Cultural Values vs.

Human Rights in a Globalised Context

PRs Increasingly Crucial Role in The Conflict Between Global Monopole and Local Values
Andreea Glavan, MA Public Relations, Southampton Solent University

Cultural Influences on Writing and the Media May 2013

Introduction This essay will place PR at the heart of the relation between cultural values and human rights and ask whether the dynamics of globalisation are such that ethical deliberation within the PR industry is compromised by the focus on capital flow and commodities endorsement. More specifically, it will evaluate the impact of PR activities carried out for transnational companies (also known as multinationals) in emerging economies on the local cultural values, through enforcement of Universal human rights. For this purpose, the essay examines the complexities faced by PR in its attempt to keep a balance between local and global, addressing the philosophical debate about the origins and characteristics of values. The essay establishes the relations between globalisation as a powerful agent shaping all current fields of study or work, PR included, and emerging economies. Globalisation as a phenomenon, although still vague and opaque, is a reality that is either fought against or embraced but, nevertheless, acknowledged (Lule, 2011). Many have associated PR with globalisation, but regarded the former as merely a tool that helps the latter advance (Fitzgerald & Spagnolia, 1999). This study aims to determine possible advances of PR that would benefit the practice and society more, focusing on emerging economies where multinational companies (MNCs) operate. The essay sketches out how the idea of human values and rights has advanced over time from ancient philosophy to current debates. The core philosophical concept about human values that the essay draws on is Razs (2003) genre-based cultural evaluation, which proposes that value is given by social practices, whilst avoiding the dangers of cultural relativism. Aspects of value pluralism proposed by Raz (2003) parallel with the proposed framework of educating future PR practitioners from developing economies, where MNCs operate. It will be argued that the reoccurring conflicts between countries in a climate dominated by globalisation commence from lack of understanding of the differences in cultural values and the magnitude associated with Universal human rights in Western societies. Issues relating to values and rights do sometimes transcend personal opinion or cultural integrity, as is the case of Female Genital Mutilation (FGM), a violation of multiple rights, including womens and childrens rights (Skaine, 2005). Attempts to supress the aforementioned issue as well as other human rights violations have failed and have often led to conflict between nations. The essay argues that the setback faced in supressing these issues is a matter of the approach based on supremacy of Universal human rights and proposes improvements for future purposes. The essay draws on examples of political conflict, as well as PR campaigns and argues that the two often link through similarities in both good and bad practice. The reason why the focus on PR is crucial in determining a balance between cultural values and human rights in a global context of MNCs is because this practice can work on behalf of the corporation and against the society or vice versa. The essay proposes that due to the fact that PR has more guidance and best practice for the first instance rather than the last, it will continue masking any human rights and cultural values violations of a multinational company. However, it is possible to determine a 2

change in the practice, but only if the right direction is suggested and there are justifications for all stakeholders involved to accept it. The proposed pattern for ensuring that PR advances in its attempt to resolve corporate social responsibility issues in developing economies is: the ideal PR professional in an emerging economy (for example BRIC, N11) is a local person educated in a Western society. The professional would have a balanced overview of both cultural values and global practices and would be able to act as a PR professional who builds bridges for collaboration between MNCs and a countrys Government, local authorities or the community. This ensures the dominance of universal human rights, which leads to cross-cultural dissonance, is eliminated, and solutions to issues are in line with the countrys culture in emerging economies. What this study is not doing is proposing the concept of glocalisation as the solution for issues regarding cultural values violations in emerging economies. Glocalisation was defined by Wu (2008) as the intertwining duality of globalisation and localisation in cultural change. Although the two may seem similar at first, the arguments made in the essay will discharge glocalism as a viable solution to issues caused by globalisation and transnational corporations, although studies (see, for examples, Onkvisit and Shaw, 2002; Svensson, 2001; Svensson, 2002) do propose this as the right manner of finding equilibrium in a world that accepts globalisation as an unstoppable reality. Human values in a globalised context Cultural values and human rights are central to the understanding of any issue around the globe. Every rebellion act starts when the parties involved perceive a violation of human rights and values, usually a deliberate one, as seen in the case of Wael Ghonim. The young head of marketing for Google promoted violations of rights against a twenty eight year old man, who was beaten to death by the Egyptian police. Later on, Ghonim was captured and, after being released, could communicate abuses he endured, which helped him relate on a personal level with all Egyptian revolutionists (Kirkpatrick & Preston, 2011). His efforts led to a revolution in Egypt, which brought the Mubarak regime, characterised by human rights and values violations, to an end (Elshahed, 2011). An aspect that is crucial to understanding the effects of globalisation in this instance is the role that US played in Egypt. The US government has offered an estimated military aid of $2bilion yearly, for nearly 3 decades sustaining the Mubarak regime (Colson & Maass, 2011). When news reached the US shores that young people were revolting against the supressing regime, the US president showed his support in the fight to recognise human values and rights in Egypt, lobbying for Mubarak to step down immediately. What is most visibly portrayed by the revolution in Egypt is the relation between state politics, PR practices and the global virtual world (social media), a mix that empowers the citizens. Therefore, a Facebook campaign started by a head of marketing that imports PR practices lead to attracting a global political power, US, to join forces with the citizens of Egypt fighting for their rights and values. In a very similar manner, however, US interfered in other countries, claiming that their involvement in the internal affairs of those states is aimed at restoring a balance in human rights compliance, as was the case in Egypt. However, many of the 3

countries fought back, including Saudi Arabia, Syria or Iraq (Sinner, 2011; Ruppert, 2000). The main reason for resistance was the clash between USs proposed manners of resolving human rights issues and the countrys cultural values, as well as it being a downwards initiative. This raises many questions but perhaps the 2 most important of them all that will address the issue best are: what are values and what makes the distinction between cultural values of every country? Its important to recognise that, although the debate about cultural values is a contemporary issue, all philosophers including Raz (2003), whose line of though was used in the arguments made in regards to PR, admit that the debates around values, as well as rights have their origin in Greek philosophy. Whether contested or agreed with by contemporary thinkers, Greek philosophers have set the grounds for the human values concept and, most importantly, its relation with the political governance of a state. Platos reflections on the dispute of values origin mirror much of Socrates thinking (Annas, 2003). However, surprisingly so, Aristotles view is contradictory in many aspects with Platos ideas, although Aristotle was Platos apprentice, in the same way Plato was Socrates student (Trigg, 1988). Platos suggestions of having the educated elite of kings that govern the state on the basis of knowing the ultimate truth (an idea emulated from Socrates view) can be equated to the totalitarian political systems of the early 20th century. His view is based on the assumption that values are intrinsic to people but only some attain the state needed to uncover them. Those chosen few would always do what they know is right, because they hold the ultimate truths, hence why they are the best-suited heads of state. Juvenals Latin phrase Quin custodiet custodes ipsos? /Who will guard the guardians? sums up the arguments brought against Platos proposed framework for the perfect state (Stephney, 1992). His philosophy is easily equated not only to the totalitarian state of the early 20th century but also to the practice of propaganda and spin, seen in PR, which are based on claiming that companies (brands) have discovered the ultimate truth and govern over the happiness of people (Ewen, 2008). Clearly, this relates to the issue of mission statements within PR, as seen for instance in most cases of Fortune 500 companies, which abuse the words best or excellent in their mission statements. One such example is American Standards mission statement: Be the best in the eyes of our customers, employees and shareholders (Di, 2012). One might easily add, at any price at the end of the statement. PRs role in business has become in the current global climate to make a company the ultimate best, instead of maximising its potential for society, which should be at the forefront of the PR practice. Aristotle is detaching himself from his professors totalitarian views and creates a substantially different link between individual values and the political discourse through his philosophical line of thought. He claims that the individuals interest and the public good are irreconcilable and dismisses the idea that the state should be an impartial referee trying to merge opposing interests and desires, but merely a structure helping the individuals to flourish (fulfil their natural potential). Aristotle places great importance on individuals and the idea of flourishing through education, but avoids the excess of rampant individualism by emphasizing community and custom (Trigg, 1988, p. 36). His thinking is reflected in the PR practices used to advance capitalist consumerism, through freedom of choice and emergence of multiple brands, which help an individual find his true identity (Bewes, 2002; Bauman, 2004). But sometimes, PR takes thing one-step too far, creating controversy, as in the case of the LOreal campaign featuring Beyonc, depicting her as multiracial. One of the 4

reactions to this campaign was: Whats so frustrating to me is that I feel like we have this inability to imagine ourselves as being complex and black, expressed by the former executive fashion and beauty editor of Essence magazine, Michaela Angela Davis (Stodghill, 2012). Advancing this idea in relation to the thesis, it can be argued that Aristotles claims can be used to fight against the current obsession of proposing the Universal Declaration of Human Rights as the ultimate way to merge different cultural values of states. However, transferring his views from a Greek city-state of thousands to a world of billions, brought together by globalisation may seem like a nave proposition and it has to be sustained further. Over and above the ideas regarding values and rights proposed by Plato and Aristotle, they both failed to recognise that proposing a framework of the perfect state is in itself totalitarian, irrespective of the suggested structure (be it democracy). Aiming to impose a particular ideal epitome applicable to all states leads to conflict, both inner and outer to individuals inhabiting a particular area, supressing all cultural values. This is applicable to transnational organisations, which, though their PR practices, aim to impose the Western archetype of life as the greatest. Aristotle claims that humans do not have to live in accordance with their own true nature in that they can evolve from one social class to another through education (Ackrill, 1987). However, one cannot find fulfilment or happiness unless he can attain his natural potential, in the setting that allows him to do so. Given this argument, a judgment can be made that a radical change in political and social practices will lead to confusion regarding values of society, which will in turn create conflict. This relates to the thesis, in the sense that PRs proposes uniformity in all practice, and this is visible international PR initiatives, such as the World Health Organisation campaign which will be detailed further in the essay. But why are human values so closely related to political ordinance of a country? Social contract theorists (this study is considering just two, Hobbes and Rousseau) propose that the state was originated for the purpose of attaining safety (Barker, 1960). Rousseau proposed that equality and freedom are inborn and were fully enjoyed by humans prior to the invention of the State or Government (Rousseau, 1762). However, due to security reasons, groups of free, autonomous individuals had to agree to form institutions, which in turn will ensure the wellbeing of its members. Hobbes (1651) had formerly claimed that contracts of this nature means that the ruler or Government guarantee rights and values. He also specified that failure to protect human values justified rebellion (Lloyd & Sreedhar, 2002). It is conceivable that this can also be extended to interference of external parties in the internal matters of a country, which threaten human rights and values, as seen by the countrys inhabitants. Therefore, the stability of a political structure of a country and defence against external interference is due to a desire to protect the cultural values that the political structure is preserving, granted a states governance model is inborn. This relates to the aim of PR to reach a state where it works in favour of the society within companies, but how can it do that when all practices they carry are at danger of intruding in a countrys cultural values set? A good illustration of issues faced in international contexts is the case of Female Genital Mutilation (FGM). Western societies have become aware of the issue and 5

faulted the countries where this practice is carried out denunciating the custom as inhuman (Broussard, 2008). If the practices were to be judged based on the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), then it can be claimed that FGM is a violation of numerous rights, including womens rights, childrens rights, rights to good health, etc. But are there Universal rights in real practice that dont need to be filtered through a cultures set of values? FGM is a practice aimed at purifying women, as seen in some cultures and it is a centuries old practice. The countries where it occurs use the same traditions as centuries ago, preserving the cultural habits, but unnecessarily endangering young girls health. The UN and NGOs allied against this practice and tried to impose laws that prohibit FGM in countries where it was reported, but countries like Egypt overturned the ban (WIN News, 1997). The implications of this interference of Western societies go beyond the positive impact imagined by them. A woman who is not circumcised may be perceived as unfitted for marriage in future in the culture she inhabits. This sustains the first part of the thesis that criticises the excess importance associated with the UDHR, which leads to insufficient significance of cultural values. For one thing it is clear to all that the current practices of FGM pose unnecessary life threatening risks to young females in developing Asian and African countries. On the other hand, a person who was never exposed to these countries culture will simply condemn FGM without understanding its cultural value. However, somebody who understands the local culture and the global context of an issue like FGM, for example Somalia-born model and author Waris Dirie, can balance the two and whilst she relates to local people, she can expose the benefits of the global context (Dirie & Miller, 1998). This is the perfect example that can be translated into the PR practice for overcoming barriers in conveying global messages to local people in emerging economies through using local ambassadors, much like celebrity endorsement (Silvera & Austad, 2004). In contemporary times, opposing Platos idea of the supreme truths (Plato refers to these as Forms) that govern an objective moral standard, Razs (2003) view proposes flexibility in evaluating cultural aspects depending on genre. Genre-based cultural evaluation however avoids cultural relativism, which claims that value is strictly dependent on social conditions and can only be attributed to each culture in particular, therefore not judged (Perusek, 2007). Of course it must be admitted that Razs (2003) view, although alluring for someone aiming to demonstrate the negative effects of globalisation, it does have flaws and it is effortless to counter-argue his claim. Korsgaard (2003) does exactly this by bringing into view the Aristotelian definition of value, which is primarily determined by the human element engaged in evaluation whilst the nature of the object is secondary. This view was endorsed by Kant, decades before and it opposes a fundamental claim made by Raz: valuable objects may not exist in the absence of social practice, which determines the nature of them, but it does not follow that values of the object are socially dependable (Guyer, 1992). Over and above all claims made against his theory, Razs (2003) genre based cultural evaluation is the most viable explanation for values as understood in a contemporary society. It appears so because it proposes an idea that could help the world evolve towards living in a more unified diversity, the value pluralism. It is important to recognise that two conflicting systems are both equally valuable, simply because they are grounded in distinct genres. What an indispensible idea this is for advancing a world of different cultures that is being forced together by the process of globalisation. But is this applicable in practice?

Around the same time when Plato was devising the Form, the objective ultimate truth (which can be equated to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights), Greeks were in contact with Persians and Egyptians more and more. There was therefore awareness in Ancient Greece that laws and customs are human creations that vary and they are not fixed, but arbitrary (Trigg, 1988). Yet all of Platos efforts concentrated not on finding common ground for all genres of values, but to find the ultimate laws that can be extended to all humans. If the Forms are the Universal human rights and the values are genre based (and some genres will be isolated to one culture only), then it means the Western society is trying to eliminate cultural values alien to their awareness through globalisation. Drawing on the comparison and extending it to the PR practice, it also means that PR is used by MNCs to propose ultimate lifestyles. However, the problem is more complex than that and less tragic. Admittedly, globalisation has advanced cultural conflicts through consumerism and other cultural phenomena visible in the world, but it cannot be blamed for all conflicts from underdeveloped economies. To exemplify, in Congo, rape is used as a means of social control to maintain gold, tantalum, tin and tungsten cheap to produce laptops, phones etc. for the Western economies (Mooney, 2012). However there isnt a guarantee that the practices are exclusively driven by the economic factor influenced by Western society, as such mentality has to be inbred. Nonetheless, the proposed solution is for UN to support a peace process in Congo that is African-led (Ball & Gready, 2006). The situation wouldnt have come to the attention of UN if it werent for globalisation. Therefore it can be assumed that globalisation is a double-edged sword (building links between countries as well as stirring conflict) and the need at the moment is to assess issues and propose viable solutions, and this essay does exactly that, proposing advances of the PR practice in international contexts.

MNCs and PR To outline the positive aspects of globalisation in regards to PR, characteristics of the practice like ethics, stakeholder accountability and personal value systems of professionals have a more advanced role in the context of transnational corporations (Welford, 2002). These elements are crucial in determining best practice from a companys corporate social responsibility (CSR) viewpoint. And CSR has been closely linked to human rights and values across the globe. However, the discernible reality is that the economic dimensions of globalisation have acquired a status higher than human values or even above fundamental human rights, which are going to be seriously affected by current global trends (Welford, 2002, p. 2). All laws and frameworks proposed currently visibly allow transnational corporations to acquire profits, proposing that global businesses will adapt their strategies to harmonise with local cultures as desired by them. Since then, the global-local fusion has taken on new forms and it is most visible in the case of Coca-Cola (Tian, 2006), Starbucks (Taylor, 2008), Gillette (Maynard, 2003) or Wal-Mart (Matusitz & Forrester, 2009). But these brands and other organisations have just slightly adapted their products and marketing tactics to suit local audiences, merely for profit purposes.

PRs role in globalisation is understood from a Western standpoint and it focuses on environmental protection and lifestyle issues because in economically advanced societies famish is no longer an issue, which determines a shift in basic values and needs. In the welfare state, the basic needs at the bottom of Maslows pyramid are no longer a concern; therefore priority is given to issues of belongingness and selfactualisation (Inglehart, 2000). What is interesting about this is that globalisation allows interaction between economically developed states and emerging economies (Welford, 2002). Even in this instance, Western societies inhabitants give priority to environmental protection rather than economic growth in countries where the infant mortality is rising. This is mirrored by the PR activities of MNCs and this passage suggests that PR is jumping ahead of itself promoting lifestyle issues in countries where an economic stability has not yet been reached. This can lead to issues such as political conflict and it is clear that economically unprivileged countries will become defensive of globalisation (Escobar, 2004). However, this resistance is more aimed at political interference as seen previously in the case of Saudi Arabia or Iraq (Sinner, 2011; Ruppert, 2000). This allows even more leeway for transnational companies to advance their economical position in various countries, whilst continuing to breach human rights and values in those states. Oxfams International PR Campaign, Make Fair Trade demonstrates that issues relating to cultural values versus human rights can only be resolved from the local level upwards, promoting the international principles and instruments of human rights [which] can be brought to bear on national legislation, and in turn citizens can draw on both levels to demand their rights (Brouwer, Grady H., Traore, & Wordofa, 2005, p. 67). Another edifying example of PR practices in international contexts is the Smallpox Eradication Campaign, which in 1967, can be argued to have set the tone for good international PR. The initial campaign strategies proposed by World Health Organisation (WHO) focused on mass vaccination (which worked in the Western societies to eliminate smallpox outbreaks) and set out all the logistics in terms of health professionals, number of vaccines etc. (Curtin & Gaither, 2007). However, the context in which the campaign was proposed was different from Western Societies, in that religious tribes would not allow their members to be vaccinated, mass media was an unknown concept in most parts of Africa, etc. Therefore, the Western blueprint of a PR campaign was set to fail. However, professionals on sites realised that the issue can be solved if the focus is switched on the local practices and how these have the potential to inform the PR activities necessary to raise awareness and convince people of the long-term effects of the vaccine. The newly proposed strategy of targeting opinion leaders, selected accordingly to local norms and educating them on the benefits of the vaccine led to an unexpected success of complete eradication of smallpox (Brilliant, et al., 1985). This essay draws on these two examples for local talents of African or Asian countries to familiarise themselves with Western practices and then become PR professionals in their own countries. As expressed previously, this ought not to be confused with the idea of glocalisation, proposed by Robertson (1995), of adapting global desires and practices to local values. Whilst both ideas propose a fusion of local and global for the purpose of advancing human values discourse, paralleling the two would be like paralleling Razs dependence of value on social practices with radical cultural relativism, as seen earlier. To clarify again, the idea of local PR professionals educated in a Western Society proposes a new adaptation of business 8

practices to countries where MNCs are operating, but done by someone who is aware of potential opportunities or threats from both parties involved. This resolves the core issue of glocalisation, the lack of recognition that adaptation as understood by Western mentality can conflict with local values and/or priorities. This study proposes that another risk associated with glocalisation is the possibility for it to become a masked globalisation, because it requires guidelines that will be standardised in order to ensure uniformity in compliance. And it is safe to say that the standards will prevail in decision-making processes, which will lead to businesses dismissing local human values once again. Therefore, this study argues that glocalisation is merely a segment of the vicious circle created by globalisation in the world. Conclusion To conclude, the essay proposes that local talent should get accustomed to global thinking (which is, in majority, dictated by Western societies). This clearly defines the standpoint of the research in regards to human values, aligned to Razs (2003) social dependence theory. There are no such things as Universal human values and, most importantly, one cannot claim they hold the ultimate truth (Platos Forms) in regards to human rights and attempt to impose them by any means possible, as is the case with the enforcement of UDHR. However, blaming the Western society and MNCs for the current state of affairs is a one-sided view. For instance, how can a resourceextraction company be expected to respect the human values and rights of the local community when they dont have the knowledgeable and competent people who can bridge the gap between the organisation and the community, through consultation and sensitive social policy? As seen in the case of Oxfam or WHO, relying on an upward strategy starting from local to global can help develop PR campaigns and practices that eliminate the resistance visible in emerging economies. The most interesting aspect of the two case studies of Oxfam and WHO is that they both draw on positive examples of international PR from the public sector, though non-governmental organisations have a limited budget for PR activities and campaigns. Yet, one may struggle to find an example of a PR campaign for an MNC that successfully appealed to an audience in a developing country and is not worthy of a Max Clifford comparison, through its manipulative and unethical content (Slack, 2011). Therefore, the great media coverage, success in achieving all objectives set and a return of investment possible through the newly proposed method of handling international PR is suited for all stakeholders involved in an MNCs business operations. To sum up, there are good examples of PR managing to balance out the views of human rights with cultural values in a globalised context, but these come from sectors where profit is not at the forefront of every activity. However, technical developments, such as social media, make it more challenging for MNCs to elude cultural values or human rights violations in any market they operate in. Therefore, if MNCs want to use PR to their best advantage in a globalised context, less attention should be focused on developing blueprints for success and meticulous guidelines for the ideal PR campaigns, focused solely on profit. Instead, for a time and cost effective manner of developing cultural values knowledge and understanding in transnational companies, the focus should be on training local talent in a Western society, where 9

they can get accustomed with universal rights and global affairs and propose adaptations in line with cultural values.

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