ambient temperatures, due to the welding stresses, cracks will occur. Third, due to the chemical composition, precipitates will be formed at the grain boundaries. When stress relieving, these precipitates block the necessary deformation resulting from thermal stresses. As internal deformations cannot occur, cracking will result. This phenomena is known as reheat cracking. The vanadium -containing types of these steels are more sensitive to this phenomena. Fourth, temper embrittlement can occur. Temper embrittlement is defined as the brittleness that occurs when some alloyed steels are kept at certain temperatures (between 370 600C) for a certain time, or pass through this temperature area. This form of brittleness results in a change of the transition temperature up to 150C! This brittleness is a result of segregations, formed along the grain boundaries. Investigations have shown that there is a relation between the temper embrittlement and the amount of the elements Sb, As, Sn and P. To test the sensitivity to temper embrittlement, a special heat treatment has been developed. During this heat treatment, cooling down is performed in steps. This heat treatment is known as the step cool treatment. After this heat treatment the toughness is tested by Charpy-impact tests. See: API 934.
9.2
9.3
APPLICABLE WELDING PROCESSES For welding these chromium-molybdenum steels one of the following processes may be used: SMAW GMAW GTAW SAW
Except for repair welding of pressure vessel, storage tanks and pipelines, the SAW process shall not be used (see: DEP 30.10.60.18 dd. June 2003, clause 5.2.6). 9.4 9.4.1 WELDING CONSUMABLES SMAW (ISO process number 111) For welding with the SMAW-process, only low hydrogen basic electrodes, having a deposited weld metal with a diffusible hydrogen content not exceeding 10 ml/100 g weld metal, shall be used. The chemical composition of the consumables shall at least comply with the chemical composition of the base material to be welded. All the alloying elements shall be present in the core wire; that means that the use of synthetic electrodes is prohibited. Synthetic electrodes contain (part of) the alloying elements in the covering.
For the classification of the consumables to be used see: API 582, table A1. 9.4.2 9.4.2.1 GMAW Solid wire (ISO process number 131). When welding with solid wires, the chemical composition of the deposited weld metal shall, match the composition of the base material. The filler wires used should be compatible with the type of gas. In case of active gasses like CO2, de-oxidizing elements shall be present in the filler wire. For welding these materials, only mixed gasses shall be used. Disadvantages are a globular metal transfer and weld spatter (metal losses about 15%). Other suitable gasses are Ar with additions of CO2 like i.e. 80% argon 20% CO2 and 85 Ar 15 CO2). These gasses maintain a stable arc and give little spatter. The latter mixture is recommended when deeper penetration is required (e.g. thicker plate). The purity of the shielding gasses used and its flow shall be stated on the WPS. For references see: DEP 30.10.60.18 dd. June 2003 page 6 clause 6.1 and 6.6. For the classification of the consumables to be used see: API 582, table A1. 9.4.2.2 Flux cored wire (ISO process number 136) When welding with flux cored wires, the chemical composition of the deposited weld metal shall match the composition of the base material. The filler wires used should be compatible with the type of gas. In case of active gasses like CO 2, de-oxidizing elements shall be present in the filler wire. For welding these materials, only mixed gasses shall be used. Disadvantages are a globular metal transfer and weld spatter (metal losses about 15%). Other suitable gasses are Ar with additions of CO2 like i.e. 80% argon 20% CO2 and 85 Ar 15 CO2). These gasses maintain a stable arc and give little spatter. The latter mixture is recommended when deeper penetration is required (e.g. thicker plate). The purity of the shielding gasses used and its flow shall be stated on the WPS. For references see: DEP 30.10.60.18 dd. June 2003 page 6 clause 6.1 and 6.6. Self shielding flux cored wires shall not be used. For the classification of the consumables to be used see: API 582, table A1. 9.4.3 GTAW (ISO process number 141) For root-passing the TIG-process may be used, using the type of wire matching the chemical composition and the tensile strength of the base material. There shall be no oxidizing element as oxygen in the shielding gas used; such to avoid oxidation of the tungsten electrode. When welding the root and the first pass, the reverse side of the weld may be protected to prevent oxidation. For the classification of the consumables to be used see: API 582, table A1. 9.4.4 SAW (ISO process number 121) When using the SAW process the chemical composition and the mechanical properties of the deposited weld metal shall match those of the base material. Using welding fluxes with alloying additions is prohibited. For the classification of the consumables to be used see: API 582, table A1.
Rev.: A
9.5
WELDING PREPARATION Flame cutting, plasma-arc cutting as well as mechanical processes may be used for weld preparation. When thermal cutting or arc-air gouging is performed, adequate pre-heating shall be applied to prevent hardening. See 6: Welding Techniques of the different types of steel. To prevent excessive carbon pick-up during arc-air gouging, a power source with a minimum open voltage over 80 V shall be used. Besides, the pressure and the amount of compressed air shall be in accordance with the recommendations of the supplier manufacturer. When gouging has been carried out, the edges shall be dressed back for a minimum of 2 mm by grinding or machining, to eliminate the zone with carbon pick up For references see: DEP 30.10.60.18 dd. June 2003 clause 8.
9.6 9.6.1 9.6.1.1
WELDING TECHNIQUE General In this chapter the different types of these steels will be dealt with separately. PWHT PWHT temperature ranges and holding time for various materials shall be in accordance with the design code. The following rules also apply: For optimum high temperature creep properties, the lower side of the temperature range is normally used. For maximum softening the higher side of the temperature ranges is used.
The welding procedure qualification tests shall determine whether the temperature range and holding times are adequate to meet the requirements. Notes: 1. The carbon content of Cr-Mo steels influences the choice of the PWHT temperature. The higher specified temperature shall be used to obtain the required hardness for materials with a higher carbon content. 2. For quenched/normalized and tempered steels, the PWHT temperature shall be such to avoid an unacceptable decrease of mechanical properties of the parent metal, PWHT temperature shall be at least 20C below the tempering temperature. In case of dissimilar metals the PWHT temperature shall be approved by the principal.
3.
Also see BWP: Welding dissimilar metals. No welding or heating shall be carried out after the final PWHT. NDE for acceptance purposes shall be carried out after the final PWHT. 9.6.1.2 0,3 and 0,5% molybdenum steels Consumables 0,3 Mo-steels shall be welded with basic low hydrogen consumables depositing 0,5 Mo. 0,5 Mo-steels shall be welded with matching (for SMAW basic low hydrogen) consumables ( see 4.1 of this BWP). Pre-heating The weldability of 0,3 0,5 Mo-steels depends on the carbon content and the carbon equivalent. The pre-heat temperature will mostly be within the range of 100 150C. Heat input The heat input shall be specified in the WPS, so the maximum hardness in the base material, heat affected zone and weld metal shall not exceed: 248 HV10 for steels in process service.
290 HV10 for ferritic materials in utility service (steam, air, water).
For references see: DEP 30.10.60.18 dd. June 2003, clause 12.6.1.3. Interpass temperature According API 582 the max. interpass temperature is 315C. Cooling down Cooling down to ambient temperature shall be done under an insulating cover. Welds shall not be allowed to cool down until at least half of the wall thickness has been welded. PWHT After welding a PWHT shall be carried out, in accordance with the design code. For 0,3 0,5% Mo steels in hydrogen service, PWHT is required irrespective of the wall thickness. Also see the remarks made in 6: General. 9.6.1.3 1 Cr 0,5 Mo and 1,25 Cr 0,5 Mo steels General Weldability is related to the carbon, chromium and molybdenum content, i.e. the higher the content of these elements, the more precautions shall be taken to avoid hydrogen cracking. Pre-heating, interpass temperature, post heating and PWHT shall be strictly controlled. Consumable These materials shall be welded with low hydrogen consumables, depositing a matching chemical composition. Pre-heating Pre-heating shall be applied between 150 200C. Heat input The heat input shall be specified in the WPS, so the maximum hardness in the base material, heat affected zone and weld metal shall not exceed: 248 HV10 for steels in process service 290 HV10 for ferritic materials in utility service (steam, air, water)
For references see: DEP 30.10.60.18 dd. June 2003, clause 12.6.1.3. Interpass temperature According API 582 the max. interpass temperature is 315C Bead shape Welding shall be done using the stringer bead method only. Post weld heat treatment For thicknesses between 10 and 30 mm intermediate post weld heating shall be applied after welding, prior to cooling to ambient temperatures, in accordance with tabel 1 as shown below, unless a full PWHT is carried out intermediately. Table 9-1: Post-heating holding time in hours 150C 6 10 200C 3 7 250C 2 5 300C 1,5 3
Plate thickness (mm) 10 20 21 30
For sections thicker than 30 mm an intermediate PWHT at 600 620C shall be carried out for high restraint conditions, e.g. complex nozzle configurations, following immediately after welding without cooling down to ambient temperature.
Final PWHT shall always be carried out. The PWHT temperature for tempered grades shall be at least 20C below the tempering temperature. PWHT temperatures shall be in conformance with the design code unless otherwise specified. Also see the remarks made in 6: General. Cooling down For thicknesses up to 10 mm, the cooling down from pre-heat to ambient temperature shall be done under an insulating cover. Welds shall not be allowed to cool down until at least half of the wall thickness has been welded. 9.6.1.4 2,25 Cr 1 Mo and 3 Cr 1 Mo steels These materials are highly susceptible to cracking, therefore extreme care shall be taken when welding is performed. Consumables These materials shall only be welded with low hydrogen basic consumables, depositing a matching chemical composition. The weld metal shall be checked prior to use for the specified amounts of Cr and Mo. Alloying additions to the weld metal are allowed only via the filler wire. Alloying additions via welding flux or coating are not allowed, except for compensating alloy burn-off during welding. Pre-heating Pre-heating shall be applied between 200 300C. Pre-heating shall be carried out regardless of wall thickness. Heat input The heat input shall be specified in the WPS, so the maximum hardness in the base material, heat affected zone and weld metal shall not exceed: 248 HV10 for steels in process service. 290 HV10 for ferritic materials in utility service (steam, air, water).
For references see: DEP 30.10.60.18 dd. June 2003, clause 12.6.1.3 Interpass temperature According API 582 the max. interpass temperature is 315C The interpas temperature shall not drop below the pre-heat temperature during welding. Bead shape Welding shall be applied only in the stringer bead method. Post weld heat treatment For thicknesses between 10 and 30 mm intermediate post weld heating shall be applied after welding, prior to cooling to ambient temperatures, in accordance with table 1, unless a full PWHT is carried out intermediately after welding. For sections thicker than 30 mm an intermediate PWHT at 600 620C shall be carried out, immediately after welding without cooling down to ambient temperatures. Final PWHT shall always be carried out. The PWHT temperature for tempered grades shall be at least 20C below the tempering temperature. PWHT temperatures shall be in conformance with the design code unless otherwise specified. Also see the remarks made in 6: General.
Rev.: A
Cooling down For thicknesses below 10 mm, the cooling down from pre-heat to ambient temperature shall be done under an insulating cover. Welds shall not be allowed to cool down until at least half of the wall thickness has been welded. 9.6.1.5 9 Cr 0,5 Mo, 9 Cr 1 Mo and 9 Cr 1 Mo modified These materials are susceptible to cracking by hydrogen and hard microstructure. Consumables These materials shall only be welded with low hydrogen basic consumables, depositing a matching chemical composition. 9 Cr 1 Mo modified differs from standard 9 Cr 1 Mo steel insofar that alloy additions (vanadium, nitrogen, nickel, niobium) enhance the properties. Weldability is comparable with 9 Cr 1 Mo steels. Due to the difference in chemical composition the order/requisition form should clearly specify consumable type required (e.g. state explicitly whether 9 Cr 1 Mo modified consumables are required). Pre-heating Due to the higher Cr-content these materials are more susceptible to air-hardening. To prevent cracking caused by hydrogen an hard microstructure, pre-heating shall be applied between 200 300C, regardless of wall thickness. Heat input The heat input shall be specified in the WPS, so the maximum hardness in the base material, heat affected zone and weld metal shall not exceed 290 HV10 for ferritic materials in utility service (steam, air, water) For references see: DEP 30.10.60.18 dd. June 2003, clause 12.6.1.3. Interpass temperature According API 582 the max. interpass temperature is 315C The interpass temperature shall not drop below the pre-heat temperature during welding. Bead shape Welding shall be done using the stringer bead method only. Post weld heat treatment For thicknesses between 10 and 30 mm intermediate post weld heating shall be applied after welding, prior to cooling to ambient temperatures, in accordance with table 1, unless a full PWHT is carried out intermediately. For sections thicker than 30 mm an intermediate PWHT at 600 620C shall be carried out, immediately after welding without cooling down to ambient temperature. Final PWHT shall always be carried out. The PWHT temperature for tempered grades shall be at least 20C below the tempering temperatures. PWHT temperatures shall be in conformance with the design code unless otherwise specified. Also see the remarks made in 6: General. Cooling down For thicknesses below 10 mm, cooling down from pre-heat to ambient temperature shall be done under an insulating cover Welds shall not be allowed to cool down until at least half of the wall thickness has been welded.
Rev.: A
9.7
WELDING PLATES For weld fit-up, the use of backing, pre-heat requirements, welding conditions, weld application, PWHT: see DEP 30.10.60.18 dd. June 2003 clause 8 and 9.1. The weld shall be completed before the pre-heat temperature is lowered, if at least 50% of the weld has been completed. See: DEP clause 8.1.
9.8
WELDING PIPES For welding pipes all the processes as mentioned in clause 4 may be used. For weld fit-up, the use of backing, welding conditions, weld application and so on: see DEP 30.10.6018 dd. June 2003 clause 8.1. The weld shall be completed before the pre-heat temperature is lowered, if at least 50% of the weld has been completed. See: DEP 30.10.60.18 dd. June 2003 clause 8.1
9.9
POST WELD HEAT TREATMENT After welding, a heat treatment shall be carried out as specified on the WPS. For references see: API 582 clause 9. DEP 30.10.60.18 dd. June 2003 clause 9.1. For minimizing the hydrogen content after welding, a soaking treatment may be performed for 2 hrs at 200C. Cooling down to ambient temperature directly after welding is then prohibited. For post heat holding times: see DEP 30.10.60.18 dd. June 2003 clause 13.2. Depending of the amount of weld metal, the welding-sequence, the wall thickness and the application of stress relieving, may be considered. Also see the remarks made at 6: General in this document.
9.10
REPAIR WELDING For repair welding the processes, mentioned in clause 4 of this document, may be used, except the SAW-process for the applications as mentioned in DEP 30.10.60.18 dd. June 2003, clause 5.2.6.3. For repair welding all the requirements for welding, as stated in this document, shall apply. Also see BWP: Repair welding and Welding dissimilar metals.
9.11
REFERENCES API 582, edition march 2001. Design and engineering practice DEP 30.10.60.18, edition June 2003.
Rev.: A
10.
10.1
PRE-HEAT AND POST WELD HEAT TREATMENT

GENERAL REQUIREMENTS Heat treatments may be carries out either full-body or locally, depending on: Type of heat treatment Material of composite of substrate Number and sizes of substrate Configuration of work piece Availability and cost of energy Required accuracy of heat treatment Welding process and welding consumable Code requirement.
Heat treatment be carried out in accordance with a qualified heat treatment procedure specification. The heat treatment procedure shall be reviewed and approved by the Principal before the Heat Treatment activity takes place. After the heat treatment the registration form shall be submitted to Shell Pernis and Shell Moerdijk inspection department. For furnace heat treatment the temperature at the time of insertion of the work piece shall not exceed 400C. For special applications like work piece with wall thickness over 60 mm, or work piece of very complicated shape or double wall, a maximum insertion temperature of 300C is required. During heating up and cooling down, no temperature gradient shall exceed: 100C/m in axial direction, nor 40 C/m in tangential direction
to be checked by temperature recorder. For wall thicknesses of pipe or plate upto and including 25 mm the rate of heating shall not exceed 200-250C/h. For thicknesses of pipe or plate over 25 mm the rate of heating shall not exceed: 5500/tC/h (t = maximum section thickness) or 55C/h, whichever is greater. During the heat treatment the furnace atmosphere shall be selected so as to avoid excessive oxidation/surface attack. There shall be no direct flame impingement. During cooling the workpiece must remain in the furnace until the temperature of all parts with wall thickness over 25 mm has fallen below 400C. Hereafter cooling in still air is allowed. During furnace cooling no temperature gradient shall exceed: 100C/m in axial direction, nor 40C/m in tangential direction, to be checked by temperature recorder. The workpiece shall be cooled to 400C whereby the cooling rate is limited as follows: For wall thicknesses of pipe or plate < 25mm 275C/h 6875/t (t = maximum section thickness
For wall thickneses >= 25 mm
or 55C/h whichever is the greater. The pre-heat and postweld heat treatment temperatures for various materials are given in the table below. 10.2 PRE-HEAT REQUIREMENTS Amendments to DEP 30.10.60.18-Gen May 2004. Pre-heating of the parent metal prior to any welding, tack welding and thermal cutting may be necessary to avoid cold cracking of certain ferritic steels in the weld and HAZ. Pre-heating could also be required for welding of non-ferrous materials to remove moisture or to prevent hot cracking Temperature control can be carried out with temperature sensitive crayons, digital pyrometers, contact thermometers or calibrated thermocouples. Thermocouples must be calibrated in accordance with IEC 584-2 (highest class). Temperature recorders must be calibrated twice a year. Calibration to be recorded on a registration list. Material Pre-heat Post-weld heat treatment Temp.rangeC min.-max. Optional 4) 580- 620 620 - 64011) Optional 4) 540- 580 Optional 4) 580- 620 640- 680 5) 680- 720 6) 7) 630- 680 5)7) 680- 720 6) 7) 720- 750 7)9) 680- 720 5) 7 720- 760 7) 9) 700- 790 10) Holding time; min. per mm wall thickness 2) 2.5
Wall thickness Min. temp.C 1) Wall thickness mm mm Carbon Steel 25 > 25 25 > 25 20 > 20 all all 20 20 3) Optional 4) 100-150 20 100-150 100-150 200-250 32 > 32 32 > 32 20 > 20 all all
Fine grained and low nickel alloy steels 0.3Mo 0.5Mo steel 1Cr 0.5Mo 1.25Cr 0.5Mo 2.25Cr 1Mo
2.5 2.5 2.5 8) 5 8)
5Cr 0.5Mo 9Cr 1Mo 12-17 Cr martensitisch rvs
all all
200-250 200-300
all all
5 8) 2,5
Tabellen ex DEP 30.10.60.18-Gen rev.1986 and a revision d.d. 12-09-2006

1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9) 10)
If ambient temperature is below 5C pre-heating at 40C is recommendable. Minimum holding time 1 hour. Low hydrogen filler metals have to be used. PWHT is required for Ceq 0,45 of C 0,23. For optimum high temperature creep properties in general the lower side of the temperature range is used. Temperature range in the case of service for hygrogen (H2) or general refinery services. Minimaal 10 below refinement temperature. See table 1. Temperature range for maximum softening. PWHT temperature is dependent of the PWHT temperature of the base metal. Rev.: A Inhoudelijk beheer: CEI/6, REA/3 Eigenaar: Voorzitter BBS proces 04 Pagina: 39 van 91 Niveau: 2
Opwarm- en afkoelsnelheid Activiteit Opwarmen Opwarmen Afkoelen Afkoelen Wanddikte t 25 mm t > 25 mm t 25 mm t > 25 mm Vrij gebied inC 0 300 0 300 400 0, onder isolatie 400 0, onder isolatie Begrensde gebied inC T > 300, snelheid maximaal 200C/uur T > 300, snelheid maximaal 5500/t inC/uur, of 55C/uur (welke de grootste is) T > 400, snelheid maximaal 200C/uur T > 400, snelheid maximaal 6875/t inC/uur, of 55C/uur (welke de grootste is)
Rev.: A
11.
WELDING OF LOW ALLOY NICKEL STEELS

(1%, 2.5%, 3.5%, 5% and 9% Ni). Shell International Oil Products Best Welding Practice and Procedures
11.1
INTRODUCTION Some percents of nickel are added to C-Mn-steels to make it possible to use these steels to temperatures down to 196C. In principle there are five types: 1% nickel, application down to 50C. 2.5% nickel, application down to 80C. 3.5% nickel, application down to 120C. 5% nickel, application from 120 till 170C. 9% nickel; application down to 196C.
The latter also can be used for high tensile application, i.e. for transportable vessels. 11.2 WELDABILITY According to the formula of the carbon equivalent some hardening of these types of steel may occur. However, the type of martensite that is formed, due to rapid cooling, is, due to its toughness, less dangerous than the martensite in C-Mn-steels. In principle these types of steel are, compared with i.e. the Cr-Mo-steels, easy to weld. Information for welding is given in chapter 6: Welding technique. However, the mechanical properties of the 5 and 9% nickel steels are obtained by a complex thermal treatment. This includes quenching and tempering or double normalizing and tempering. The thermal cycle during welding has a negative effect on the mechanical properties of the HAZ. 11.3 APPLICABLE WELDING PROCESSES. For the welding of these types of steels the following welding processes can be used: SMAW GMAW FCAW GTAW SAW
Except for repair welding of pressure vessel, storage tanks and pipelines, the SAW process shall not be used (see: DEP 30.10.60.18.clause 5.2.6). 11.4 WELDING CONSUMABLES
11.4.1.1 SMAW (ISO process number 111) Due to the low-temperature application of these steels, covered electrodes shall be used that meet the mechanical requirements at the design temperature. This is no problem for welding the 1, 2.5 and 3.5% nickel steels. For these steels basic low hydrogen electrodes, having a deposit with a diffusible hydrogen content not exceeding 10 ml/100 g metal, shall be used. The chemical composition shall be compatible with the parent metal. All the alloying elements shall be present in the core wire; that means that the use of synthetic electrodes shall be prohibited. If the design temperature of the 3.5% nickel steel, is below 100C, the 3.5% nickel electrodes shall not be used, as the mechanical properties are not sufficient at these temperatures. Here the high nickel alloy electrodes shall be used. For the 5 and 9% nickel steels only nickel base alloys, i.e. 60 70% nickel and 8 10% molybdenum shall be used. (Incoweld A/B, Inconel 625, Inconel 182 or Inconel 112).
Consumables with > 40% nickel, with thermal expansion coefficient similar to that of the parent metal, may be used for 5% nickel steel in service colder than 120C. 11.4.1.2 GMAW Solid wire (ISO process number 131) When GMAW welding with solid wires, the chemical composition of the wires to be used, shall comply with the requirements as mentioned above for the electrodes. The wire to be used shall be compatible with the type of shielding gas. Flux cored wire (ISO process number 136) When FCAW welding the chemical composition of the wires to be used, shall meet the requirements as mentioned above for the electrodes. The wire to be used shall be compatible with the type of shielding gas. 11.4.1.3 GTAW (ISO process number 141) When GTAW welding the chemical composition of the wires to be used, shall meet the requirements as mentioned above for the electrodes. The wire to be used shall be compatible with the type of shielding gas. 11.4.1.4 SAW (ISO process number 121) When using the SAW process the chemical composition and the mechanical properties of the deposited metal shall match the parent metal. Using welding fluxes with alloying additions is not allowed. 11.5 WELD PREPARATION Flame cutting, plasma arc cutting as well as mechanical processes may be used for weld preparation. When thermal cutting or arc-air gouging, pre-heating shall be applied to prevent excessive hardening. See 6: Welding technique. To prevent high carbon pick-up during arc-air gouging, a power source with a minimum open voltage over 80 V shall be used. Besides, the pressure and the amount of compressed air shall be in accordance with the recommendations of the supplier. When arc-air gouging has been carried out, the edges shall be dressed back for a minimum of 1 mm by grinding or machining, to eliminate the zone with carbon pick up. As the high nickel welding consumables have a higher viscosity and a lower melting point than the 5 and 9% nickel steel itself, the weld preparation should have a greater included angle than for CMn-steels. This to minimize the risk of lack of fusion and or hot cracking. 11.6 WELDING TECHNIQUE Pre-heating In order to remove moisture, pre-heating at 70C shall be applied if the wall thickness is over 20 mm. Heat input Welding shall apply conform the documented welding procedures. The relevant procedure qualification shall be made for the combination of the highest heat input and the smallest plate thickness within the qualification range. The heat input to plate thickness ratio (kiloJoules/mm) shall be limited to 0,1 kJ/mm maximum for Incoweld A/.B and Inconel 182. The ratio shall be limited to 0,2 kJ/mm maximum for Mo-containing high nickel weld metal. <To be discussed> Interpass temperature According API 582 the max. interpass temperature is 315C.
Rev.: A
Bead shape Welding shall be applied in the stringer bead method only. For the complete fusion of a subsequent weld run, all convex weld beads of the previous runs shall be removed by grinding. To remove the crater and to avoid hot cracking, the end of each electrode run shall be removed by grinding. To avoid excessive porosity the backward manipulation shall be as short as possible. Alternating current (AC) shall be used with SMAW, since direct current may cause magnetic arc blow problems and consequent lack of fusion. Back welding shall be applied as far as the reverse side is assessable. 11.7 POST WELD HEAT TREATMENT The range for PWHT shall be in accordance with the steel manufacturers recommendations. The PWHT temperature shall always be at least 20C below the tempering temperature to avoid deterioration of the mechanical properties (particularly the toughness) of the parent metal. 11.8 REPAIR WELDING For repair welding, the processes, mentioned in clause 4 of this document, may be used, except the SAW-process for the applications as mentioned in DEP 30.10.60.18 clause 5.2.6.3. For repair welding, all requirements for welding, as stated in this document, shall be fulfilled, in conjunction with the requirements as given in Shell Best Welding Practice and Procedures: General requirements for repair welding. 11.9 REFERENCES API 582, edition march 2001. Design and engineering practice DEP 30.10.60.18, edition June 2003.
Rev.: A
12.
WELDING OF AUSTENITIC STAINLESS STEELS

(AISI 304, 316, 321, 347, including L-grades). Shell International Oil Products Best Welding Practice and Procedures
12.1
INTRODUCTION If 13% Cr is added to a C-Mn-steel, the chrome oxide, that is formed due to the oxidation of the chromium, will form a close and protective film on the steel surface. This oxide layer protects the material; directly below this surface, against the attack by the oxygen. Also when this oxide film is damaged, it has the capability to repair itself. Apart from chromium, also nickel and sometimes molybdenum is added as alloying element. This leads to four basic types of stainless steel: Martensitic stainless steel. Ferritic stainless steel. Austenitic stainless steel. Austenitic ferritic stainless steel (also known as duplex stainless steel).
This document deals with welding of the stainless steel types AISI 304, 314, 321 and 347; known as the standard austenitic types, and some of their modifications. Welding of other stainless steels are described in separate documents. 12.1.1 In general Austenitic stainless steels are in most cases AISI 304, 321 or 347. Sometimes AISI 316 is applied. The Cr and Ni content shall produce a weld metal with 3 8% ferrite. Austenitic stainless steels stabilized with Nb or Ti are welded with consumables stabilized with Nb, as Ti will oxidize in the welding arc. The ferrite content can be measured with point counting ASTM E562. 12.1.2 Severe corrosion The stainless steels selected are the low carbon types, e.g. AISI 304L/316L and/or the stabilized types e.g. AISI 321, 347, 316 Ti, 316 Nb. The selection of welding consumables shall be related to the intended corrosive service an/or fabrication procedures. In practice this means that either low-carbon (C < 0,03%) or stabilized filler materials shall be used. The corrosion resistance of the weld metal will improve if a lower percentage of ferrite is specified. However, with too low ferrite content, the weld metal is sensible to hot cracking, while too high ferrite contents promote the formation of sigma phase during heat treatment. An amount of 3 8% ferrite should be specified. Special types of consumables shall be selected with a basic type of coating or flux. For severe corrosive service, austenitic stainless steels may be specified with an increased Mocontent, e.g. 18 Cr 12 Ni 4 Mo (AISI 317). The structure stability of AISI 317 is much less at elevated temperatures then e.g. AISI 316. The heat input shall be restricted to prevent the formation of ferrite/sigma phase in the HAZ during welding. The interpass temperature shall be kept below 150C. Welding consumables shall have a matching chemical composition with a ferrite content of maximum 5%, hence high Ni and N. 12.1.3 Moderate to high-temperature service. The selected stainless steels are AISI 304Mod, 304 H and 321 H. For castings AISI 347 H material is sometimes used. The stainless steel shall be welded with consumables which match the main elements Cr, Mo and C of the base material.
Rev.: A
The carbon content of the weld metal shall be minimum 0,04% C to obtain acceptable creep properties. The carbon content for the non-stabilized stainless steels shall be below 0,06% C to reduce any intercrystalline attack during idle periods of the construction and embrittlement in service. The normal types of consumables used for the welding of corrosion resistant austenitic stainless steels cannot be used since the carbon content is too low in the weld metal. Filler material shall meet the AISI 308H requirements. The ferrite content shall be between 3 8%. 12.1.4 High temperature service For high temperature service 25 Cr 12 Ni or 25 Cr 20 Ni stainless steel may be selected. For severe creep conditions cast alloys with an increased carbon content are generally used. To obtain the required creep properties, the composition of the welding consumables shall match the base material. The weld metal obtained is often fully austenitic and care shall be taken to avoid the formation of hot cracks (see: Clauses on weld preparation and welding technique). 12.1.5 Low temperature service The stainless steel selected for low-temperature service are the same as for general service. Weld metal containing Nb should not be used for service temperatures below 105C, since the impact requirements might not be fulfilled. The impact properties of the austenitic weld metal may be impaired by a large amount of ferrite (> 8%) or the formation of martensite from metastable austenite at 196C. The ferrite content shall therefore be limited to maximum 8%. 12.2 WELDABILITY Consequently the rules for welding of stainless steels depend not only on the microstructure but also on the desired application. Welding of the austenitic stainless steel is not difficult; however there are some rules that should be followed. Table 12-1: Chemical composition of the standard austenitic stainless steels AISI 304 304 L 321 347 304 H 316 316L 316 Ti 318 (316 Nb) EN 10 088 X5CrNi 18-10 X2CrNi 19-11 X6CrNiTi18-10 X6CrNiNb18-19 X6CrNi18 - 11 X5CrNiMo17-12-2 X2CrNiMo17-12-2 X6CrNiMoTi17-12-2 X6CrNiMoNb17-12-2 C 0,08 0,03 0,08 0,08 0,04 0,10 0,08 0,03 0,08 0,08 Cr 18,0 20,0 18,0 20,0 17,0 19,0 17,0 19,0 18,0 20,0 16,0 18,0 16,0 18,0 16,0 18,0 16,0 18,0 Ni 8,0 10,5 8,0 12,0 9,0 12,0 9,0 13,0 8,0 11,00 10,0 14,0 10,0 14,0 10,0 14,0 10,0 14,0 2,0 3,0 2,0 3,0 2,0 3,0 2,0 3,0 Ti: 5 x C Nb: 10 x C Ti: 5 x C Nb: 10 x C Mo Other
As chromium with carbon will form a chromium carbide at elevated temperatures, chromium will thus be extracted from the matrix. Due to this extraction, the chromium content will locally be below the 13%, so corrosion may occur. As these carbides are formed along the grain boundaries, corrosion will take place along these boundaries. This phenomena is called intercrystalline corrosion. As welding can be compared with a heat treatment at high temperatures, th is phenomena may occur after welding. Heat treatment at about 1000C will bring these carbides in solution, so the original corrosion resistance of the steel is gained again. The risk of corrosion may be minimized by adding other elements that will react with the carbon before, i.e. titanium or niobium (columbium). Adding these elements is called stabilisation of the stainless steel. An other possibility is decreasing the carbon content to about 0,03% maximum. This results in the so called L-types.
When using an AISI 304-quality in an environment in which Cl-ions are present, a damaged oxide film will, due to these ions, not repair itself. So the base material on that spot will be attacked and small pores under the oxide film may be formed. This phenomena is called pitting. By adding 2 3% molybdenum to the stainless steel, these damages in this oxide film will be repaired by itself. The basic type is called the AISI 316 type. Intercrystalline corrosion, may also be a problem with 316-types. Also here stabilisation with titanium (AISI 316 Ti) and niobium (columbium) (AISI 38/316 Nb (Cb) is possible as well as the lowcarbon type. Austenitic stainless steel is susceptible to hot cracking, caused by the high coefficient of thermal expansion of the material in combination with the high sensibility of nickel to pick-up of impurities like Sulphur, forming low melting nickel sulphides. To avoid this problem, a high level of cleanliness is required when welding austenitic stainless steel. Stainless steel shall not come in contact with unalloyed or low-alloyed steels. Fabrication with stainless steel shall be done separately in a work area and with tools only used for the fabrication of stainless steel. 12.2.1 Liquid metal embrittlement (LME) LME is the reduction in elongation (to failure) that can occur when normally ductile metals or alloys are stressed while in contact with liquid metals. A major area of concern is the presence of zinc on austenitic stainless steel and on high nickel alloys. During fabrication and heat treatment of stainless steel equipment, contamination of the stainless steel with zinc from paint or zinc-coated equipment must be avoided. The use of galvanized wires to fix thermocouples during heat treatment has been known to cause embrittlement and cracking. During welding of stainless steel, cracking can occur if zinc is present in the weld area. Galvanized steel or zinc containing paints are the most likely source of trouble, and equipment to be welded should be made completely free from zinc before any welding is performed. Special care shall be taken when flame cutting or welding galvanized parts to ensure that no zinc droplets can fall on austenitic stainless steel surfaces. If this happens, removal of these zinc droplets shall be done before any welding is performed. In the construction and fabrication of stainless steel equipment, piping, etc., where welding and heat treatment is to be carried out, galvanized or other zinc coatings should not be allowed to contact the hot steel. Where the presence of zinc is suspected, inspections should be performed prior to heat treatment to ensure that the materials susceptible to LME are not contaminated with zinc. 12.3 APPLICABLE WELDING PROCESSES The applicable welding processes are: SMAW-welding GMAW-P welding GMAW-welding FCAW-welding GTAW-welding SAW-welding Plasma-welding
For repair welding of pressure vessels, storage tanks and pipelines, the SAW process shall not be used (see: DEP clause 5.2.6). 12.4 WELDING CONSUMABLES General For general information and additional information about the filler metals see: API 582 clause 6.3: Austenitic stainless steel welding.
Rev.: A
12.4.1
SMAW (ISO process number 111) The electrodes to be used for welding are given in table A.2 in appendix A-Welding consumables for shielded Metal Arc Welding of API 582. To prevent sensitisation and weld decay at the grain boundaries, the carbon content for corrosive service is kept below 0,03% C or the parent metal shall be stabilized with Nb or Ti. For most applications a weld consumable is used with a low susceptibility to hot cracking in the weld metal, e.g. a weld metal with 3 8% ferrite. Please note that welding consumables containing Ti do not exist. Titanium will burn of in the welding arc.
12.4.2
GMAW (ISO process number 131) Solid wires may be used for the normal GMAW as for the GMAW-P-welding. The chemical analyses of the wires to be used should match the base material in combination with the shielding gasses used. For welding these types of steel gas mixtures of argon with small amounts of O 2 and max. 5% CO2 can be used. Care must be taken to avoid excessive oxidation of the base/weld metal and carburisation due to the use of CO2. Shielding gas mixtures with 99/1, 98/2 and 97/3% vol Ar/O 2 are available. With increased oxygen content, the viscosity of the weld pool decreases and the burn-off rate of the alloying elements increases. The decreased viscosity produces a smooth weld bead appearance but limits the weld position to the horizontal position only. To reduce the burn-off rate, an Ar/CO2 (98/2% vol) gas mixture can be used for the heat resisting alloys. Also adding 1% vol H2 to either Ar/O2 or Ar/CO2 will reduce the burn-off rate. Addition of hydrogen also increases the arc energy (better penetration, better width/wall thickness ratio and higher welding speed). For most applications, a welding consumable is used with a low susceptibility to hot cracking in the weld metal, e.g. a weld metal with 3 8% ferrite.
12.4.3
Flux cored wire (ISO process number 136) Also flux cored wires may be used for welding austenitic stainless steel. The chemical analyses of the deposit shall match that of the base material to be welded. The shielding gasses to be used shall be advised by the wire manufacturer. For most applications, a weld consumable is used with a low susceptibility to hot cracking in the weld metal, e.g. a weld metal with 3 8% ferrite.
12.4.4
GTAW (ISO process number 141) The chemical composition of the wires to be used shall match base material. The gas to be used shall be pure argon. For most applications a weld consumable is used with a low susceptibility to hot cracking in the weld metal, e.g. a weld metal with 3 8% ferrite. When welding the root and the first pass, the back side of the weld shall be protected to prevent oxidation. The following backing gas compositions may be used: N2/H2 (95/5 - 85/15% vol.) or Ar (99,99%).
12.4.5
SAW (ISO process number 121) The SAW process may be used, where the deposited weld metal has a chemical deposition that is compatible with the base material. The welding flux may not have alloying elements, except for compensation of the burn off. For most applications a weld consumable is used with a low susceptibility to hot cracking in the weld metal, e.g. a weld metal with 3 8% ferrite.
12.5
WELD PREPARATION Weld preparation may be done by either machining or by plasma arc cutting. Depending on the material quality to be cut by the plasma arc process, air or a gas mixture of Ar/H 2 is used in the combination 85/15, 80/20 and 65/35% vol. The higher H 2 content, the higher the arc energy, resulting in higher cutting speeds and/or cutting thicker plates.
As well after machining as after plasma arc cutting the edges shall be dressed back for at least 1 mm. As stainless steel welding consumables have a higher viscosity than C-Mn-steels, the weld preparations should have a larger included angle than the one commonly used for steel. This to minimize the risk of lack of fusion defects and solidification cracking due to the low fluidity of the weld metal. 12.6 12.6.1 WELDING TECHNIQUE General For general information see: DEP 30.10.60.18 clause 8: Welding. Tack welds shall be made at small intervals. Cleanliness is very important; special attention shall be paid to the weld area to avoid carbon pickup, hardening and hot cracking. For GMAW and GTAW welding, backing gas shall be applied to prevent oxidation of the HAZ and weld. 12.6.2 Pre-heating Pre-heating shall not be done, as these materials are sensitive to hot cracking. Hot cracking can be prevented by cooling down rapidly after welding. Heat input Welding shall be carried out according the WPS, whereby the heat input shall be limited to the values actually tested, to prevent hot-cracking. Interpass temperature. Recommended maximum interpass temperatures are given in API 582, clause 9. Bead shape Welding shall be carried out using the stringer bead method. Weaving is not allowed. WELDING PLATES When welding plates, this document may be used. For weld fit-up, the use of backing, welding conditions, weld application and so on: see DEP 30.10.60.18 clause 8.1. WELDING PIPES When welding plates, this document may be used. For weld fit-up, the use of backing, welding conditions, weld application and so on: see DEP 30.10.60.18 clause 8.1. TREATMENT AFTER WELDING After heavy oxidation of the weld and HAZ, the corrosion resistance can be restored by pickling and passivation or by chemical cleaning followed by passivation. If the material is used for product purity, so not for its corrosion resistance, only picking is acceptable. 12.10 REPAIR WELDING For repair welding these types of steel see: clause 6 Welding technique and other recommendations mentioned in this BWP, in conjunction with the requirements as given in Shell Best Welding Practice and Procedures: General requirements for repair welding. REFERENCES API 582, edition march 2001. Design and engineering practice DEP 30.10.60.18, edition June 2003.
12.6.3
12.6.4 12.6.5
12.7
12.8
12.9
12.11
Rev.: A
13.
WELDING OF SUPER AUSTENITIC STAINLESS STEELS.

13.1
INTRODUCTION If 13% Cr is added to a C-Mn-steel, the chrome oxide, that is formed due to the oxidation of the chromium, will form a close and protective film on the steel surface. This oxide layer protects the material; directly below this surface, against the attack by the oxygen. Also when this oxide film is damaged it has the capability to repair itself. Apart from chromium, also nickel and sometimes molybdenum is added as alloying element. This leads to four basic types of stainless steel: Martensitic stainless steel. Ferritic stainless steel. Austenitic stainless steel. Austenitic ferritic stainless steel (also known as duplex stainless steel).
The group of austenitic stainless steels has been further developed by increasing the nickel content to eliminate residual ferrite and to improve corrosion cracking resistance. Some of these modern stainless steels also contain niobium for stabilisation, copper for increased acid corrosion and nitrogen for higher strength and improved pitting resistance. In the table some examples are given. UNS N08904 N08926 S31254 N08028 N08825 1.4563 2.4858 E.Nr C (max) 1.4539 1.4529 0,03 0,03 0,03 0,03 0,03 Cr 20 21 20 27 21 Chemical composition (weight%) Ni 25 25 18 31 41 Mo 4,5 6,5 6 4 3 Cu 1,5 0,9 0,7 1 2 +Ti 0,2 0,2 N
This document deals with welding of the super stainless steels. 13.2 WELDABILITY The corrosion resistance of these steels in some environments depends upon their fully austenitic microstructure. In order to match the performance of the base material, the weld must be fully austenitic with no residual ferrite. Such weld metal is sensitive for hot cracking and particularly to micro fissuring in reheated weld metal. To encounter these phenomena, it is necessary to make certain compositional modifications by increasing the manganese range to 3 6%, by keeping a low silicon content and by maintaining sulphur and phosphorus at very low levels. It is important to keep both the heat input as well as the interpass temperature low; a typical recommendation being 1,5 kJ/mm and 150C maximum. Many of the super austenitic alloys derive their exceptional corrosion resistance from high molybdenum levels, i.e. 5 6%. Unfortunately, weld metals of matching composition, and remelted parent metal, suffer from segregation of molybdenum, resulting in micro structural areas of molybdenum depletion which are sensitive to pitting in aggressive high chloride media. In addition, the nickel content is too low to ensure the complete suppression of undesirable intermetallic phases which also impair corrosion and mechanical properties. Since high temperature solution treatment is impractical, it is common practice to overcome this problem by using overmatching nickel based consumables which provide higher molybdenum contents (8 10%) with excellent micro structural stability and as welded corrosion resistance.
13.3
APPLICABLE WELDING PROCESSES The applicable welding processes are: SMAW-welding. GMAW-P welding. GMAW-welding. FCAW-welding. GTAW-welding. SAW-welding. Plasma-welding.
The SAW process shall not be used for repair welding of pressure vessel, storage tanks and pipelines (see: DEP 30.10.6018 clause 5.2.6). 13.4 13.4.1 WELDING CONSUMABLES SMAW (ISO process number 111) The choice of the electrode coating will influence both the weldability and mechanical properties. Basic coated electrodes operate on DC and are recommended for positional welding thanks to their light slag which wets rapidly for good washing and no undercutting. Basic electrodes are also ideal for root passing on heavy plate because the slightly convex shape of the weld beads prevents cracking. Basic electrodes are required when stringent impact requirements must be met. All the alloying elements shall be in the coating of the electrode, so synthetic electrodes are not permitted to be used. 13.4.2 GMAW Solid wire (ISO process number 131) Solid wires may be used for the normal GMAW as for the GMAW-P-welding. The chemical analyses of the wires to be used should match with the base material in combination with the shielding gasses. For welding these types of steel gas mixtures of argon with small amounts of O 2 and max 5% CO2 can be used. Care must be taken to avoid excessive oxidation of the base/weld metal and carburisation due to CO2. Shielding gas mixtures with 99/1, 98/2 and 97/3% vol Ar/O 2 are available. With increased oxygen content, the viscosity of the weld pool decreases and the burn-off rate of the alloying elements increases. The decreased viscosity produces a smooth weld bead appearance but limits the weld position to the horizontal position only. To reduce the burn-off rate, an Ar/CO2 (98/2%vol) gas mixture can be used for the heat resisting alloys. Also adding 1% vol H2 to either Ar/O2 or Ar/CO2 will reduce the burn-off rate. Addition of hydrogen also increases the arc energy (better penetration, better width/wall thickness ratio and higher welding speed). 13.4.3 FCAW (ISO process number 136) Also flux cored wires may be used for welding the austenitic stainless steels. The chemical analyses of the deposit shall match that of the base material to be welded. The shielding gasses to be used shall be advised by the wire manufacturer. GTAW (ISO process number 141) The chemical composition of the wires to be used shall comply with the base material. The gas to be used shall be pure argon. For the GTAW process, there shall be any no oxidizing elements such as oxygen in the shielding gas. When welding the root and the first pass, the back side of the weld may be protected to prevent oxidation. The following backing gas application can be distinguished: N 2/H2 (95/5 - 85/15% vol) or Ar (99,99%).
13.4.4
13.4.5
SAW (ISO process number 121) The SAW process may be used, having a deposit which chemical deposition shall meet that of the base material to be welded. The welding flux may not have alloying elements, except for compensation of the burn off. WELD PREPARATION Weld preparation may be done by either machining or by plasma arc cutting. Depending on the material quality to be cut by the plasma arc process, air or a gas mixture of Ar/H 2 is used in the combination 85/15, 80/20 and 65/35% vol. The higher H2 content, the higher the arc energy, resulting in higher cutting speeds and/or cutting thicker plates. As well after machining as after plasma cutting the edges shall be dressed back for at least 1 mm. As stainless steel welding consumables have a higher viscosity than C-Mn-steels, the weld preparations should have a larger included angle than the one commonly used for steel. This to minimize the risk of lack of fusion defects and solidification cracking due to the low fluidity of the weld metal.
13.5
13.6
WELDING TECHNIQUE Pre-heating As these materials are sensible to heat cracking, pre-heating shall not be applied. Heat input It is important to keep both the heat input as well as the interpass temperature low; a typical recommendation being 1,5 kJ/mm and 150C maximum. Interpass temperature It is important to keep both the heat input as well as the interpass temperature low; a typical recommendation being 1,5 kJ/mm and 150C maximum. Bead shape Welding shall be carried out in the stringer bead method. Weaving shall not be done as this method will lead to too high heat input, resulting in hot cracking.
13.7
POST WELD HEAT TREATMENT Not applicable. REPAIR WELDING For repair welding super austenitic stainless steels, this document shall be applied in conjunction with Shell Best Welding Practice and Procedures: General requirements for repair welding. REFERENCES API 582, edition march 2001. Design and engineering practice DEP 30.10.60.18, edition June 2003.
13.8
13.9
Rev.: A
14.
WELDING OF DUPLEX AND SUPER DUPLEX STAINLESS STEELS.

14.1
INTRODUCTION When 13% Cr is added to C-Mn-steel, the chrome oxide, that is formed due to the oxidation of the chromium, will form a closed and protective film on the steel surface. This oxide layer protects the material directly below this surface, against the attack by the oxygen. Also when this oxide film is damaged it has the capability to repair itself. Apart from chromium, also nickel and sometimes molybdenum is used as alloying element. This leads to four types of stainless steels: Martensitic stainless steel. Ferritic stainless steel. Austenitic stainless steels. Austenitic ferritic stainless steels (also known as duplex stainless steels).
This document deals with welding of the last group mentioned, the duplex and the super duplex stainless steels. Duplex stainless steels (DSS) consist of a so called dual phase microstructure: about 50% of the structure is austenite and about 50% is ferrite. Due to this structure, duplex stainless steels combine a excellent corrosion resistance to excellent mechanical properties. Duplex stainless steels are a family of grades, which range in corrosion performance depending on their alloy content. The term Super-Duplex was first used in the 1980's to denote highly alloyed, high-performance Duplex steel with a pitting resistance equivalent of > 40 (based on Cr% + 3.3Mo% + 16N%). With its high level of chromium, Super-Duplex steel provides outstanding resistance to acids, acid chlorides, caustic solutions and other environments in the chemical/petrochemical, pulp and paper industries, often replacing 300 series stainless steel, high nickel super-austenitic steels and nickel-based alloys. In the table the most relevant (super) duplex stainless steels are listed. Classification UNS S31803 S32550 S32750 S32760 14.2 EN 1.4462 1.4507 1.4410 1.4501 C < 0,030 < 0,030 < 0,030 < 0,030 Cr 22 25 25 25 Ni 5 6,5 7 7 Chemical composition Mo 3 3 4 3,4 N 0,14 0,22 0.3 0,23 0,8 0,8 1,5 Cu W
WELDABILITY Welding may have a significant adverse effect on corrosion behaviour of these alloys; they can show a major change in the ferritic-austenitic balance in welds and HAZ. The majority of problems arising from poor toughness and corrosion resistance that have led to failures and difficulties in fabrication in DSS, are related to the quality of welding, incorrect selection of consumables, inadequate welding procedures for all geometries being considered, lack of cleanliness during and after welding or inadequate heat treatment. The aim when welding DSS is to produce a weld metal and HAZ equal in toughness and corrosion resistance as the base material. The high nitrogen contents of modern alloys help in this respect by increasing the austenite formation in the HAZ during cooling. Filler metals with higher nickel content than the base material should be used to ensure that the weld metal is compatible with the properties of the base metal; matching nickel contents produce excessive ferrite contents in the weld.
Rev.: A
In DSS, incorrect heat input produces loss of toughness in the weld metal. Too low heat input might not allow sufficient time for adequate austenite formation. Too high heat input, or accumulation of total exposure time in the critical temperature range (800 475 C) by the HAZ of a multipass weld, could lead to the formation of detrimental intermetallic phases. Control of interpass temperature is essential and should be below 150C. The PQR shall also include impact testing (with acceptance criteria appropriate to the application) as well as ferrite determination. The acceptable range for ferrite is 35 to 55% throughout the weld area, preferably at the lower side of this range. Ferrite content shall be determined by point counting ASTM E562. DSS can be welded using most welding processes, but for field welding where access to the weld is limited to one side only (back welding not possible), GTAW shall be used with a hydrogen free shielding gas (e.g. argon) to avoid possible cracking and embrittlement of the weld. SMAW consumables shall be handled as low hydrogen consumables (giving a weld metal with a diffusible hydrogen content which shall not exceed 10 ml/100 g weld metal) to avoid hydrogen cracking in the ferritic phase of DSS. As current DSS contains considerable amounts of nitrogen, both as an austenite former and to enhance the pitting resistance, control of this element is essential. Diffusion from the HAZ to weld metal and/or loss of nitrogen from the weld pool may occur. This can be reduced or prevented by use or argon/nitrogen (max. 2,0% nitrogen) shielding gas. During welding, DSS shall be protected from oxidation by providing a shielding purge on the inside with the same composition as the shielding gas for welding. The purge gas shall replace all air. No 3 welding shall start until the oxygen content has dropped to below 50 ml/m . During welding the root run, there may be a surge when welding is started and welding shall be stopped if this surge goes 3 higher than 500 ml/m . This shall be measured with an oxygen analyser, capable of measuring 3 oxygen contents between 0 and 1000 ml/m . The root side shall be subjected to visual inspection to determine the level of oxidation prior to any destructive testing. Welds shall have no excessive oxidation marks (which may result when using SMAW or may be caused by improper back-purging when using GTAW). The weld appearance should be shiny but a small degree of grey oxidation at and near the weld is acceptable. The acceptable degree of oxidation is difficult to quantify but, in case of doubt a material engineer should be consulted. Note: Colour photographs, showing acceptable and unacceptable colouration, see DEP 30.10.60.31-Gen. 14.3 APPLICABLE WELDING PROCESSES The applicable welding processes are: SMAW-welding GMAW-P welding GMAW-welding FCAW-welding GTAW-welding SAW-welding Plasma-welding
The SAW process shall not be used for repair welding of pressure vessel, storage tanks and pipelines (see: DEP 30.10.60.18 clause 5.2.6). 14.4 WELDING CONSUMABLES General Filler metals with higher nickel content than the base material should be used to ensure that the weld structure is comparable in properties with the base metal; matching nickel contents produce too high ferrite contents in the weld. See remarks in clause 2: Weldability.
SMAW consumables shall be handled as low hydrogen consumables (giving a weld metal with a diffusible hydrogen content which shall not exceed 10 ml/100 g weld metal) to avoid hydrogen cracking in the ferritic phase of DSS. 14.4.1 SMAW (ISO process number 111) For welding (super) duplex stainless steel, basic low hydrogen electrodes, giving a weld metal which hydrogen content shall not exceed 10 ml/100 g weldmetal, shall be used. The chemical composition shall be compatible with the material to be welded. GMAW Solid wire (ISO process number 131) GMAW, with or without pulse may be used. The pulsed mode is preferred as the heat input can be well controlled. The chemical composition of the wire shall be compatible with the shielding gas to be used, resulting in the desired chemistry of the weld metal. For welding these types of steel gas mixtures of argon with small amounts of 0 2 and max 5% CO2 can be used. Care must be taken to avoid excessive oxidation of the base/weld metal and carburisation due to CO2. Shielding gas mixtures with 99/1, 98/2 and 97/3% vol Ar/O2 are available. With increased oxygen content, the viscosity of the weld pool decreases and the burn-off rate of the alloying elements increases. The decreased viscosity produces a smooth weld bead appearance but limits the weld position to the horizontal position only. To reduce the burn-off rate, an Ar/CO2 (98/2% vol) gas mixture can be used for the heat resisting alloys. Also adding 1% vol H2 to either Ar/02 or Ar/CO2 will reduce the burn-off rate. Addition of hydrogen also increases the arc energy (better penetration, better width/wall thickness ratio and higher welding speed). 14.4.3 FCAW (ISO process number 136) Flux cored wires may be used, in combination with the shielding gas as advised by the supplier. The deposit shall be compatible with the chemical composition of the base material. GTAW (ISO process number 141) The chemical composition of the wires to be used shall be compatible with the base material. The gasses to be used shall be pure argon. For the GTAW process, there shall be any no oxidizing elements such as oxygen in the shielding gas. Such elements will cause oxidation of the tungsten electrode. When welding the root and the first pass, the back side of the weld may be protected to prevent oxidation. The following backing gas application may be used: N2/H2 (95/5 - 85/15% vol) or Ar (99,99%). 14.4.5 SAW (ISO process number 121) The SAW process may be used, having a deposit which chemical deposition shall be compatible with that of the base material to be welded. The welding flux may not have alloying elements, except for compensation of the burn off. WELD PREPARATION Weld preparation may be done by either machining or by plasma cutting. Depending on the material quality to be cut, air or a gas mixture of Ar/H 2 is used in the combination 85/15, 80/20 and 65/35% vol. The higher H2 content, the higher the arc energy, resulting in higher cutting speeds and/or cutting thicker plates. As well after machining as after plasma cutting the edges shall be dressed back for at least 1 mm. As stainless steel welding consumables have a higher viscosity than C-Mn-steels, the weld preparations should have a larger included angle than the one commonly used for steel. This to minimize the risk of lack of fusion defects due to the low fluidity of the weld metal. 14.6 WELDING TECHNIQUE For general information see: DEP 30.10.60.18 clause 8: Welding.
14.4.2
14.4.4
14.5
Tack welds shall be made at small intervals. Pre-heating Pre-heating shall not be carried out. Heat input Welding shall be done within the range of heat input as stated on the WPS to prevent to much ferrite in the weld metal. Interpass temperature Control of interpass temperature is essential and should be below 150C. See remarks in clause 2 Special problems to be faced. Bead shape Welding shall be carried out in the stinger bead method. Weaving will lead to a too high heat input leading in a distortion of the desired austenite - ferrite balance. Ferrite The acceptable range for ferrite is 35 to 55%, preferably at the lower side of this range. 14.7 WELDING PLATES When welding plates, this document may be used. For weld fit-up, the use of backing, welding conditions, weld application and so on see: DEP 30.10.60.18 clause 8.1. WELDING PIPES When welding plates, this document may be used. For weld fit-up, the use of backing, welding conditions, weld application and so on see: DEP 30.10.60.18 clause 8.1. POST WELD HEAT TREATMENT PWHT requires approval of the principal. TREATMENT AFTER WELDING After heavy oxidation of the weld and HAZ, the corrosion resistance can be restored by pickling and passivation or by chemical cleaning followed by passivation. REPAIR WELDING For repair welding (super) duplex stainless steels this document shall be applied in conjunction with Shell Best Welding Practice and Procedures: General requirements for repair welding. REFERENCES API 582, edition march 2001 DEP 30.10.60.18, edition June 2003: Design and engineering practice. ASTM E562 Test method for determining volume fraction by systematic manual point count.
14.8
14.9
14.10
14.11
14.12
Rev.: A
15.
WELDING OF MARTENSITIC STAINLESS STEELS

15.1
INTRODUCTION If 13% Cr is added to a C-Mn-steel, the chrome oxide, that is formed due to the oxidation of the chromium, will form a close and protective film on the steel surface. This oxide layer protects the material; directly below this surface, against the attack by the oxygen. Also when this oxide film is damaged it has the capability to repair itself. Apart from chromium, also nickel and sometimes molybdenum is added as alloying element. This leads to four basic types of stainless steel: Martensitic stainless steel. Ferritic stainless steel. Austenitic stainless steel. Austenitic ferritic stainless steel (also known as duplex stainless steel).
This document deals with welding of the martensitic stainless steels. The martensitic stainless steels contain in general 12 18% Cr and an increased carbon content. Examples of these type of steels are given in the table. AISI 410 420 430 EN C X 12 Cr 13 X 20 Cr 13 X8Cr17 < 0,15 0,20 0,07 Chemical composition Mn < 1,0 < 1,0 < 1,0 Si < 1,0 < 1,0 < 1,0 Cr 13 13 17
These type of stainless steels are not generally used as material for welded constructions, since they often give problems during fabrication, welding and heat treatment. Examples of applications are: 15.2 Strip lining of pressure vessel to resist sulphur corrosion. Internal valves. Tray decks. Castings for pumps. Strip lining or cladding of pumps.
WELDABILITY The main problem with welding of martensitic stainless steels is the sensitivity to hydrogen induced cracking (cold cracking) of the weld metal and the HAZ due to the formation of martensite with high hardness. Martensitic Stainless Steels, containing more than 0,25% C are considered to be not weldable! To prevent cold cracking in the HAZ of welds in thick sections of e.g. pumps/valves casings, the following measures shall be taken: Pre-heat to 200 250C. Weld with austenitic low hydrogen type of consumables or apply Ni-base consumables. Maintain the interpass temperature below 300C during the entire welding operation. Post heat at 200 250C for one hour, cooling down to 100C and immediately followed by a heat treatment at 700 790C to change the martensite into carbides and ferrite.
Rev.: A
15.3
APPLICABLE WELDING PROCESSES The applicable welding processes are: SMAW-welding GMAW-P welding GMAW-welding FCAW-welding GTAW-welding SAW-welding Plasma-welding
The SAW process may not be used for repair welding of pressure vessels, storage tanks and pipelines (See DEP 30.10.6018 clause 5.2.6). 15.4 WELDING CONSUMABLES General In most cases, martensitic stainless steels are welded with an austenitic type of weld metal. The martensite formation is then restricted to the HAZ. The hardness of the martensite in the HAZ can be reduced by selecting a material with a lower carbon content. 15.4.1 SMAW (ISO process number 111) Welding shall be done with basic covered low hydrogen electrodes, giving a weld deposit with a hydrogen content not exceeding 10 ml 100 g weld metal. The alloying elements shall be in the coating of the electrode, so synthetic electrodes shall not be used. GMAW (ISO process number 131) Solid wires may be used for the normal GMAW as for the GMAW-P-welding. The chemical analyses of the wires to be used should comply with the shielding gas. For welding these types of steel gas mixtures of argon with small amounts of O 2 and max 5% CO2 can be used. Care must be taken to avoid excessive oxidation of the base/weld metal and carburisation due to the use of CO2.. Shielding gas mixtures with 99/1, 98/2 and 97/3% vol Ar/O2 are available. With increased oxygen content, the viscosity of the weld pool decreases and the burn-off rate of the alloying elements increases. The decreased viscosity produces a smooth weld bead appearance but limits the weld position to the horizontal position only. For most applications a welding consumable is used with a low susceptibility to hot cracking in the weld metal, e.g. an austenitic weld metal with 3 8% ferrite. 15.4.3 Flux cored wire (ISO process number 136) Also flux cored wires may be used. The shielding gasses to be used shall be advised by the wire manufacturer. For most applications a welding consumable is used with a low susceptibility to hot cracking in the weld metal, e.g. a weld metal with 3 8% ferrite. 15.4.4 GTAW (ISO process number 141) The gasses to be used shall be pure argon. For most applications a weld consumable is used with a low susceptibility to hot cracking in the weld metal, e.g. a weld metal with 3 8% ferrite. For the GTAW process, there shall be any no oxidizing elements such as oxygen in the shielding gas. Such elements will cause oxidation of the tungsten electrode. When welding the root and the first pass, the back side of the weld can be protected to prevent oxidation. The following backing gas application can be distinguished: N2/H2 (95/5 85/15% vol) or Ar (99,99%).
15.4.2
Rev.: A
15.4.5
SAW (ISO process number 121) The welding flux may not have alloying elements, except for compensation of the burn off. For most applications a weld consumable is used with a low susceptibility to hot cracking in the weld metal, e.g. a weld metal with 3 8% ferrite.
15.5
WELD PREPARATION Weld preparation may be done by either machining or by plasma arc cutting. Depending on the material quality to be cut by the plasma arc process, air or a gas mixture of Ar/H2 is used in the combination 85/15, 80/20 and 65/35% vol. The higher H 2 content the higher the arc energy, resulting in higher cutting speeds and/or cutting thicker plates. As well after machining as after plasma cutting the edges shall be dressed back for at least 1 mm.
15.6
WELDING TECHNIQUE Backing gas When welding the root and the first pass, the back side of the weld can be protected to prevent oxidation. The following backing gas application can be distinguished: N 2/H2 (95/5 - 85/15% vol) or Ar (99,99%). Pre-heating Before welding these steels shall be pre-heated to 200 250C. Heat input The heat input shall be maintained as stated on the WPS. Interpass temperature According API 582 the maximum heat input shall be 315C. Bead shape Welding shall be carried out in the stringer bead method.
15.7
POST WELD HEAT TREATMENT After welding the following post weld heat treatment shall be carried out: post weld treatment at 200 250 , cooling down to 100C, immediately followed by heat treatment at 700 790C to change the martensite into carbides and ferrite. <Discussion: holding times to be specified? 2 hours for soaking and 1h per mm wall thickness>.
15.8
REPAIR WELDING For repair welding (super) duplex stainless steels this document shall be applied in conjunction with Shell Best Welding Practice and Procedures: General requirements for repair welding. REFERENCES API 582, edition march 2001. Design and engineering practice DEP 30.10.60.18, edition June 2003.
15.9
Rev.: A
16.
WELDING OF NICKEL ALLOYS

16.1
INTRODUCTION Nickel an the nickel base alloys are selected based on their ability to resist: Electrochemical corrosion and/or stress corrosion. Chemical corrosion, also at elevated temperatures. Severe creep conditions in combination with oxidation and corrosion.
Consequently the rules for welding nickel and nickel alloys depend not only on the chemical composition, but also on the required application. Most of the nickel alloys are well known under their trade names, developed by International Nickel. The most familiar types are given in the table. Trade name Ni Nickel 201 Monel 400 Inconel 600 Inconel 625 Incoloy 800 Incoloy 825 Hastalloy B Hastalloy C Hastalloy C 276 99,5 66,5 76,0 61,0 32,5 42,0 61,0 54,0 59,0 15,5 21,5 21,0 21,5 1,0 15,5 15,5 Cr Nominal chemical composition Fe 0,2 1,25 8,0 2,5 46,0 30,0 5,0 5,0 5,0 28,0 16,0 16,0 2,25 2,5 Co 2,5 Co 9,0 3,65 Nb 31,5 Mo Cu Others
The nickel alloys can be divided into two groups: 16.1.1 Solid state solution alloys. Precipitation hardening alloys.
Solid state solution alloys The main properties and the most well known alloys are: Nickel and nickel-iron alloys Two types of commercial pure nickel are available, one with a carbon content below 0,15%C (Nickel 200) and one with a carbon content below 0,02% C (Nickel 201). Nickel 201 is used when the application temperature is above 315C; if the temperature is below 315C, alloy Nickel 200 can be used. Nickel-copper alloys These alloys have a good formability, a good weldability and a excellent corrosion resistance to seawater, and other chloride solutions. A well known alloy is Monel 400. Nickel-chromium, nickel-iron and nickel molybdenum alloys These alloys combine a good corrosion resistance with good mechanical properties at elevated temperatures. Besides they have a good formability and weldability. The most important alloys are Inconel 600, Inconel 625.
Rev.: A
Nickel-iron-chromium and nickel-cobalt alloys The application of these alloys is for high strength at high temperatures and resistance to oxidation. Type Incoloy 825 is also used for stress corrosion resistance by chloride ions. Nickel-iron-chromium-molybdenum A well known type is Incoloy 800. Nickel-molybdenum alloys Alloy Hastalloy B has an excellent resistance against acids, especially HCl. Nickel-chromium-molybdenum alloys Hastalloy C and C 276 have a good corrosion resistance at elevated temperatures. 16.1.2 Precipitation hardening alloys Nickel and nickel-copper alloys By additions of small amounts Al and Ti precipitation hardening of these alloys is possible. These alloys have elevated strength properties compared with the solid state alloys, while the corrosion resistance is equivalent. Well known alloys are i.e. Duranickel, Monel-K 500. Nickel-chromium, nickel-cobalt and nickel-molybdenum alloys. These alloys get their strength by small additions of Al and Ti or Al, Ti and Nb. Some of the alloys of this group are: Inconel 700, Nimonic 80A. Nickel-iron-chromium alloys. The most well known alloy of this group is Incoloy 901. 16.2 WELDABILITY General Ni-base alloys are sensitive to hot (solidification) cracking. To avoid hot cracking, the area adjacent to the weld preparation shall be clean. S, Pb, P, As, Sb, Cd and Zn are detrimental impurities, which may be present in grease or paint. Marking ink shall also be removed. Acetone and equivalent solvents may be used for cleaning, to avoid porosity. The oxide layer shall be removed by grinding to a bright metal surface appearance just prior to welding. The weld preparation should have a greater included angle than those used for carbon steel, to minimize the risk of lack of fusion and hot cracking. The weld bead shall be ground smooth before the next weld is made, to minimize hot cracking especially at the stop/start positions. The solid state solution alloys The above-mentioned problems shall be faced when welding this type of nickel alloys. Precipitation hardening alloys Next to the above-mentioned items, welding these types of nickel alloys may result in the formation of all kind of oxides, i.e. Al-, Mo-, Nb-, Ti- and Zr-oxides, that are difficult to remove. They only can be removed by pickling or mechanical polishing. When welding in more layers, cleaning shall be done after each single bead. 16.3 APPLICABLE WELDING PROCESSES Welding nickel alloys can be done with the next welding processes: SMAW GMAW FCAW GTAW
16.4
SAW Plasma arc welding (PAW)
WELDING CONSUMABLES General The choice of the welding consumables to be used is based on the chemical and the mechanical requirements.
16.4.1
SMAW (ISO process number 111) In API 582, appendix A table A-3 Copper-nickel and nickel based alloys the consumables to be used are listed. GMAW (ISO process number 131) In API 582, appendix A table A-3 Copper-nickel and nickel based alloys the consumables to be used are listed. The chemical analyses of the wires to be used shall comply with the base material in combination with the shielding gas. For welding nickel alloys, gas mixtures of argon with small amounts of O 2 and max 5% CO2 may be used. Care must be taken to avoid excessive oxidation of the base/weld metal and carburisation due to CO2. Shielding gas mixtures with 99/1, 98/2 and 97/3% vol Ar/O 2 are available. With increased oxygen content, the viscosity of the weld pool decreases and the burn-off rate of the alloying elements increases. The decreased viscosity produces a smooth weld bead appearance but limits the weld position to the horizontal position only. To reduce the burn-off rate, an Ar/CO2 (98/2%vol) gas mixture can be used for the heat resisting alloys. Also adding 1% vol H2 to either Ar/O2 or Ar/CO2 will reduce the burn-off rate. Addition of hydrogen also increases the arc energy (better penetration, better width/wall thickness ratio and higher welding speed).
16.4.2
16.4.3
FCAW (ISO process number 136) Also flux cored wires may be used. The chemical analyses of the deposit shall comply with the requirements as given in clause 4.2. The shielding gasses to be used shall be advised by the wire manufacturer. GTAW and PAW (ISO process number 141 and 151) The chemical composition of the wires to be used shall comply to the base material. The gas to be used shall be pure argon. For both welding processes, there shall be any no oxidizing elements such as oxygen in the shielding gas. When welding the root and the first pass, the back side of the weld may be protected to prevent oxidation. The following backing gas application can be distinguished: N 2/H2 (95/5 - 85/15% vol) or Ar (99,99%).
16.4.4
16.4.5
SAW (ISO process number 121) The SAW process may be used, having a deposit which chemical deposition shall meet that of the base material to be welded. The welding flux may not have alloying elements, except for compensation of the burn off. WELD PREPARATION Weld preparation should have a greater included angle than used for carbon steel, to minimize the risk of lack of fusion and solidification cracking.
16.5
Rev.: A
Examples of the weld preparation configuration are given in the figures below.
Weld preparation may be done by either machining or by plasma cutting. Depending on the material quality to be cut, air or a gas mixture of Ar/H 2 is used in the combination 85/15, 80/20 and 65/35% vol. The higher H2 content the higher the arc energy, resulting in higher cutting speeds and/or cutting thicker plates. As well after machining as after plasma cutting the edges shall be dresses back for at least 1 mm. 16.6 WELDING TECHNIQUE Pre-heating As the nickel alloys are sensible to hot cracking, pre-heating shall not be done. Heat input As the nickel alloys are sensible to hot cracking, heat input shall be limited to 1 1,5 kJ/mm. Interpass temperature According to API 582, table 8.1 the maximum interpass temperature shall be: for Ni-Cu alloy 400: 150C. for Alloy C 276: 175C. for Alloy 600: 175C. Alloy 625: 175C. Alloy 800, 800 H, 800 HT: 175C.
Bead shape Welding shall be done in the stinger bead method. Cleaning shall be done after welding each bead. 16.6.1 More specific Welding nickel containing 0,02 - 0,15% C maximum Welding consumables shall have the same low carbon content and as low Ti content as possible. For chloride service at temperatures above 450C, weld metal containing Ti may be attacked. In this case a low-carbon type Ni wire without Ti shall be applied to prevent the selective attack. The prosity of the weld can be minimized by thorough cleaning of the weld area. Nickel-copper alloys The precipitation hardening alloy Monel K 500 is not considered to be readily weldable. It is used for shafts and other parts. The normal Ni-Cu alloy is weldable; consumables with matching chemical composition shall be used, e.g. welding consumable Monel 190. The PWHT temperature range of 550 to 600C shall be applied when PWHT is specifically required (e.g. for corrosive conditions such as HF service). Nickel-chromium, nickel-iron and nickel-molybdenum alloys Welding consumables of matching chemical composition shall be used.
Rev.: A
Nickel-iron-chromium and nickel-cobalt alloys In general these alloys are welded with consumables of the type 70% Ni-Cr-Fe, e.g. Inconel 182, Incoweld A. Ni-Fe-Cr- alloys shall not be welded with Ni-Cu (Monel 190) or Cu-Ni (Monel 187) consumables, to avoid hot cracking. Welding consumables with similar composition to the base material are generally susceptible to hot cracking. In pyrolysis furnaces, 70% Ni-Cr-Fe welds may be subjected to catastrophic oxidation of carburised metal. The creep properties of this weld metal are also far inferior to those of the base material. For these conditions a 25 Cr - 35 Ni - 0,4 C (+Nb) welding consumables should be used. Nickel-iron-chromium-molybdenum Two types of welding consumables are suitable, i.e. 70% Ni-Cr-Fe-Mo and a matching type 40% Ni-Cr-Fe-Mo. The matching type is more prone to hot cracking in the weld metal, especially when applying a high heat input. Nickel-molybdenum alloys This is a very low-carbon grade, not susceptible to weld decay but sensible to embrittlement by the formation of intermetallic Ni-Mo components at prolonged exposure above 500C. The alloy shall be welded with very low carbon consumables with matching composition. These can be provided by the material manufacturer. Carbon and sulphur pick-up from the weld area shall be avoided by careful cleaning. Nickel-chromium-molybdenum alloys The low-carbon grade, Hastalloy C-276, is not susceptible to weld decay in normal welding conditions. Prolonged exposure at elevated temperatures will cause carbide precipitation and loss of corrosion resistance. The very low-carbon grade, Hastalloy C-4, is also not susceptible to weld decay. Exposure at elevated temperatures will hardly cause carbide precipitation and/or loss of ductility. The Ni-Cr-Mo alloys shall be welded with consumables of matching chemical composition. Carbon and sulphur pick-up from the weld area shall be avoided by careful cleaning. 16.7 POST WELD HEAT TREATMENT Post weld heat treatment is normally not required unless specifically stated for the use of Ni-Cu alloys as stated in the corresponding clause of this document. REPAIR WELDING For repair welding these materials, the processes, mentioned in clause 4 of this document, may be used, except the SAW-proces for the applications as mentioned in DEP 30.10.60.18 clause 5.2.6.3. For repair welding all the requirements for welding these materials, as stated in this document, shall apply, in conjunction with the requirements as given in Shell Best Welding Practice and Procedures: General requirements for repair welding. 16.9 REFERENCES API 582, edition march 2001. Design and engineering practice DEP 30.10.60.18, edition June 2003.
16.8
Rev.: A
17.
WELDING OF DISSIMILAR METALS

17.1
GENERAL Dissimilar welds are not recommended engineering practice and shall only be used as a last engineering option. For hydrogen service, welds shall not be made between ferritic and austenitic steels unless approved by the Principal. Two main groups of dissimilar weld joints can be identified:
17.2
EQUAL PHYSICAL PROPERTIES Joints between ferritic materials (carbon, Mo and Cr-Mo steels). Joints between austenitic materials (AISI 304, 321, 317, 347). Joints between high-nickel alloys (Monel, Inconel 700, Hastelloys B and C).
17.3
DIFFERENT PHYSICAL PROPERTIES Joints between ferritic and austenitic materials. In this case the selection of weld metal largely depends on the service conditions, such as temperature, thermal cycling, possible galvanic corrosion, etc. The following two rules shall apply for dissimilar weld joints: Rule 1: Dissimilar joints between ferritic low-alloy and carbon steel are made by using filler material with a chemical composition matching the lower-grade material. Rule 2: Dissimilar joints between austenitic and ferritic steels are made by using a buffer filler material.
17.4
WELDING CARBON MANGANESE OR 0.5 MO STEELS TO CR-MO STEELS
Figure 17-1: Joint of carbon or 0,5 Mo steels to Cr-Mo-steels For post-weld heat treatment of the specified materials the following guidelines should be followed: An intermediate temperature shall be chosen between the PWHT temperature ranges of the two materials, but lower than the tempering temperature of the lowest grade. The holding time specified for the higher grade shall be increased by 1.5 times. However, if the PWHT temperature so selected will not result in the individual base materials and weld metal achieving the specified mechanical properties, then a buffering technique shall be applied on the higher grade side as shown in figure 2.
Figure 17-2: Joint of C-Mn-steel to 2,25 Cr-1Mo steel

After buffering, PWHT shall be applied at the temperature suitable for the buffered base material (2.25Cr-1Mo in figure 1). After this PWHT, the joint shall be completed and PWHT shall then be carried out at the temperature suitable for the lower grade base material (C-Mn steel in above figure 2). CAUTION: For dissimilar welds in steel operating in the creep range (e.g. 9Cr-1Mo or 9Cr-1Mo modified to 2.25Cr-1Mo steels) carbon depletion in the low Cr base material or weld can occur (carbon diffusion out of low chromium material into the neighbouring high chromium steel) and will adversely effect the creep life. 17.5 WELDING OF C STEEL TO NI OR CU ALLOYS C-Mn steel shall be welded to Ni alloys with Incoweld A, Inconel 182 or Inconel 82 consumables. C steels shall be welded to Ni or Cu alloys with Monel 187/190 (ENiCu7). C steels shall be welded to Ni-Cr-Fe alloys with Incoweld A. C steel shall be welded to aluminium bronze with special buffer-type electrodes of Cu-8Al or Cu10Al-1Fe. 17.6 WELDING OF FERRITIC TO AUSTENITIC STEEL Welds between the austenitic steel and the ferritic steel are potentially sensitive to cracking. The sensitive area is the local hard zone in the immediate vicinity of the fusion line in the weld metal. The risk of cracking increases with temperature for reasons of thermal fatigue (start-up/shutdown) particularly in the case of AISI 309 type of welds, and its application is therefore restricted to a maximum operating temperature of 350C. Note: This restriction does not apply for short-term temperature excursions above 350C (e.g. hot hydrogen stripping) because there is an incubation period necessary before hot hydrogen attack occurs. Care should be taken to avoid hot cracking in the weld metal. The weld preparation shall be cleaned carefully and every weld bead deposited shall be ground smooth prior to the next weld bead. Aplying Inconel 625 welding consumable as a bufferlayer minimizes the risk. Chemical cleaning or pickling shall not be applied. In process duties with sulphur corrosion above 350C, flanged connections are required due to possible sulphidation of high-nickel welds. During weld procedure qualification, a micro-hardness survey on an etched sample shall be done on the fusion line between the buffer layer and base material. The hard zone on the interface may contain individual hard spots provided there is not a continuous network (sequence) of hard spots. Where post weld heat treatment is required for the ferritic material the following welding sequence can be applied. 1. Buttering the ferritic weld bevel with a buffer type consumable like 309/309Mo followed by PWHT. After PWHT the buffer layer is then welded matching to the austenitic material. Figure 17-3: Joint of ferritic steels to austenitic steels
This technique is particularly suitable for wall thickness above 25 mm.
Rev.: A
2. For wall thicknesses below 25 mm a stainless steel safe end welded to the ferritic material with a buffer consumable followed by PWHT is recommended, as buttering buffer layer onto thin materials is cumbersome. After PWHT the stainless steel safe end is welded matching to the austenitic material. Note: Safe ends may also be applied above wall thicknesses of 25 mm. 17.7 WELDING OF AUSTENITIC STAINLESS STEEL TO NI-CR-FE ALLOYS Figure 17-4: Joints of austenitic stainless steels to Ni-Cr-Fe-alloys
For high-temperature applications, Incoweld A or Inconel 82 shall be used. For low-temperature applications, Inconel 112/625 or Incoweld A shall be used.
Rev.: A
18.
WELDMENTS OF CLAD MATERIALS

18.1
INTRODUCTION Clad steels are low-carbon or low-alloy steels inseparably covered with a relatively thin layer of a corrosion-resistant material, applied by rolling, explosion or overlay welding. Welding procedures shall be qualified using clad materials, not by qualifying the materials separately. Examples of corrosion-resistant cladding materials are: Martensitic or ferritic stainless steels (AISI 410/405). Austenitic stainless steels (AISI 304/321/347/316). Nickel or nickel alloys (Monel, Hastelloy, Inconel). Copper or copper alloys (Cupro-nickel, Al-bronze).
The weld metal joining the substrate shall have mechanical and physical properties as close as possible to (but no less than) those of the substrate. The weld metal joining the cladding layer shall have similar physical and chemical properties to those of the cladding. This requires special joint preparations and welding procedures. One of the following procedures should be followed: If welding is possible from the clad side: First, the base material is welded from one or both sides, depending on the thickness of this material. Subsequently the corrosion-resistant layer is welded from the clad side. (See paragraph 2). If welding is only possible from the non-clad side:
The required consumables shall be selected very carefully in order to produce an acceptable weld joint (see paragraph 3). Another method for the application of a protective metal layer is strip lining. The corrosion resistant lining is not fully bonded metallurgically to the base material ( see paragraph 4). 18.2 18.2.1 WELDING FROM TWO SIDES General procedure First the cladding material shall be removed next to the weld area to ensure that no contamination can occur from the cladding material into the weld of the base material. Clad removal shall be checked with a saturated copper sulphate solution. Cladding material inclusions in the weld of the base material may cause cracking owing to high hardness caused by martensite formation. Next, the base material is welded from one or two sides as required for the thickness and material. After completion of the base material weld, the cladding layer is welded. For the first pass a buffer consumable shall be used. This buffer consumable shall have acceptable mechanical and chemical properties after dilution with the base material. 18.2.2 Weld preparation The cladding material shall be removed from both sides of the weld preparation. The total amount removed depends on the welding process selected and the clad thickness, but shall have a minimum width of 5 mm on each side of the weld preparation ( see Figure 18-1).
Rev.: A
Figure 18-1: Typical edge preparations for welds in clad steels, welding from both sides
Dimensions in [mm] The depth of the layer to be removed shall be the thickness of the cladding layer, increased by 1 0.5 mm. The edges of the groove in the cladding shall be rounded off to prevent entrapment of slag. The weld preparation for the base material shall be V, U or X-shaped, in accordance with the standard for weld preparation for the type and thickness of this material. See figure 1. 18.3 WELDING PROCEDURE FOR THE BASE MATERIALS The base material shall be welded in accordance with the BWP for the base material involved. WELDING PROCEDURE FOR THE CLADDING MATERIALS Martensitic/ferritic or ferritic stainless steel cladding, e.g. AISI 410/405 The procedure is to weld the first pass with a buffer electrode type AISI 309 and the subsequent passes also with an AISI 309 electrode. For special corrosion duties the second and subsequent weld passes are performed with matching weld metal. To reduce the hardening of the weld metal, a pre-heating at 150 - 200C should be applied. Austenitic stainless steel cladding, e.g. AISI 304/304L/304H/321/321H/347/316/316L/317 For stainless steels without Mo, the first pass shall be welded with a buffer electrode of AISI 309, and for stainless steels containing Mo the electrode should be AISI 309Mo. The second and following passes shall be welded with a matching consumable, in accordance with BWP Welding stainless steels AISI 304. 316, 321, 347, including L-grades. The weld area shall be cleaned thoroughly to minimize the risk of hot cracking. A ferrite content of 3 8% after PWHT is acceptable for most applications. Nickel or nickel-alloy cladding, e.g. pure nickel, Monel, Ni-Cr-Mo (e.g. Hastelloy B-2/C-4), NiCr-Fe (e.g. Inconel 600/625) The first weld layer shall be as shown below: CLADDING MATERIAL Pure nickel Monel Ni-Cr-Mo Ni-Cr-Fe FIRST WELD LAYER Pure nickel Monel Incoweld A or Inconel 182 Incoweld A or Inconel 182
18.4 18.4.1
18.4.2
18.4.3
The second and subsequent layers shall be welded with matching electrodes to ensure that corrosion properties in the weld cap are equal to those of the cladding material. See BWP Welding High Nickel Alloys.
To reduce the iron pick-up in the weld cap to an acceptable level, at least three passes shall be applied. The weld area shall be cleaned thoroughly to prevent hot cracking in the weld metal. 18.4.4 Copper and copper-alloy cladding The selected electrodes for the first layer of the weld in the cladding depend on the alloy. The welding of copper with matching electrodes may cause hot cracking in the weld metal owing to pick-up of iron or impurities. Copper penetration can cause liquation cracking in the weld metal. To avoid these problems for copper cladding materials, a buffer electrode is selected of Monel or Cu8Al (e.g. Ampco 10 electrode). For Cu and Cu-Ni alloys a Monel buffer electrode is used, and for Al-bronze a Cu-8Al buffer electrode. The second and following passes shall be welded with matching electrodes. However, claddings of 95 Cu-5 Ni, 90 Cu-10 Ni, 80 Cu-20 Ni and 70 Cu-30 Ni shall be welded with 70 Cu-30 Ni electrodes to prevent hot cracking in the weld metal. Also see BWP Welding of copper and copper alloys. 18.5 18.5.1 WELDING ONLY FROM THE NON-CLAD SIDE General procedure A special weld preparation is required to make a sound weld. Strict alignment is essential. After welding the cladding material with matching electrodes, a buffer-type electrode shall be used to weld the base material. The selection of the buffer-type electrodes depends on the required properties of the weld metal and on the type of cladding. So far the above procedure has been successful only for austenitic stainless steel claddings. 18.5.2 Weld preparations Figure 18-2 shows weld preparations, which are generally applied when clad steels are welded from the non-clad side only. Figure 18-2: Weld preparations, welding only from clad side
18.5.3
Welding procedure for base material The base material shall be welded in accordance with the BWP for the base material involved. Note: The procedures mentioned in (18.5.3.1) and (18.5.3.2) are not common engineering practices, they shall only be used as a last engineering option, and only with the approval of the Principal.
18.5.3.1 Welding with austenitic stainless steel electrodes (for services below 350C) The root bead shall be made with matching electrodes in accordance with the rules for stainless steel welding.
Rev.: A
For the second and subsequent passes, buffer electrodes of AISI 309Mo can be used. Inconel A should be used instead of AISI 309 electrodes if stress corrosion cracking may occur owing to chloride environment. For services above 350C these electrodes shall not be used, due to the risk of cracking as a result of the difference in thermal expansion between the austenitic weld metal and the ferritic base material. 18.5.3.2 Welding with high-nickel electrodes For the root bead, matching welding electrodes shall be used (See BWP Welding High Nickel Alloys) For the second and subsequent layers buffer electrodes of Incoweld A, Inconel 182 or Inconel 112/625 shall be used. However, for hydrogen services at temperatures above 500C and/or for partial hydrogen pressures above 100 bar, high-nickel weld metal is prone to hydrogen embrittlement and shall not be used. The risk of hot cracking is larger for welds with high-nickel electrodes than for welds with austenitic stainless steel electrodes. The weld preparations shall therefore be cleaned thoroughly. In process duties with sulphur corrosion above 350C, high nickel welds suffer from sulphidation and shall not be used. 18.6 18.6.1 WELDING OF AUSTENITIC STAINLESS STEEL STRIP LINING General Two methods can be applied for the welding of strip lining. Depending on the gap width and the severity of the corrosive duty, either the two bead or the three bead method may be selected. Two bead method The two bead method, see Figure 18-3, shall be applied only for moderately corrosive service and if the gap width between the strips is no more than 6 mm.
18.6.2
Figure 18-3: Two-bead method 18.6.3 Three bead method For severe corrosive service, the gap shall be made greater than 6 mm, and the three bead method (Figure 18-4) shall be used.
Figure 18-4: Three-bead method 18.6.4 Welding consumables For both methods AISI 309Mo buffer electrodes shall be used.
Rev.: A
19.
WELDING OF ALUMINIUM AND ITS ALLOYS

19.1
INTRODUCTION Aluminium is a material with a high thermal and electrical conductivity. Aluminium and its alloys are mainly used because of their low density and good corrosion resistance, even at low temperatures. As aluminium itself has bad mechanical properties, it is mostly used in the alloyed condition. Aluminium and its alloys can be divided into eight groups, using the ASTM numbering system, which is based on the alloying elements. These groups are given in the next table; also the weldability is given. Group 1xxx 2xxx 3xxx 4xxx 5xxx 6xxx 7xxx 8xxx Major alloying element None Cu Mn Si Mg Mg-Si Zn Sn Weldability Good Bad Good Good Good Bad Bad Bad
Group 1xxx This group contains aluminium alloys with an aluminium content of 99% or more. The weld pool is some less fluid in comparison with other aluminium alloys. These materials may be used for tanks for transport and storage of chemicals. Group 3xxx By additions of Mn the elongation and the tensile strength will improve. These alloys cannot be quenched and tempered and are good weldable, although the weld pool is even fluid as that of the 1xxx group. These materials may be used for heat exchangers, in shipbuilding, a.s.o. Group 4xxx By adding Si to aluminium the melting point is lowered and the fluidity increased. For this reason alloys from this group are mainly used for castings. Also type 4043 is widely used as welding consumable. Group 5xxx The main alloying element of this group is Mg. The Mg-content varies from about 1,0 to 5%. When The Mg-content is above 1,2% the metal is more prone to hot cracking. These alloys are found in storage tanks and piping systems. 19.2 WELDABILiTY Aluminium and its alloys are difficult to weld because of the aluminium oxide layer which, without the right precautions, will cause lack of fusion and porosity problems. Hot cracking may also occur. Only GMAW, GTAW and PAW processes are suitable for welding aluminium. To obtain a good quality GTAW weld, an alternating current has to be applied to the arc in order to remove the oxide layer. GMAW can be applied either with AC or DC, provided that with the latter the filler wire is positive, in order to remove the oxide layer.
Pure argon shall be used as shielding gas. Pure argon as backing gas shall be applied when welding from one side only, to prevent excessive oxidation. Where back welding is feasible the root pass shall be ground away and rewelded. Porosity Porosity in aluminium welds is caused by: High solubility of hydrogen in the melting point region. Presence of hydrogen in arc gases.
Joint design and welding position affect the degree of porosity, for example an overhead weld has a greater risk of gas entrapment. The adhering oxide layer contains a significant amount of hydrogen. It is therefore extremely important to break this layer open during welding, selecting the right welding process and proper parameters. Cracking Aluminium alloys have a high thermal conductivity, thermal expansion and large melting temperature range and may be subject to solidification or liquation cracking (hot cracking). This cracking is mainly associated with alloying elements. Al-Si alloys with a silicon content below 0,7% are particularly susceptible to cracking. 19.3 APPLICABLE WELDING PROCESSES Aluminium and its alloys may be welded with one or more of the following welding processes: 19.4 GMAW GTAW PAW
WELDING CONSUMABLES Group 1xxx Pure aluminium is readily weldable, provided the welding process characteristics are adhered as described. However, a large amount of porosity is likely than for Al-alloys. In general, materials belonging to this group, are welded with a consumable with a matching chemical composition. These consumables may be micro-alloyed with Zr, Ti or B for grain refinement. Group 3xxx The consumable to be used depends on the application of the aluminium alloy; it can be matching to the chemical composition of the base material or is an alloy from group 4xxx or 5xxx. Group 4xxx For welding alloys of this group, either AlSi 5 or AlMg5 consumables are used. In the case of welding dissimilar alloys, e.g. AlSi and AlMg, AlMg5 consumables shall always be used since AlSi5 consumable will give a brittle layer of Mg2Si. Group 5xxx Welding consumables for these types have a slightly higher magnesium content than the base material, to compensate for bun-off during welding; i.e. AlMg3 alloys are welded with AlMg5 consumables.
19.5
WELD PREPARATION Weld preparation can be done either by machining or plasma arc cutting or waterjet cutting. When machining is carried out, care shall be taken that the edges are smooth; a rough surface will lead to the presence of much oxides that can lead to problems as mentioned above during or after welding.
Rev.: A
Tools that are only used for machining aluminium shall be used; to prevent that strange materials are embedded in the surface. In general the same basic weld preparations for welding aluminium and its alloys are used for steel, often with slightly greater included angle to allow good access, full fusion and minimizing the risk of solidification cracking. Because the higher fluidity of aluminium and its alloys, weld pool support is of great importance, leading to more extensive application of temporary weld backing. 19.6 WELDING TECHNIQUE Pre-heating Pre-heating to 50C minimum is required to remove any surface water, which would otherwise cause severe porosity. Also when welding thick materials pre-heating may be done to prevent a fast heat flow, resulting in lack of fusion. Heat input The heat input as stated in the WPS shall be maintained in order to prevent i.e. hot cracking, lack of fusion a.s.o. Interpass temperature The maximum interpass temperature shall be kept below 250C. Bead shape Welding shall be done in the stringer bead method. Weaving can lead to too high heat input, resulting in hot cracking. 19.7 POST WELD HEAT TREATMENT Types of aluminium mentioned in this document doesnt require PWHT. REPAIR WELDING For repair welding (super) these materials, this document shall be applied in conjunction with Shell Best Welding Practice and Procedures: General requirements for repair welding. REFERENCES API 582, edition march 2001. Design and engineering practice DEP 30.10.6018, edition June 2003.
19.8
19.9
Rev.: A
20.
WELDING OF COPPER AND COPPER ALLOYS

20.1
INTRODUCTION Copper is one of the oldest materials used by mankind. Its good thermal and electrical conductivity are well known. Also known is its great affinity to oxygen, especially at elevated temperatures. Copper can be alloyed with several other elements, i.e. Ni, Al, Zn and Sn. Influence of the most important alloying elements Nickel Copper-nickel alloys have a great corrosion resistance against attack by sea water. At the grain boundaries, at elevated temperatures, nickel easily forms an oxide film, that decreases the strength. In combination with P and S low melting eutects are formed, increasing the risk of hot cracking. Aluminium Al forms an oxide during melting before copper does; therefore forming of these oxides shall be prevented by a good protection during welding. Zinc Increasing the zinc contents, decreases the weldability. Toxic zinc gasses can be formed and these gasses shall be extracted and thoroughly filtered. Stannum An increasing Sn-content increases the sensibility to hot cracking. Sn oxides are formed before copper oxides, so a good protection during welding shall be taken care of.
20.2
WELDABILITY The main problem with welding copper is hot cracking. Therefore thorough cleaning and smooth weld appearance are very important. As copper and copper alloys easily oxidize, the time between weld preparation and welding shall be kept as short as possible. If joints are left for more than 12 hours an oxide layer is built up which will cause severe porosity problems during welding. To remove the oxide layer, careful grinding shall be carried out to obtain a bright metal surface prior to welding. Cleaning wit wire brushes will not remove the oxide layer; this can only be accomplished by grinding. To minimize porosity in the weld metal the welding consumable shall contain de-oxidizers such as P and Zn. The welding conditions differ when compared with low-alloy steels: Tack welds have to be made at much smaller intervals. Lack of side wall fusion may be a problem owing to the high heat conductivity. Heat input per weld run should be minimized to avoid hot cracking.
The thermal expansion of copper and its alloys is greater then that of steel, so severe deformations and high internal stresses will occur after welding. 20.3 APPLICABLE WELDING PROCESSES Copper and its alloys are preferably welded with: GTAW GMAW SMAW
20.4
WELDING CONSUMABLES General The most common welding processes for welding copper alloys are GMAW-welding and GTAWwelding. For some copper alloys also the SMAW-process can be used and for welding pure copper even the OFW-process can be used by exception. For the GTAW process there shall be no oxidizing elements such as oxygen in the shielding gas. Such elements will cause oxidation of the tungsten electrode and additionally all kind of undesired oxides may be formed on the surface as well in the material itself. Commonly used gasses are Ar (99,95) or Ar/He mixtures (70/30). The latter is preferred due to its high arc-energy. When welding the root and the first pass, the backside of the weld should be protected to prevent oxidation with a gas Ar (99,995%). Pure copper Oxygen containing copper The oxygen present in the metal to be welded, will form (complex) copper-oxides at the grain boundaries and make the material brittle. Therefore the best welding processes to be used are GTAW or GMAW, using shielding gasses of Ar, Ar/He or Ar/N2. Additions of He and N2 result in a higher heat input. The consumable used is a highly de-oxidized copper (ERCu with max. 0,15% P and max. 0,5% Si). Oxygen free copper These types are can be welded with or the GTAW- or GMAW-process, with the shielding gas Ar/He as this gas results in a clean and fluid weld pool. De-oxidized copper (ERCu) is used as consumable. Cu-Ni-alloys These alloys are normally welded either GMAW or GTAW with a 70Cu-30Ni consumable which contains de-oxidizers to avoid porosity. The lower percentage Ni-containing consumables, e.g. 90/10 and 80/20 are more prone to hot cracking. Cu-Al-alloys These alloys shall be welded with matching consumables. The main problem with welding is the oxide layer, which has to be broken. GTAW with alternating current is normally used with a surface tension reducing flux, e.g. Cryolite. GMAW can also be used, provided direct current with straight polarity is used. Cu-Zn-alloys With up to 3% zinc, no welding problems are encountered other than for normal copper. Cu-Sn-alloys These alloys are susceptible to hot cracking and therefore thorough cleaning shall be applied. High pre-heating temperatures (300C minimum) and slow cooling rates are required to avoid brittle intermetallic structures which are formed if cooling is too fast. Repair welding shall be avoided as much as possible.
20.5
WELD PREPARATION Weld preparation may be done by either machining or by plasma cutting. Depending on the material quality to be cut, air or a gas mixture of Ar/H2 is used in the combination 85/15, 80/20 and 65/35% vol. The higher H2 content the higher the arc energy, resulting in higher cutting speeds and/or cutting thicker plates. As well after machining as after plasma cutting the edges shall be dresses back for at least 1 mm.
Rev.: A
As the copper alloys have a high thermal conductivity the weld preparations should have a greater included angle than commonly used for these steels. This to minimize the risk of lack of fusion and solidification cracking. 20.6 WELDING TECHNIQUE Pre-heating Depending the heat input and the material thickness pre-heating may be applied to prevent lack of fusion due to the high thermal conductivity of the copper and its alloys. Heat input Welding of thick materials shall be done with high heat input, using shielding gasses of Ar/He mixture. Interpass temperature Where a pre-heat is applied, the interpass temperature shall be close to that level. Bead shape Welding can be done in the stringer bead as well in the weaving technique. When using the weaving technique with SMAW the width of the bead shall not exceed three times the diameter of the core wire; this to prevent pores in the weld metal. 20.7 POST WELD HEAT TREATMENT Post weld heat treatment is usually not applied. REPAIR WELDING For repair welding (super) these materials, this document shall be applied in conjunction with Shell Best Welding Practice and Procedures: General requirements for repair welding. REFERENCES API 582, edition march 2001: Industries. EN 15614-6 Welding Guidelines for the Chemical, Oil and Gas
20.8
20.9
DEP 30.10.6018, edition June 2003: Design and engineering practice. Arc and gas welding of copper and its alloys.
Rev.: A
21.
WELDING OF TITANIUM, TANTALUM AND ZIRCONIUM

21.1
INTRODUCTION Of these materials Ti is the most well known material. Titanium is getting used more widely due to is advantages: Light density. Good strength properties at room temperature. Excellent corrosion resistance.
Tantalum, a refractory metal, combines excellent corrosion resistance, strength, and a high melting point with exceptional fabrication and machining qualities. Zirconium is exceptionally resistant to corrosion by seawater and many common acids and alkalis. The weldability of these materials is influenced by the high reactivity at elevated temperatures and the sensibility to impurities. 21.2 WELDABILITY Ti, Ta and Zr have a high affinity for oxygen, nitrogen and hydrogen. Therefore, during welding care shall be taken to avoid embrittlement in the weld area from absorption of oxygen, nitrogen and hydrogen from the atmosphere. Other impurities, like hydrocarbons (oil, grease), dirt and oxides in the weld area, will also cause weld embrittlement. Hence the weld area shall be cleaned carefully to a bright metal surface immediately prior to welding. During the welding operation the weld area shall be protected with pure inert gas like argon or helium. The required protection during welding can be provided in special welding chambers which are filled with a 99,996% pure inert gas (i.e. argon). This is often combined with the use of GTAW in technically pure argon or helium gas. For large sections special devices are constructed for GTAW to protect both the back and the front side of the weld area with a trailing and leading gas shield. Welding of Ti, Ta and Zr requires highly skilled welders and shall be done only by specialized contractors. Welding shall be undertaken in segregated clean areas, reserved for this specialist activity. The contractor requires special approval of the principal before executing welds in these materials. 21.3 APPLICABLE WELDING PROCESSES The GTAW or PAW are the most widely used welding processes for welding these materials. Also the electron beam welding or laser beam welding process can be applied to weld these materials; they require special approval by the principal before application. 21.4 WELDING CONSUMABLES These materials shall be welded with matching consumables. During welding, the welding wires shall be kept carefully in the inert gas shielding atmosphere to prevent oxygen and nitrogen pick-up from the air. Ti, Ta and Zr are readily weldable materials provided that pick-up of impurities is avoided both from the atmosphere and from the weld preparation area. It is advisable to have a double inert gas stream during welding. Porosity in the weld metal is a common defect that is difficult to prevent completely. Cracks in the weld are mainly caused by pick-up of iron-containing dust. Lack of fusion defects may occur.
Rev.: A
21.5
WELD PREPARATION Ti, Ta and Zr may be cut by oxygen. The edge shall be dressed back by grinding or machining for at least 5 mm. After plasma-arc cutting g only 2 mm of the cut edge shall be removed by machining. For grinding, carborundum or corundum grinding wheels shall be used with an oil coolant. Dry grinding should be avoided, since small Ti, Ta or Zr particles could ignite and cause a fire. Prior to welding, the weld preparation area shall be cleaned carefully to remove any impurities.
21.6
WELDING TECHNIQUE The heat input shall be kept within the range as specified in the WPS. Interpass temperature The weld interpass temperature should be maintained below 100C. Bead shape Welding shall be done in the stringer bead method.
21.7
SPECIAL TESTING FOR TITANIUM ONLY Visual A visual control shall be carried out immediately after welding, prior to cleaning or re welding. The oxygen content picked up can be visually checked by applying the following criteria: Surface is silver grey: no oxygen pick-up. Surface is gold-yellow/light blue: slight oxygen pick-up but still acceptable. Surface is grey-blue/dark blue: unacceptable oxygen pick-up.
Bend tests and hardness measurements The colour shading indicates only whether oxygen absorption has taken place. Any presence of other impurities causing embrittlement can be determined only by bend tests and hardness tests. Therefore, bend tests shall be carried out on a regular basis during welding. In case of any bend failure, all welds previously made shall be closely examined. It may be necessary to remove small samples of the weld in order to make Vickers hardness tests. In case of doubt the relevant welds shall be removed and rewelded. The weld and HAZ shall be no more than 30 Hv10 above the hardness of the parent metal. Note: Both bend tests and hardness tests on macro-sections shall be included in the welding procedure qualification. 21.8 REPAIR WELDING For repair welding these materials, the processes, mentioned in clause 4 of this document, may be used. For repair welding all the requirements for welding these materials, as stated in this document, shall apply, in conjunction with the requirements as given in Shell Best Welding Practice and Procedures: General requirements for repair welding. 21.9 REFERENCES API 582, edition march 2001. Design and engineering practice DEP 30.10.60.18, edition June 2003.
Rev.: A
22.
HARDFACING
22.1
INTRODUCTION In many cases when parts of a construction are subject to wear, it is not possible for economic and/or technical reason to make these parts out of wear resistant materials. In that cases the parts can be made of a good weldable base material, provided with a surface of a wear resistant alloy. As there are more types of wear, all having a different impact on the surface, it is clear that fighting wear requires some knowledge of wear phenomena. This document only deals with omitting wear by using hardfacing by welding.
22.2
WEAR Wear can be defined as an undesired attack of a surface of a material due to mechanical effects. So, at wear material contact is needed. Some forms of wear are: Abrasive wear, due to chipping the surface by relative hard particles in contact with the surface. Erosive wear, due to along the surface streaming fluid or gas, eventual provided with solid particles. Adhesive wear, due to the transfer of material at local overloaded surfaces. Fretting, due to the movement of surfaces with a small amplitude. Corrosive wear, due to during the continuously removing of oxide products. Surface fatigue, the removing of particles from the surface, due to periodical loading of the surface.
All these types of wear ask for different types of surfaces e.g. hardness, microstructure, chemical composition a.s.o. So, by selecting a wrong surface, the wear can be increased rather than decreased. The different types of wear are described below. 22.2.1 Abrasive wear As stated this type of wear is caused by chipping the surface by relative hard particles. The particles must be in contact with the surface. Examples of this type of wear: earth moving equipment like shovel blades, ore industry, a.s.o. Erosive wear This type of wear is caused by along the surface streaming medium. This medium can be a fluid or a gas, eventual provided with solid particles. So there are different types of erosive wear: Gas-erosion, caused by a gas, streaming along the surface with high velocity and sometimes high temperatures. This type of erosive wear can be found on valves and seats of combustion engines. Liquid erosion, caused by along the surface streaming liquid Cavitation; this special type of erosive wear is caused by imploding of bubbles present in an along the surface streaming liquid. These implosions pull particles out of the surface, forming small holes. Examples of this type of wear: all type of impellers of pumps, propellers, a.s.o. Droplet erosion, caused by droplets present in gas, streaming along the surface. Examples of this type of wear: curves in steam pipelines.
22.2.2
22.2.3
Adhesive wear This type of wear is caused by local high loads on the material surface s, whereby locally welding of the surfaces can occur. When moving one of the surfaces, these welded spots will be teared off from the surface. Examples of this type of wear: shafts in bearings.
22.2.4
Fretting Fretting will occur, due to the movement of surfaces with a small amplitude. Continuously oxide products are formed en removed. After dismounting the parts, a brown powder is left behind. This type of wear can be found between ball bearings and the shafts on which they are mounted. Corrosive wear This type of wear is characterised by continuously forming and removing van oxide products. Surface fatigue Due to continuously locally (over)loading the surface, particles will be removed from the surface. Examples are gear wheels, all kind of wheels, rails a.s.o. MATERIAL SELECTION As shown above, there are several types of wear, all requiring a specific surface. Several factors affecting the amount of wear are i.e. the hardness of the surface, the microstructure of the surface, presence of (heavy) impact on the surface, temperature of the medium causing wear, the medium itself (type, hardness and form of the particles) and more. So, without knowledge of wear phenomena and the resistance of hardfacing alloys against wear, it is hardly possible to choose the right wear resistant surface. Experience in fighting wear is needed. Also the experience of the consumable supplier may be very useful. There are in principle five types of wear resistant hard facing alloys, according to the micro structure, available. These types are: Alloys, having an austenitic micro structure. In the table below some basic alloys are given. Type of alloy C Mn - Ni-base Mn - Mo-base 0,5 1,2 Chemical composition (%) Mn 11 - 16 Ni 2,5 6,0 Mo 0,5 - 15 170 600 Hv, depending the degree of cold deformation Hardness
22.2.5 22.2.6
22.3
These alloys only have moderate resistance to wear if they are cold deformed. They are used at places where high impact occurs, i.e. crossings in rail roads, shredders, a.s.o. Alloys resulting in a martensitic structure. Well known alloys are: Type of alloy C Martensitic Semi austenitic Low carbon High carbon 0,1 0,7 0,7 1,5 0,7 1,5 Chemical composition (%) Cr 2,5 5,0 5,5 9,5 11 15 < 2,0 Mo W 300 900 Hv, depending the carbon content and the degree of martensite forming Hardness
These alloys have good resistance against abrasive wear with high impact, even at elevated temperatures. They are used at places where resistance against abrasive wear combined with moderate impact is required. Alloys resulting in a ledeburitic structure Some basic alloys are: Chemical composition (%) C 2,0 3,5 3,7
Cr 28 32 21
Ni
Mo 3
Nb
Co
Hardness HRc 45 58
6,5
Rev.: A Inhoudelijk beheer: CEI/6, REA/3 Eigenaar: Voorzitter BBS proces 04
57
Chemical composition (%) C 5,2 6,5 5,8 5,4 Cr 32 25 21 21 6 6,3 7 6 2,5 10 Ni Mo Nb W Co
Hardness HRc 60 64 66 65
These alloys have excellent resistance against abrasive wear with moderate impact. If Mo is added the resistance to abrasive wear, even at elevated temperatures is excellent. These alloys are used in earth moving equipment, iron ore sinter plants, hoppers, a.s.o Alloys, providing complex carbides in a tough matrix. The matrix can be on basis of Fe or on basis of NiCrSi. These alloys with complex carbides are used on drilling equipment in oil recovery systems. These alloys have excellent resistance against abrasive wear where impact is not present. Special alloys, like the CoCr-alloys (known under the trade names Stellite ) Some Stellite types are: Stellite C 1 6 12 2,4 1,0 1,9 Chemical composition (%) Cr 33 27 29 W 13 4,5 9 Co Bal. Bal. Bal. 55 60 38 43 45 - 51 Hardness HRc
These alloys have good resistance against oxidation and gas erosion, even at high temperatures. They are used on valves and seatings of combustion engines.
In the matrix as shown below, the different types of wear resistant alloys are given in relation to their resistance against heavy impact, abrasive wear, corrosion and temperature. From this matrix a first choice may be made.
Co-Cr-alloys Due to their resistance to corrosion and erosion at high temperatures, these hardfacing alloys are widely used in chemical plants. The micro structure of the weld metal is predominately high toughness austenite with embedded very hard Cr and W carbides. Due to this microstructure these Co-alloys have less ductility. If no precautions - e.g pre-heating - are taken, cracks will occur during solidification after welding. The weldability of the Co-alloys electrodes is good, with a stable arc and fine droplet weld metal transfer, good fusion with little penetration. Weld bead gives a smooth appearance.
Rev.: A
22.4 22.4.1
WELDABILITY Effect of the base material In hardfacing all kinds of problems are to be faced. In many cases the design engineer has choosen the base material on basis of its thought wear resistant properties. However, wear resistant base materials in principle have bad weldability properties. So, if these base materials have to be provided with a hard and wear resistant layer, problems must be encountered with respect to weldability. When hardfacing has to be carried out, the base material must be known and the relevant Best Welding Practice shall be followed. Dilution When welding, a new alloy is made, consisting of the base materials and the welding consumable. The alloy produced, has a chemical analysis between that of both materials. Welding with a high dilution (a great amount of the base material is added to the welding consumable) lead to an alloy which analysis is close to that of the base material. On the other hand, welding with a low dilution, leads to an alloy with the chemical analysis near that of the consumable itself. The dilution can never be provided, but it can be influenced by some factors like welding process, polarity, overlap between the single runs; the welding parameters. Dont forget that the properties of hard facing alloys, given by t he manufacturer, always are of the undiluted material. If these properties are required, welding in more than one layer has to be performed. In general, welding in three layers will result in the properties of the deposit close to that of the welding consumable itself.
22.4.2
22.4.3
Direction of welding In principle welding is a technique that may be compared with a heat treatment. Due to the welding heat the heat affected zone of the subsequent layer will give the preliminary layer an annealing heat treatment, resulting in a softened zone. If the direction of the medium, sliding along the surface is parallel to the welding direction, this medium will remove the softened zones, resulting in a lot of wear. When the direction of the medium is perpendicular to the welding direction, removing of the softened zones is less, resulting in less wear.
22.5
APPLICABLE WELDING PROCESSES For hardfacing generally the following welding processes may be used: SMAW (ISO process 111). FCAW (ISO process 136). GTAW (ISO process 141).
Other welding processes are possible, but require the approval of the principal. 22.6 WELDING CONSUMABLES The selection of the required type of hardfacing shall be advised by the principal. WELD PREPARATIONS Surface should be metallic bright and degreased. All oxides, stain and paint shall be removed. No sharp angles are allowed. To ensure good fusion and to avoid slag inclusions all edges shall be machined with 45 angle. WELDING TECHNIQUE Pre-heating Pre-heat will be often required. The precise application depends on the base material weld metal combination. Information should be given by the supplier of the materials.
22.7
22.8
Rev.: A
Interpass temperature Interpass temperature shall be maintained according to the recommendations of the hardfacing material supplier. Buffer layer Recommended for hard facing of large areas or multi-layer buttering. Use an austenitic stainless steel for applications below 350C or high nickel buffer layer for applications above 350C. Recommended field welding SMAW welding consumables, DC positive or alternating current. Avoid overheating and aim for minimum dilution. 1G-postion (PA) welding recommended whenever practical. Postweld heat treatment PWHT shall be executed in conformance with the requirements of the material suppliers. 22.9 REPAIR For repair all requirements of this document shall apply, in conjunction with the requirements as given in Shell Best Welding Practice and Procedures: General requirements for repair welding. REFERENCES API 582, edition march 2001. Design and engineering practice DEP 30.10.60.18, edition June 2003.
22.10
Rev.: A
23.
23.1
CAST IRON
GENERAL Welding of cast iron is only possible if special precautions and extreme care are taken. The carbon content of cast iron is considerably higher than in normal steels. When welded with steel consumables this causes unacceptably high hardness and brittle structure in the weld and HAZ of the weld, unless the cooling rate is very slow. In case of high Ni consumables only high hardnesses in the HAZ will occur. Nodular graphite iron ASTM )A395/A536) and malleable cast iron ASTM (A48) may only be repair welded. Repair welding of castings shall not be accepted unless specific written approval is given by the principal. If a casting has to be repair welded a choice can be made from four alternatives: Cold repair welding with high Ni (Inconel type) consumables. Hot repair welding with carbon steel consumables. Braze welding, only for non-critical.
23.2
COLD REPAIR WELDING WITH HIGH NI CONSUMABLES Cold repair welding with hig Ni consumables is allowed only for castings in non-corrosive service. A pre-heat and interpass temperature of 150-200C may be used to level off temperature gradient stresses. Heat input used shall be as low as possible. Shrinkage stresses shall be minimized by suitable selection of the welding sequence.
23.3
HOT REPAIR WELDING WITH CARBON STEEL CONSUMABLES Hot repair welding with carbon steel consumables should be applied for castings in corrosive service and when repairs over large areas are required. Pre-heating shall be maintained during welding. Under no circumstances shell the temperature drop below 400C. After welding, the temperature shall be maintained for 1 hour followed by slow cooling in an insulating firebrick or refractory blanket. The cooling rate shall not exceed 50C per hour. The high pre-heat temparatures followed by slow cooling will produce a weld metal with acceptable hardness values. A PWHT at 580-620C should be applied, for a corrosive service, to reduce furthur the hardness level of the weld metal and HAZ. For Ni-resist, a low-hydrogen consumable with a matching composition shall be used. Pre-heat temperature of 450-600 C shall be applied.
23.4
BRAZE WELDING For non-critical applications braze welded cast iron castings may be applied. When the melting point of the braze alloy is below 900C no hardening will occur in the HAZ. The hardness in the braze metal will not be high. The mechanical strength of the join could be less than the strength of the casting. The wetting of the braze joint may be a problem and may require special fluxes to remove oxides.
Rev.: A
24.
GENERAL REQUIREMENTS FOR REPAIR WELDING

24.1
GENERAL After a shut down of a production plant it is necessary to bring it back into operation as fast as possible. This pressure may lead to repair of components without following the right philosophy. It is necessary to consider the cause of a failure and make an analysis of that cause of failure to be able to execute the right repair procedure. In other words: a more thoughtful approach of the cause of failure, followed by setting up a wellconsidered repair procedure saves time and money. In many cases it is already possible in the design phase to consider eventual necessary repairs, due to corrosion or wear. In case it is possible to consider the amount of corrosion or wear, a construction can be designed on the necessity of repair by welding. A certain philosophy can complete the repair procedure. In short this philosophy will be presented.
24.2
REPAIR PHILOSOPHY If something is designed, the aim of use of the product is known. So, it is known if the product is subject to wear, corrosion or a combination of both. In general the level and type of the load is known, but the amount and the type of corrosion and wear are not known. So knowledge of corrosion and wear is necessary for a well thought design and repair procedure. Besides it is of great interest to characterize the place to be repaired: which materials have been used, which quality is required, under what circumstances the weld has to be made, and more. When all this is known, a useful procedure of repair can be made. Each of these steps in the repair philosophy shall be considered and these steps will lead to a scheme as attached. The different steps in the scheme will be explained shortly.
24.3
STEPS IN THE PHILOSOPHY As already stated, the design engineer should also consider these steps. He should take preventive measurements and should know which type of corrosion and/or wear will occur. So some knowledge of these phenomena is necessary. In this BWP only the different types of wear and corrosion are mentioned but they are not explained.
24.3.1
Wear Wear can be defined as an undesired attack of the surface of a material due to mechanical effects. So, at wear, material contact is needed. Some forms of wear are: Abrasive wear, due to chipping of relative hard particles in contact with the surface. Erosive wear, due to along the surface streaming fluid or gas, eventual provided with solid particles. Adhesive wear, due to the transfer of material at local overloaded surfaces. Fretting, due to the movement of surfaces with a small amplitude. Corrosive wear, due to during the continuously removement of oxide product. Surface fatigue, the removing of particles from the surface, due to periodical loading of the surface.
Rev.: A
All these types of wear ask for different types of surfaces e.g. hardness, microstructure, chemical composition a.s.o. So, by the selection of a wrong surface, wear can be increased rather than decreased. 24.3.2 Corrosion Corrosion can be defined as attack of the surface of a material by its environment. Some well known forms of corrosion are: Complete corrosion, an attack of whole the surface. Galvanic corrosion, due to combining two different materials with different potentials. Pitting, local corrosion at spots the corrosion layer cant be restored. Crevice corrosion, corrosion due to small crevices where less oxygen is presence to form a new corrosion layer. Intercristallyne attack, corrosion at the grain boundaries due to forming of Cr-carbides. Stress corrosion, corrosion caused by tension stresses in the material and an environment making this corrosion possible.
These different types of corrosion can be prevented by the choice of the right material, a good design and/of combinations of them. The types of wear and corrosion must be known by the design engineer, so he can make the right selection of the material to be used. However, due to an incorrect use of the construction in practice, material defects and defects caused by welding can occur as well. Some material defects are: Lamellar tearing. Brittle fracture. Cold cracking.
Defects due to loads are: Cracks due to fatigue. Cracks due to overloading the construction.
The next defects belong to the welding defects: Lack of fusion. Insufficient penetration into the root of a fillet weld. Lack of penetration. Lines of slag inclusions. Surface cracks. Undercuts. Elongated cavity and worm-holes. Crater cracks. Underbead cracks. Cracks in tack welds. Hydrogen cracking.
These material and load defects will not be explained. For an explanation, description and validation of defects: see standard ISO 5817.
Rev.: A
24.3.3
Examination Many repairs do not need to be repaired if the defects are located, recognized and their influence on the lifetime of a construction can be stated. Here, we reach the theory Fitness for purpose. This theory will not be explained here. For the determination of the defects the non-destructive testing methods can be used. These methods can be divided into two groups: A. Surface inspection with the following methods: B. Visual inspection. Liquid penetrant inspection (LPI). Magnetic particle inspection (MPI). Positive Metal Identification (PMI). Radiographic inspection. Ultrasonic inspection.
Internal material inspection with the following methods:
The methods of inspection will not be explained. 24.4 REPAIR PLAN Before the repair can be carried out, it is advisable to make a repair plan, containing the following steps: Removal of the defect Removal of defects can be done with one of the following methods: Grinding. Chipping. Gouging. Machining.
24.4.1
One must be sure the defect is removed completely! Intermediate inspection using one of the above mentioned methods should be carried out. Note: Chipping and grinding will press the side walls of the crack together, so a surface inspection may not show them. Materials that shall be pre-heated before welding, also shall be pre-heated before gouging. See: BWP of the material to be repaired. 24.4.2 Weld preparation When removing the defect, at the same time the weld preparation is carried out in most cases. Care shall be taken for a smooth transition to the surface. Choice of the welding process In principle every welding process that may be used for welding the specific materials can be used for repair welding. For more details: see BWP of the material to be repaired. The choice of the process to be used is influenced by a number of factors, e.g. the place where the repair shall be carried out, the circumstances under which the repair has to be carried out, the availability of the consumables, a.s.o. If the repair shall be carried out in the open air, the first choice will be for the SMAW process, instead of GMAW process. This process needs to be carried out in a tent, to prevent the shielding gas to be disturbed by draught. Also when the repair shall be carried out at a great height above the ground, the first choice will be the SMAW process, as for this process small and light power sources are available.
24.4.3
Rev.: A
The use of the process also depends on the presence of the welding consumable: the range of solid wires for GMAW is less than stick electrodes for the same purpose. When repairing in the shop, the first processes to be used for repair welding are the SMAW (ISO process number 111), GMAW (ISO process number 131 and 135) and FCAW (ISO process number 136). The SAW process shall not be used for repair welding of pressure vessels, storage tanks or pipeline. See DEP 30.10.60.18 dd. June 2003, clause 5.2.6. 24.4.4 Choice of the welding consumable The choice of the welding consumable shall be in accordance with the material to be welded. See BWP of the material to be welded. If a repair shall be carried out under high restraint conditions, so called low yield consumables may be used for root passing and hot passing. These consumables have lower yield strengths in comparison with the standard consumables used for welding these materials. The advantage of using these materials is that the elongation needed is gained from this low yield consumable without harmful consequences. Thermal pre and post treatment The choice of a pre and/or post heat treatment depends on an amount of factors, the most important of them being: Chemical composition of the material to be repaired. Thermal history of the material to be repaired. Thickness of the material to be repaired. Restraint conditions. Heat input during welding. Ambient temperature. Stress conditions after welding. Diffusible hydrogen content of the consumable to be used.
The pre and post heat treatment as well as the interpass temperature are all stated in the BWP of the material to be repaired. For measuring the pre-heat temperature and carrying out heat treatments see API 582 and DEP 30.10.60.18 dd. June 2003, clause 8.1, 9.1, 14. 24.5 QUALITY It is important the quality of the repair being good and is fulfilling the requirements. Therefore the contractor shall make a plan of repair. Part of this plan shall be a WPS, containing all the relevant details of the welding process. Also qualified welders shall be used for repair welding. 24.6 REFERENCES API 582 dd. March 2001. DEP 30.10.60.18, dd. June 2003. BWP for relevant materials.
Rev.: A
Repair philosophy
DESIGN
Preventive corrosion and/or wear
Yes
No
Insufficient
Problem / defect
aim - nature - type
Clear the problem?

no replace repair
Establish the cause Characterize location

FFP theory design repair procedure Expected quality insufficient sufficient
execute
In service
Rev.: A
25.
PREFERRED WELDING CONSUMABLES SHELL MOERDIJK AND SHELL PERNIS

Materiaal 1 C-staal C-staal C-staal C-staal A333.Gr6 15Mo3 13CrMo 4.4 10CrMo 9.10 12CrMo 19.5 Type CrMo C-staal AISI 304L AISI 304H AISI 310 AISI 316 AISI 316L AISI 316Nb AISI 321 Duplex 4462 Duplex 4462 Super Duplex Super Duplex Nikkel Monel 400 Cupro Nikkel 70/30 Inconel 600 Inconel 600 Inconel 625 Incoloy 800H Incoloy 800H Incoloy 825 Hasteloy B2 Hasteloy C4 Hasteloy C22 Hasteloy 276 Materiaal 2 C-staal 15Mo3 A333.Gr6 RVS. A333.Gr6 15Mo3 13CrMo 4.4 10CrMo 9.10 12CrMo 19.5 RVS. Type CrMo AISI 304L AISI 304H AISI 310 AISI 316 AISI 316L AISI 316Nb AISI 321 Duplex 4462 C-staal Super Duplex Super Duplex Nikkel Monel 400 Cupro Nikkel 70/30 Inconel 600 Inconel 800 Inconel 625 Incoloy 800H Incoloy 825 Incoloy 825 Hasteloy B2 Hasteloy C4 Hasteloy C22 Hasteloy 276 Elektrode Conarc 49C/Phoenix 120K Conarc 49C/Phoenix Conarc 49C/Phoenix Arosta 309 Mo Conarc 49C/Phoenix 120K SL 12G SL 19G SL 20G SL 502 In overleg met lasdeskundige In overleg met lasdeskundige Arosta 304L Arosta 304H Intherma 310 Arosta 316L Arosta 316L Arosta 318 Arosta 347 Bhler Fox CN 22/9 N Bhler Fox CN 22/9 N Jungo Zeron 100X Jungo Zeron 100X UTP 80 Ni UTP 80 M CuNi 70/30 UTP 7015 Mo UTP 7015 Mo UTP 6222 Mo UTP 7015 Mo UTP 7015 Mo UTP 6222 Mo UTP 703 Kb UTP 759 Kb UTP 759 KB TIG. lasdraad DMO-1G/EML 5 120KDMO-1G/EML 5 120K DMO-1G/EML 5 LNT 309 LHF EML 5/LNT 25 DMO-1G LNT 19 LNT 20 LNT 502 In overleg met lasdeskundige In overleg met lasdeskundige LNT 304Lsi LNT 304H LNT 310 LNT 316L LNT 316L LNT 318 LNT 347 LNT 4462 LNT 4462 LNT Zeron 100X LNT Zeron 100X A 80 Ni A 80 M LNT CuNi 70/30 A 068 HH A 068 HH A 6222 Mo A 068 HH A 068 HH A 6222 Mo A 703 A 759 A 759
UTP 759 KB/Incoweld 686CTP A 759/Incoweld 686CTP
Rev.: A
Materiaal 1 HK 40 HK 40 Manaurite 900 Manaurite 900 36 Xs Brons Brons Brons Gietbrons Aluminiumbrons Messing Messing Grijsgietijzer Nodulair-gietijzer
Materiaal 2 HK 40 Manaurite Manaurite 900 36 Xs 36 Xs Brons Gietbrons Messing Gietbrons Aluminiumbrons Messing Gietbrons Nodulair-gietijzer Nodulair-gietijzer
Elektrode UTP 2520 Sn UTP 2535 NbSn UTP 2535NbSn UTP 2535 NbSn UTP 2535 NbSn In overleg met lasdeskundige In overleg met lasdeskundige In overleg met lasdeskundige In overleg met lasdeskundige In overleg met lasdeskundige In overleg met lasdeskundige In overleg met lasdeskundige UTP 8 UTP 86 FN/UTP 8
TIG. lasdraad A 2520 Sn A 2535 NbSn A 2535 NbSn A 2535 NbSn A2535 NbSn In overleg met lasdeskundige In overleg met lasdeskundige In overleg met lasdeskundige In overleg met lasdeskundige In overleg met lasdeskundige In overleg met lasdeskundige In overleg met lasdeskundige A 80 Ni A 80 Ni
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Rev.: A

Best Welding Practices (Pernis) : Doel / Scope

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