Radio Transmission Network and Frequency Planning Document Transcript

1. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNINGLZB 111 0162 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 1999 This book is a training document and contains simplifications. The contents are subject to revision without notice. Ericsson assumes no legal responsibility for any error or damage resulting from the usage of this document. All rights reserved. Regardless of the purpose, no parts of this publication may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, whether electronic or mechanical, including photocopying and microfilm,without the expressed written permission of Ericsson Radio Systems AB.LZB 111 0162 2. INTRODUCTION 1RUBRIKFRTECKNINGLIST OF HEADINGS RADIORELAY TRANSMISSION OVERVIEW 2Dokumentnr - Document no.001 51-LZB 111 0162 RADIO COMMUNICATION SYSTEM 3Datum - Date Rev COMPONENTS199910-28 A RADIOWAVE PROPAGATION 4 THE INTERNATIONAL TELECOMMUNICATION 5 UNION (ITU) QUALITY AND AVAILABILITY TARGETS 6 RADIO REGULATIONS 7 THE RADIO SPECTRUM AND CHANNEL 8 ARRANGEMENT INTERFERENCE - BASIC CONCEPTS 9 NEAR INTERFERENCE 10 FAR INTERFERENCE 11 PATH AND FREQUENCY PLANNING 12 RADIORELAY TRANSMISSION - DISCUSSION 13 RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK PLANNING - 14 APPLICATION RADIO-METEOROLOGICAL PARAMETERS FOR 15 RL-DESIGN 3. INTRODUCTION This chapter provides a general presentation to this training document, its background and objective. TABLE OF CONTENTSBackground ................................................................................................................................................ ....... 1Objective ................................................................................................................................................ ........... 1Scope of the book........................................................................................................................................ ...... 2Notes to the reader ............................................................................................................................................ 4Acknowledgments ............................................................................................................................................. 4 i 4. INTRODUCTIONBackground Different applications of radio-relay transmission, in particular, line-of- sight links, have grown considerably since radio-link techniques were commercially introduced just prior to World War II. The vast number of applications and implementations of radio-link systems since the 1950s have brought about severe frequency spectrum congestion, forcing the utilization of higher frequencies. In addition, sophisticated radio engineering solutions and the significant changes that have been made require a better understanding of radio engineering concepts and their applications. This book is dedicated to improving the understanding of the radio network planning process. It includes a collection of the basic principles, methods, theory and guidelines for radio system planning and design that are often essential to the tasks performed by network planners and the designers of telecommunications operating organizations. We have

carefully organized and presented what we believe to be indispensable basic concepts of radiowave propagation, spectrum management and radio-system design in this RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING.Objective The purpose of this book is to provide essential design techniques for radio-relay transmission, focusing on the general aspects of point-to- point services operating at frequencies above 1 GHz. The book treats the basic principles of radiowave propagation, quality and availability targets, frequency aspects, interference and general information related to the ITU organization and its administrative tasks. The book is intended in part or in its entirety, as training documentation for courses in radio transmission network planning and related subjects. It is therefore our intention to provide customers with suggestions and advisory support as to how one starts a network-planning project based on concrete input data. We aim to describe how radio-links operate, how to use or dimension terminals and their equipment, and how to select the necessary performance parameters and equipment specifications to meet the needs of specific customers. Ericsson Radio Systems AB 11/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 5. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNINGScope of the book This book is subdivided and structured into 14 independent chapters. As a consequence, each chapter functions as a specific guideline. Chapter 1 (this chapter), INTRODUCTION, provides a presentation of the book, its background and objectives. Chapter 2, RADIO-RELAY TRANSMISSION - AN OVERVIEW, presents some general facts about the development of radio-relay transmission since its first commercial application in 1934. Chapter 3, RADIO COMMUNICATION SYSTEM COMPONENTS, describes in some detail the components that make up radio communication systems, different traffic setups and possible interference sources and how they can affect signal transmission. Chapter 4, RADIOWAVE PROPAGATION, a presentation of the basic principles and algorithms related to radiowave propagation used in radio-relay transmission. Both loss and attenuation algorithms plus fade prediction models for different fading mechanisms are thoroughly discussed. The chapter also includes a presentation of the basic concepts of main propagation mechanisms, Fresnel zone, equivalent and true Earth radii and the decibel scale. Chapter 5, INTERNATIONAL TELECOMMUNICATION UNION, describes in detail the ITU organization and its administrative tasks. This chapter provides valuable information on how to search and locate important ITU-R and ITU-T reports and recommendations on specific subjects related to radio-relay transmission. Chapter 6, QUALITY AND AVAILABILITY TARGETS, provides an extensive description of digital transmission network models used in error performance analysis and quality and availability targets in accordance with ITU-T Recommendations G.821 and G.826. The chapter discusses quality and availability parameters, their calculation and their relationships to existing atmospheric fading mechanisms. Chapter 7, RADIO REGULATIONS, describes the ITU-R publication Radio Regulations, its publisher, and the contents and the general structure of the publication. The primary objective of this chapter is to handle the subject of Radio Regulations in connection with the use of frequencies for fixed terrestrial radiolinks.2 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 1/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 6. INTRODUCTION Chapter 8, FREQUENCY SPECTRUM AND CHANNEL ALLOCATION, provides an introduction to the radio spectrum by pointing out some of usual apprehensions concerning its limitations and crowding. In addition, the chapter also

presents an introduction to radio- frequency channel arrangements, frequency economy and finally, it provides a complete list on channel arrangements for radio-relay systems in the range 1.5 to 55 GHz. Chapter 9, INTERFERENCE - BASIC CONCEPTS, provides a detailed discussion of the different types of interference sources and their effects on radio-relay equipment. The location of several radio systems to the same site is also discussed in some detail. In Chapter 10, NEAR INTERFERENCE, includes a discussion of the basic principles and definitions used in the calculation of near interference; some algorithms are also provided. A presentation of intermodulation at the receiver and transmitter includes some examples of intermodulation products. Chapter 11, FAR INTERFERENCE, provides basic concepts and definitions used in the calculation of far interference. A typical performance diagram and interference scenariois discussed. The calculation of the contributions of the individual interference signal levels, plus the resulting interference level at one receiver and threshold degradation. Chapter 12, PATH AND FREQUENCY PLANNING, covers some of the issues that may arise concerning path profile, line-of-sight requirements, input signals and their variation, diversity, reflections and frequency planning. In addition, surveying possible radio-link paths and site requirements are discussed. Chapter 13, RADIO-RELAY TRANSMISSION DISCUSSION, the primary objective of this chapter is to encourage a discussion on specific and general subjects of interest in transmission network planning, for instance, practices versus theory, current trends in today worlds market that affect radio-relay transmission, personal experience and future prospects for radio-relay technology. Chapter 14, NETWORK PLANNING - APPLICATION, is to be customized and adjusted to specific applications. Instructions and guidelines are provided on how to select the necessary performance parameters and equipment specifications to meet the needs of specific customers. Ericsson Radio Systems AB 31/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 7. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNINGNotes to the reader The contents treated in this book are subject to changes due to continued development in methodology and design. Furthermore, network planning is in some aspects strongly dependent on ITU recommendations, which are continuously the subject of corrections, additions and improvements. Therefore, it is strongly recommended that readers are aware of ongoing ITU Study Group activities. References to some sources of the material used in each chapter are given in the last section of that chapter.Acknowledgments Thanks to Malin Strm and Christer Lehman who patiently drew most of the figures in this book. Thanks to Inger Meltzer for her kind assistance with the layout of the front cover. The authors are very grateful to any comments and suggestions that may improve the content of this book.4 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 1/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 8. RADIO-RELAY TRANSMISSION OVERVIEW This chapter contains an overview of radio-relay transmission with a brief review. In addition, it provides a summary on suitable applications and describes the general aspects and advantages of network planning. The prediction cycle along its activity blocks employed in radio transmission planning is presented. TABLE OF CONTENTSTransmission options.................................................................................................................................... ..... 1 Introduction............................................................................................................................

............. 1 Radio links versus cable links ............................................................................................................. 1 Radio-relay transmission - advantages ................................................................................................ 2 Transmission - capacity and covered distance..................................................................................... 2 Radio-relay transmission - suitability .................................................................................................. 3The beginning of the radio-relay transmission era ............................................................................................ 4The digitalization era......................................................................................................................................... 4Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH).............................................................................................................. 4What is radio-network planning? ...................................................................................................................... 5The trinity principle of network planning.......................................................................................................... 6The prediction cycle .......................................................................................................................................... 7References ................................................................................................................................................ ......... 8 i 9. RADIO-RELAY TRANSMISSION - AN OVERVIEWTransmission optionsIntroduction Transmission is generally made possible by employing the following three major media: optical-fiber cables copper coaxial cables radio-relay Another available transmission option is the use of satellite links, which are more appropriate, than the use of ordinary terrestrial radio-relay and cable, in such applications as long-haul routes in international networks that do not require extremely high transmission capacity.Radio links versus cable links Radio-links exhibit many advantages in comparison to fiber-optic links, for example: cost-effective transmission links in inaccessible terrain and difficult environments the quick coverage of large areas by new operators higher security due to the fact that equipment can be physically concentrated Radio-relay transmission is therefore a very attractive alternative for applications ranging from the coverage of the rural, sparsely populated areas, of developing countries having ineffective or minimal infrastructures to the well-developed industrial countries that require expansion of their telecommunications networks. Ericsson Radio Systems AB 12/038/ 02-LZU 102 158, Rev A, November 1999 10. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNINGRadiorelay transmission - advantages Considering the three transmission media mentioned above, radio-relay transmission is the most suitable option for networks that are located in areas of difficult terrain topography or where other limitations are imposed on the use of optical fiber and/or copper coaxial cables. Generally speaking, radio-relay transmission is most suitable in the following applications: long-haul routes for national and international networks covering areas of difficult terrain topography national networks containing radio-relay in parallel with optical fiber backbone routes urban access routes connecting interurban optical-fiber cable routes and in-town terminal stations rapid geographical changes of station location as a consequence of catastrophic or emergency situations short-term projects access links from cellular to public

networks cellular transmission networks radio in the local loop point-to-multipoint operation It is possible to combine the different applications presented above, thus making radio-relay transmission a very competitive option both technically and economically.Transmission - capacity and covered distance Figure 1 is a rough illustration of the possible transmission options as a function of the different ranges of transmission capacity (Mbit/s) and distance (km). Except for some overlapping, the figure clearly shows that the transmission options are complementary, while at the same time, each option exhibits its own domain of optimal cost effectiveness.2 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 02/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 11. RADIO-RELAY TRANSMISSION - AN OVERVIEW Capacity, Mbit/s thousands Optical fiber hundreds Radio-relay point-to-point Satellites Fiber in the loop tens point-to -multipo int tens hundreds thousands Distance, km Figure 1: Transmission options for different capacities and covered distances.Radio-relay transmission - suitability Table 1 illustrates the different aspects of radio-relay transmission and the corresponding suitable conditions. Subject Suitable conditions for radio-relay transmission Transmission capacity Low, medium and high (not very high) Routes Short and medium (not very long) Terrain topography Inaccessible terrain (not over water) Infrastructure None or hardly existing Project implementation Short time Initial operation High initial investment Coverage Continental rural and urban Special operation Emergency use Damaging intention Easy to protect important sites (nodes) Availability Very high (if required) Table 1: Suitable conditions for radio-relay transmission. Ericsson Radio Systems AB 32/038/ 02-LZU 102 158, Rev A, November 1999 12. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNINGThe beginning of the radio-relay transmission era The worlds first commercial radio-relay link was put into operation in 1934 after intensive preliminary attempts that were started in 1931, in Paris, at the Laboratories Central des Tlcommunications, a subsidiary of the former International Telephone and Telegraph Corporation, the former IT&T. It consisted of a 56 km radio-relay path across the English Channel between Calais (France) and Dover (England), amplitude modulated (AM), using a klystron that generated 1 W RF output power and operating at 1.7 GHz. The hardware technology was provided by two manufactures: the British company Standard Telephones and Cables (now a part of Northern Telecom) and the French company Le Matriel Tlphonique (now integrated into Alcatel Telspace).The digitalization era Integrated semiconductor technology started a new era in radio telecommunication. Optical fiber was not available for transmission late in 60s and early 70s. Digital transmission on coaxial cable was too expensive (repeaters at extremely short intervals) and slowly implemented for relatively long telecommunication routes. Thus, low- cost semiconductor technology in the beginning of the 70s was therefore the start of a new telecommunications era. Digital transmission has several advantages compared to analog transmission: Up to a certain threshold limit, the received signal can be restored to its original shape irrespective of the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), thus enabling a large, almost unlimited number of repeaters. Radio-relay transmission at high frequencies (10 GHz) The worlds first digital radio-relay link was a 17 Mbit/s unit that was placed into operation in Japan, in 1969. It provided 240 telephone channels in the 2 GHz frequency band.Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH) SDH links have become the international standard for the expansion of telecommunication network infrastructures. Radio-relay transmission, and in particular microwave links have begun

to be adapted to the SDH data format and a good number of ITU-T recommendations are now available. These recommendations represent general directives aimed at ensuring that radio systems are designed so that they conform to SDH interface specifications.4 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 02/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 13. RADIO-RELAY TRANSMISSION - AN OVERVIEW SDH provides some key benefits in comparison with Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy (PDH): Higher transmissions speeds are defined. Direct multiplexing is possible without intermediate multiplexing stages. This is accomplished through the use of pointers in the multiplexing overhead that directly identify the position of the payload. The SDH overhead supports an effective network management, control over the traffic, network status etc. The SDH protocol is able to handle both the European standard and American standard payloads. SDH technology will, for the next 20-30 years, offer a standardized method for the worldwide transmission of all types of data traffic for both existing and future data transmission systems.What is radio-network planning? Network planning can be a quite complicated and time-consuming task. The degree of difficulty is a function of that which is to be included in the task. For instance, the task may include initial planning plus an overview of the entire network, frequency planning, site survey, path analysis, installation and tests. Network operational requirements may also constitute a crucial factor in the planning process. Regardless the degree of difficulty, it will always be an iterative process! Generally speaking, the initial design of a radio-link is performed in four steps: Initial planning and site selection Topographical analysis Preliminary path and frequency planning analysis Site survey Network planning as a multi-task process is illustrated inFigure 2. Ericsson Radio Systems AB 52/038/ 02-LZU 102 158, Rev A, November 1999 14. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING NETWORK PLANNING Quality and Availability Network Management Prediction Network Traffic Radiowave Interference Status Demand Propagation Analysis Figure 2: Overview of network planning.The trinity principle of network planning The iterative, multi-task, process of network planning is controlled by three important factors: availability, currently expressed as a fraction of time quality, currently expressed in biterror ratio (BER) for digital links cost, expressed in the actual currency These three factors constitute the basic body of network planning. The multi-task process, along with all of the possible items, is in some way related to these three factors, seeFigure 3. In fact, they are the parametersthat are usually supplied by the customer. The answer is already known before starting the network planning process!6 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 02/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 15. RADIO-RELAY TRANSMISSION - AN OVERVIEW $ Costs 1 Coordination 9 Site layout 2 Flight-path obstacle 10 Near interference 3 Road requirements 11 Equipment data 4 Path length 12 Power supply requirements 5 Protective measures 13 Capacity 6 Far interference 14 Obstacles 7 Interception risk 15 Terrain 8 Frequency aspects 16 Interference risks 2 7 10 12 6 13 9 8 11 16 14 15 3 5 4 1 QUALITY AVAILABILITY BER % of time Figure 3: The trinity principle of network planning.The prediction cycle Figure 4 displays the four main actvity blocks which form the planning process: loss/attenuation, fading, frequency planning and quality and availability. A preliminary fade margin is calculated in the loss/attenuation block which is used for preliminary fade predictions in the fading block. If interference is present in the frequency planning block,

then the threshold degradation is included in the fade margin. The updated fade margin will become the effective fade margin and employed in the fading predictions. The results in the loss/attenuation and fading blocks will form the necessary input to the quality and availability block. Ericsson Radio Systems AB 72/038/ 02-LZU 102 158, Rev A, November 1999 16. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING Loss/attenuation Fading Rain attenuation Diffraction-refraction loss Free-space and Obstacle and Gas attenuation Reflections loss + Multipath propagation Always present Predictable and predictable if present Not always present but statistically predictable Link budget Fading prediction Predictable Frequency if present Quality & Availability Planning Interference Figure 4: The prediction cycle.References Test av nya generationens SDH-radiont (in Swedish), Elektronik i Norden, 46, vol. 6,1997. RadioRelay Systems, Huurdeman, A. A., Artech House, 1995. Radio-System Design for Telecommunications (1-100 GHz), Freeman, R. L., 1987.8 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 02/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 17. RADIO COMMUNICATION SYSTEM COMPONENTS This chapter deals with the components that make up radio communication systems, different traffic setups and possible interference sources and how they can affect signal transmission. TABLE OF CONTENTSIntroduction....................................................................................................... ................................................ 1Radio communication systems .......................................................................................................................... 1 The transmitter .................................................................................................................................... 3 The receiver................................................................................................................................... ...... 3 The antenna ......................................................................................................................................... 4 Feeder cabling ..................................................................................................................................... 4 Antenna coupling unit ......................................................................................................................... 4 Frequency and bandwidth.................................................................................................................... 4Traffic setup ................................................................................................................................................ ...... 5 Simplex ............................................................................................................................................... 5 Two-frequency simplex....................................................................................................................... 5 Duplex.................................................................................................................................... ............. 6Transmitter ................................................................................................................................................ ........ 8Receiver ................................................................................................................................................ ............ 12 Receiver characteristic data................................................................................................................. 13 Sensitivity.............................................................................................................................. 13 Sensitivity to co-channel Interference

................................................................................... 15 Adjacent channel selection.................................................................................................... 16 Blocking level ....................................................................................................................... 18 Intermodulation level ............................................................................................................ 20Feeder cabling ................................................................................................................................................ ... 21 Coaxial cable....................................................................................................................................... 21 Waveguides ......................................................................................................................................... 21Duplex filters...................................................................................................................................... ............... 22Transmitter combiners............................................................................................................................... ........ 22Receivers multicouplers .................................................................................................................................... 25Antennas............................................................................................................................ ................................ 26 Antenna gain for parabolic antennas ................................................................................................... 27 Antenna diagram ................................................................................................................................. 28References ................................................................................................................................................ ......... 30 i 18. RADIO COMMUNICATION SYSTEM COMPONENTSIntroduction The term system is nowadays generally used rather broadly. What are systems? One possible definition of a system is a set or arrangement of items, so related or connected, as to form an entire unit. Thus a radio system may range from encompassing a simple transceiver, a length of coaxial line and the antenna to which it is connected to, to encompassing a combination of many receivers, transmitters, control and coding apparatus, towers and antennas all assembled into a coordinated functioning complex. An ordinary communication system can therefore consist of many system components whose primary task is the transmission of information-conveying signals to a user. The actual transmission is transmitted via some sort of transmission medium. Common transmission mediums are the atmosphere, coax cables or a fiber optical components. This implies that the signal carrying the information must assume a suitable form that is fitted to the particular characteristics of the medium over which it is to be transmitted.Radio communication systems A radio communication system utilizes atmosphere as propagation medium. The signal power of radio waves reduces as a function of distance as they propagate through space. Radio links transmit directional information from a transmitter to a receiver using electromagnetic waves. Radio link systems are important examples of a radio communication system. Radio-link systems operate primarily in the frequency range between 200 MHz and 60 GHz. Although Radio Regulations allocates services in the frequency range up to 275 GHz, it is unusual, for the present, to find commercial radio-link systems that make use of frequencies higher than 60 GHz. The frequencies that are used for radio communications have successively moved upwards from lower to higher frequencies (shorter wavelengths). Back in the early days of radio, it

was easier to generate carrier frequencies of sufficient power at the lower frequency spectrum. With the advent of new techniques, it became possible to successively develop new components that have made it possible to use higher and higher frequencies. Ericsson Radio Systems AB 13/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 19. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING An additional motive for the use of ever-increasing frequencies for radio communication is the increased frequency crowding that is taking place in the used and relatively low frequency ranges. Frequency crowding increases the risk of interference and presents limitations in the possibility to transmit large amounts of bandwidth-demanding information. This presents a natural need for the utilization of frequency ranges that have not been utilized earlier (i.e., high frequencies). At its outset, mobile communications utilized frequencies in the 30-40 MHz range which then successively increased and passed 80, 160, 450 MHz, reaching frequencies of around 900 MHz (which is, for example, used in mobile telephony applications). The range 1700-2500 MHz, used today by a number of communications systems, will in the near future also be used to provide mobile personal telephone services. An advantage of using higher frequencies for communication is the increase in available bandwidth brought about by the utilization of these frequencies. For example, a speech channel depending on modulation scheme will typically require a bandwidth of 12.5 to 25 kHz meaning that a 1 MHz interval can contain 40-80 speech channels. It is obvious that there exists many more available 1 MHz intervals in, for example, the 900 or 1800 MHz ranges than in the 30 MHz range. On the other hand, the use of higher frequencies introduces certain difficulties resulting from the fact that a speech channel having a bandwidth of 25 kHz takes up a smaller relative bandwidth at 1800 MHz than it does at 30 MHz. This places much higher demands on the exactness of frequency generation and filtering, so that a channel maintains one and the same bandwidth while at the same time maintaining sufficient isolation (filtering) to its adjacent channels. Todays radio links employ frequencies ranging from approx. 200 MHz up to 60 GHz. Relatively few speech channels are transmitted over the lower band (below 2 GHz) while the higher bands (above 2 GHz) are used for the simultaneous transmission of up to 1920 speech channels. In these cases, the links are used for traffic having high capacity requirements, the highways of the telephony network. The higher frequencies make it easier to direct radiation between the transmitter and the receiver using reasonably sized antennas, since the antennas directivity is a function of its size in relation to the wavelength used. This also contributes to the effective increase in the possibility to use available channels since they, for a geographical area, are easier to isolate from one another. Radio equipment that is included in radio-link systems may be subdivided into two main groups: mounted on the ground2 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 3/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 20. RADIO COMMUNICATION SYSTEM COMPONENTS mounted on masts Mastmounted radio equipment comprises, together with an antenna, a relatively compact system that has short feeder cabling. Ground- mounted radio equipment, on the other hand, is generally connected to antennas via longer feeder cabling. Figure 1 provides a schematic illustration of a block diagram for a simplified radio communication system. At each end, the system consists of a transmitter, a receiver and an antenna. Feeder cable(s) may also be required, depending on the application. Tx1 Tx2 Rx1 Rx2 Figure 1: Block diagram for a simplified radio communication system.The transmitter The purpose

of the transmitter is to generate the carrier frequency that is to be used for the communication, to modulate this carrier frequency with the desired information and finally, to amplify the signal so that it attains a sufficiently high power level so that it may traverse the desired communication distance to the receiver.The receiver The receiver amplifies the received signal (which is at this point much weaker than when it was transmitted), filters out any undesirable signals (interfering signals) that the receiver picked up and finally, detects the existence of information in the carrier frequency. Ericsson Radio Systems AB 33/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 21. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNINGThe antenna The antenna adapts the generated signal to the surrounding environment (to the propagation medium) and directs the radio waves that are to be transmitted towards the receiving station. When receiving, the antenna receives the signal from the desired direction and transfers it to the receiver. Antennas may be built having different directivities, from more or less isotropic antennas (radiate equally in all directions) to antennas that exhibit extremely high directivities.Feeder cabling The purpose of the feeder cable is to interconnect the antenna with the transmitter/receiver.Antenna coupling unit The antenna-coupling unit makes it possible to utilize a common antenna for both the transmitter and receiver. The transmitter and receiver can, for example, be connected to one and the same antenna either via a duplex filter or a transmitter/receiver switch. The duplex filter prevents the transmitters frequency from blocking the receiver in a T/R configuration. A transmitter/receiver switch disconnects the receiver in a T/R configuration from the antenna when in transmitting mode and thereby prevents any blockage of the receiver.Frequency and bandwidth A given radio connection is established at a specific frequency or radio channel. The available frequency range is subdivided into a number of such radio channels that are assigned bandwidths that reflect the selected modulation scheme as well as the amount and type of information that is to be transmitted. For example, a speech channel requires less bandwidth than a TV channel. In many cases, it may be desirable to transmit many speech channels simultaneously (multiplexed together) which increases bandwidth requirements. A data channel can assume different bandwidths as a function of the transmission capacity.4 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 3/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 22. RADIO COMMUNICATION SYSTEM COMPONENTSTraffic setupSimplex Employing the simplest form of radio connection setup, the transmitter and receiver operate at the same frequency (transmit and receive over the same channel). In other words, simplex operation only permits the transmission of signals in either direction alternately. This traffic setup is referred to as simplex, see Figure 2. Simplex traffic was the most common setup back in the early days of radio. It is still often used, for example, when communicating via walkie-talkies. Simplex traffic requires good traffic discipline in order to avoid both ends transmitting at the same time. f1 f1 Tx1 f1 Tx2 f1 T/R T/R Rx1 Rx2 f1 f1 T/R = Transmitter/Receiver switch Figure 2: Block diagram of simplex traffic setup.Two-frequency simplex When employing two-frequency simplex, see Figure 3, the transmitter and receiver operate over different channels. However, this setup does not allow simultaneous reception and transmission since sufficient filtering (usually performed by the duplex filter) does not exist as a rule, and reception may be disturbed by the transmitter in a T/R configuration. Ericsson Radio Systems AB 53/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999

23. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING f1 f2 Tx1 f2 Tx2 f1 T/R T/R Rx1 Rx2 f2 f1 T/R = Transmitter/Receiver switch Figure 3: Block diagram of two-frequency simplex setup. Note that two types of stations have been introduced in the case of two- frequency simplex traffic: one having the transmitter frequency above the receiver frequency and one having the transmitter frequency beneath the receiver frequency. Communication between such stations requires that the stations be of opposite types. In comparison with ordinary simplex, two-frequency simplex has the advantage that interference between two base stations is not present if the base stations transmitters are operating in the same duplex band. Frequency re-using is, however, strongly dependent on the mobiles geographical position.Duplex In the case of duplex traffic, see Figure 4 and Figure 5, transmission and reception occur simultaneously and over separate frequencies (channels) which allows simultaneous communication in both directions, between the called and the calling parties, to take place. On occasion, so-called semi-duplex is used, in which case one of the stations (usually the fixed station, often referred to as the base station) operates in duplex and the mobile station in simplex. Two channels are still used for this communication setup.6 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 3/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 24. RADIO COMMUNICATION SYSTEM COMPONENTS Tx1 f2 Tx2 f1 f1 f2 Duplexer Duplexer f2 f1 Rx1 Rx2 Figure 4: Duplex traffic with simultaneous transmission. Base station Mobile terminal Tx1 f2 Tx2 f1 f1 f2 Duplexer T/R f2 f1 Rx1 Rx2 T/R = Transmitter/Receiver switch Figure 5: Semi-duplex traffic. The frequency plan for duplex, see Figure 6, illustrates a duplex band separation between the transmitting and receiving bands and the duplex spacing between the transmitted and the corresponding received frequencies. Ericsson Radio Systems AB 73/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 25. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING Duplex spacing Tx-band Rx-band f Duplex band separation Figure 6: Frequency plan for duplex. In Figure 6, transmitter frequencies are shown as located in the lower duplex-half and receiver frequencies in the upper duplex-half. This may be reversed, for example, in the case of a radio link made up of several hops.Transmitter Figure 7 illustrates a simplified block diagram of a transmitter. It has been assumed that the transmitter is capable of transmitting digital information, which is usually the case nowadays. LP-filter BP-filter ~ ~ Modulator ~ ~ Digital ~ To antenna information Frequency generator Crystal Figure 7: Simplified block diagram of a transmitter. The simplified transmitter consists of a frequency generator, a modulator that modulates the digital information over the transmitters carrier frequency and a power amplifier that amplifies the signal to attain a suitable power level before being sent to the antenna for radiation into the propagation medium.8 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 3/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 26. RADIO COMMUNICATION SYSTEM COMPONENTS The digital information is characterized by the fact that it only contains discrete levels, for example, binary information (ones and zeroes). If speech is to be transmitted, the analog information represented in the speech must first be digitized by a so-called speech coder. A frequently used form of speech coding is Pulse Code Modulation (PCM). A speech channel is then transmitted as a bit stream having a transmission capacity of 64 kbit/s. The transmission of speech, digitized to 64 kbit/s, requires a larger bandwidth than the equivalent analog

speech channel would require. PCM is commonly used in connection with radio links and is used throughout the fixed telephone network (for digital networks). The special speech coders that are used today for mobile communication provide high quality even at lower bit speeds, for example, around 10 kbit/s. This facilitates increased frequency economy in the propagation medium. The digital data stream then modulates the carrier frequency that is picked up from the frequency generator. A modern frequency generator is synthesized, meaning that the desired frequency or channel is selected digitally, e.g., from a keypad. A component that is vital to the operation of the frequency generator is a stable frequency reference. This is achieved through the use of a crystal oscillator, where the crystal is the determining factor in frequency stability. Older equipment is often not fitted with frequency synthesizer functionality, which means that a particular crystal is required for each individual channel, i.e., for the particular frequency that is desired. As a rule, crystals for such older equipment cannot be ordered until after the frequency planning phase has been completed, i.e., not until after the channel has been assigned to the equipment in question. This must be performed individually for each unit of equipment in the network, and therefore results in longer implementation lead times. The transmitted signal is characterized by its center frequency and by a given bandwidth around the center frequency. This bandwidth is a function of the transmitted information (the transmission capacity of the digital information) and the modulation, for example the 3 dB bandwidth, B3 dB. The signal is characterized by its frequency spectrum, i.e., by energy content as a function of frequency separation from the center frequency, see Figure 8. Ericsson Radio Systems AB 93/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 27. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING It is important that the transmitter spectrum is not unnecessarily wide in order to achieve proper isolation to adjacent channels. In order to reduce overtone-like spectrum widening resulting from modulation, it is common to precede the modulator by a low pass filter that limits spectrum widening in the vicinity of the center frequency. In the same way, the power or output stage is followed by a band-pass filter to limit the overtones and noise generated in the output power amplifier. The latter filter is often a part of the duplex filter that facilitates simultaneous transmission and reception. dB 3 dB f0 f B3dB Figure 8: Transmitter spectrum of a modulated carrier. In addition to being a function of the filter, the appearance of the spectrum depends also on the method of modulation. A common modulation method is the Phase Shift Keying (PSK). It results in a spectrum that falls off rather slowly. Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK) is a more effective modulation method. This method results in a spectrum having half the width of that generated by the PSK method but otherwise having the same form (it is scaled to half the bandwidth). More modern modulation methods such as Gaussian Filtered Minimum Shift Keying (GMSK) have, in principle, the same effective bandwidth (the band in which the greater portion of the power is concentrated) as that resulting from QPSK, but with the added property that the spectrum outside of the effective bandwidth falls off significantly faster. This means that this modulation method allows one to pack channels closer together while still maintaining the same degree of isolation between channels. Modern modulation methods are very involved in maintaining good frequency economy (efficient channel packing).10 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 3/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999

28. RADIO COMMUNICATION SYSTEM COMPONENTS For larger separations from the carrier frequency, the spectrum is characterized by sideband noise and spurious signals (unwanted byproducts produced by the transmitter), see Figure 9. The noise spectrum is quantitatively expressed by the power density w (W/Hz), that is, the power per unity of bandwidth, and normally decreases with larger frequency separation from the unmodulated carrier. The bandwidth B (Hz) in Figure 9 contains a power which is wB (W). Unmodulated carrier Sideband noise Frequency B Figure 9: Sideband noise. The level of these spurious products is generally specified by European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) to max. -36 dBm for frequencies below 1 GHz and -30 dBm above 1 GHz. For special applications there may be other specifications. The sideband noise produced by the transmitter, which is also a limiting factor for duplex operation as well as the localization of different systems to one and the same site, is typically 140 dB below the carrier frequency per Hz of bandwidth (-140 dBc/Hz) within approximately 1% frequency separation from the carrier frequency and is -150 dBc/Hz for larger separations, where the values apply without the use of a radio frequency (RF) filter. Ericsson Radio Systems AB 113/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 29. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNINGReceiver ~ ~ Mixer ~ ~ Detector Demodulator ~ ~ RF-filter Amplifier IF-filter Frequency generator Crystal Figure 10: Simplified block diagram of a receiver. The weak signal coming from the antenna is amplified initially in a radio-frequency amplifier (RF amplifier). The amplifier is normally preceded by a RF-filter which filters out unwanted signals, i.e., those of other frequencies than the one desired. Since we are dealing with a highfrequency signal, it is very difficult to effectively filter out signals other than those that lie at a relatively great separation from the midpoint of the carrier. A mixer follows the RF amplifier, which mixes the input signal with the signal from a local oscillator, and gives as output an intermediate frequency (IF). The local oscillator frequency is related to the wanted receiver RF frequency in a way that always gives a fixed intermediate frequency as a result. A common intermediate frequency is 70 MHz. It is at this frequency, which is significantly lower than the frequency of the input signal that unwanted signals are filtered out. Generally a crystal filter is used for this purpose. The IF filters bandwidth is generally equivalent to the wanted signals effective bandwidth and its attenuation often increases drastically with increasing separation from the center frequency. The IF filter is primarily responsible for the receivers adjacent channel selection. To enable the receiver to receive channels that cover a wider band, the local oscillator must be capable of being tuned in accordance with the incoming signals frequency in order to maintain a fixed IF frequency. The local oscillator is therefore, as in the transmitter, often constructed as a digital frequency generator. Such tunable local oscillators allow receivers to be set to different receiver frequencies or channels. A detector follows the IF amplifier and IF filter in which the wanted information is retrieved and a digital bit stream is generated. This may then be converted to intelligible speech via a speech decoder.12 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 3/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 30. RADIO COMMUNICATION SYSTEM COMPONENTSReceiver characteristic data Receiver attributes are described in terms of its characteristic data: sensitivity sensitivity to co-channel interference adjacent channel selection blocking level resistance to intermodulation levelSensitivity The receivers sensitivity or threshold is

generally defined in terms of the lowest input signal level that is required in order that the detection of the received information attain a given level of minimum acceptable quality. The quality of a digital receiver is usually expressed in terms of the BER (Bit-Error Ratio), e.g., 10-3 or 10-6. Receiver sensitivity is a function of: the receivers noise factor the noise bandwidth the modulation method The greater the bandwidth of the transmitted information the greater is the noise bandwidth. A broadband system is therefore less sensitive than is a narrowband system. Noise bandwidth is generally determined by the IF filter. Sensitivity is limited, as described above, by the noise level of the receiver input. It is estimated as N = F k T B ......................................................................................... (1) where N = Receiver noise level F = Receiver noise factor k = Boltzmans constant, 1.3810-23, J/K T = Absolute temperature at the receiver input, K Ericsson Radio Systems AB 133/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 31. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING B = Receiver effective bandwidth, normally the IF bandwidth, Hz or expressed in decibels N = F + k + T + B .................................................................................... (2) The receivers noise factor is a measure of how much noise the receiver generates in relation to a noisefree amplifier. Typical values lie between 5 and10 dB. The value of the product kT, (K+T) in decibels, at room temperature is - 174 dBm/Hz. The effective bandwidth of the receiver is expressed in dBHz. Example - calculating receiver sensitivity The following presents three example calculations of the theoretical sensitivity of a receiver. Example 1: To begin with, assume the receiver is being used for mobile communication in the UHF band (450 MHz). The method of modulation is FM (frequency modulation) with a channel separation of 25 kHz. The bandwidth of the receiver is then, typically, 12.5 kHz. Assume a receiver noise factor of 10 dB. Since the receivers effective bandwidth in this case is 41 dBHz (12.5 kHz = 12500 Hz converted to dBHz), equation (2) results in the following value for receiver noise level N = 10 dB -174 dBm/Hz + 41 dBHz = -123 dBm A given signal-to-noise ratio, S/N, is required to attain a given level of reception quality. In the case of FM, S/N= 10 dB is a typical value, which gives a receiver threshold of S= 123+10= -113 dBm. In the case of mobile radio, sensitivity is also often specified as a voltage (in micro-volts) which represents the EMK required to impart the necessary power to a 50-ohm receiver or one that corresponds to the terminal voltage, i.e., half of the EMK. A sensitivity of -113 dBm corresponds to a terminal voltage of 0.5 microvolts across 50 ohms. Example 2: Assume a digital receiver, e.g., a radio link that demonstrates a transmission capacity of 2 Mbit/s. Assume that Phase Shift Keying (PSK) is the modulation method used. The bandwidth of the receiver is now typically 2 MHz. Assume a receiver noise factor of 10 dB.14 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 3/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 32. RADIO COMMUNICATION SYSTEM COMPONENTS Since the effective bandwidth of the receiver in this case is 63 dBHz (2 MHz = 2 000 000 Hz converted to dBHz), equation (2) results in the following value for receiver noise level N = 10 dB -174 dBm/Hz + 63 dBHz = -101 dBm A typical value for signal-to-noise ratio at a bit-error ratio of 10-3 and PSK modulation is S/N= 10 dB. The receiver threshold is therefore S= 101 dBm + 10 dB = -91 dBm. If the receivers measure of quality is instead set to a biterror ratio of 10-6, then an S/N is required which is 3 dB higher, i.e., the receiver threshold at BER=10-6 is now 3 dB higher than that at BER=10-3 which means at -88

dBm. Example 3: Assume that the link is to transfer 8 Mbit/s using QPSK modulation, which requires a bandwidth equivalent to half of the transmission capacity, or in this case, 4 MHz. Assume a receiver noise factor of 10 dB. Since the receivers effective bandwidth in this case is 66 dBHz (4 MHz = 4 000 000 Hz converted to dBHz), equation (2) results in the following value for receiver noise level N = 10 dB -174 dBm/Hz + 66 dBHz = -98 dBm QPSK requires an additional 3 dB higher S/N than does PSK, i.e., 13 dB. Receiver threshold for an 8 Mbit/s link is therefore S/N= -98 dBm + 13 dB = -85 dBm for BER=10-3 and S/N= -82 dBm for BER=10-6. Consequently, the receiver threshold is 6 dB higher for 8 Mbit/s as compared to 2 Mbit/s which is equivalent to a transmission capacity that is 4 times higher (6dB).Sensitivity to co-channel Interference This attribute is important when attempting to re-use a frequency or channel several times over a geographical area. The amount of co- channel interference tolerated by a receiver is defined by its sensitivity to a given connection quality (expressed in BER) and it is a function of the method of modulation used. As a rule, a receiver is exposed to both noise and co-channel interference at the same time. Since the wanted signal lies close to the noise threshold, less co-channel interference is tolerated, seen from a relative point of view. When the level of the wanted signal is sufficiently high, the required relationship between the wanted signal level and the level of the co-channel interferer is a constant (C/I, carrier to interference). Ericsson Radio Systems AB 153/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 33. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING A C/I of approximately 8 dB is typically required for mobile communications FM receivers if larger input signals are to be received. A digital radio link typically requires a C/I in the vicinity of 10-15 dB since input signals are well in excess of the threshold. Figure 11 illustrates a typical curve of required C/I, at a given BER, as a function of input signal level. The figure illustrates a receiver threshold degradation (3 dB) for a certain C/I ratio. C/I (dB) 30 20 17 3 dB 10 -90 -85 -80 -75 -70 C (dBm) Figure 11: Typical curve of required C/I, at a given BER, as a function of input signal level.Adjacent channel selection Adjacent channel selection describes the receivers sensitivity to adjacent channel interference. This attribute is also important when considering frequency economy. The adjacent channel selection is determined, above all, by the modulation method, the frequency separation to the adjacent channel and the receivers IF filter. It is also dependent on the wanted signal level in relation to the noise threshold. When the level of the wanted signal is sufficiently high, the required relationship between the wanted signal level and that of the interference level, is a constant (for a given frequency separation). Figure 12 illustrates a typical curve of allowable interference signals on a link as a function of frequency separation at an input signal of 1 dB above the threshold (1 dB threshold degradation) for 2, 8 and 34 Mbit/s. The curve principally illustrates the selection of the IF filter.16 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 3/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 34. RADIO COMMUNICATION SYSTEM COMPONENTS 50 Maximum interference level (dBm) 0 y34 i y8 j y2 50 k 100 0 50 100 150 200 250 x34 , x8 , x2 i j k Frequency separation (MHz) 34 Mbit/s 8 Mbit/s 2 Mbit/s Figure 12: Allowable interference signal for 1 dB threshold degradation for 2, 8 and 34 Mbit/s. Adjacent channel selection is often specified at 70 dB for mobile communications. This is a result of the desire to allow different users to operate over adjacent channels without the necessity of having to

coordinate their individual selection of site locations for their base stations. In more modern mobile telephone systems, where an operator makes use of an entire band for their system, it is common place that adjacent channel selection requirements are significantly relaxed since the operator is able to perform frequency planning for the entire band in order to avoid interference between adjacent channels. This leads to the fact that the channels are located closer to one another, i.e., a higher packing density, which results in better frequency economy. For the case that adjacent channels no longer fulfill the old requirement of 70 dB selection (or adjacent channel selection), one often refers to the channels as being interleaved, i.e., interleaved with one another. In the case of radio links, one usually uses an adjacent channel selection of 25-35 dB. The objective is that adjacent channels are to be usable in one and the same node, which is usually facilitated by antenna isolation between neighboring paths. Ericsson Radio Systems AB 173/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 35. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING It is common place that the different connections in a network have different capacities. Interference characteristics between radio link systems, having different capacities, can be described with the aid of a C/I matrix, see Table 1. This matrix allows one to find the C/I for a given threshold degradation that is required when the interfering link has another specific capacity. C/I [dB] and frequency separation for 3 dB degradation and BER=10-6 Capacity [Mbit/s] Frequency Separation [MHz] Carrier Interferer 0 7 14 21 28 2x2 2x2 21 -37 <-50 <-50 <-50 8 20 -14 <-50 <-50 <-50 2x8 17 4 -19 <-50 <-50 2x(2x8) 17 17 4 -19 <-50 8 2x2 21 -10 -40 <-50 <-50 8 21 -1 -37 <-50 <-50 2x8 20 10 -14 -45 <50 2x(2x8) 20 20 10 -14 -45 2x8 2x2 21 19 -11 -30 -41 8 21 20 -10 -29 -40 2x8 21 21 -1 23 -37 2x(2x8) 21 21 21 -1 -23 2x(2x8) 2x2 21 21 19 -11 -30 8 21 21 20 -10 -29 2x8 21 21 21 -1 -23 2x(2x8) 21 21 21 21 -1 Table 1: C/I matrix.Blocking level The blocking level specifies the maximum strength of an interfering signal that a receiver can withstand without its sensitivity degrading by more than for example 3 dB. Blocking is a special case of adjacent channel interference, namely for the case of large adjacent channel separation, see Figure 13. It is usually specified in the case of mobile radio as being a frequency separation of 1 MHz. In the case of blocking in situations of larger frequency separations, both the IF and RF filters contribute to suppressing interference.18 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 3/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 36. RADIO COMMUNICATION SYSTEM COMPONENTS Signal level Transmitters spectrum Receivers blocking level Transmitters noise level Receivers noise level fTx fRx Frequency Transmitted signal Received signal Figure 13: Interference with duplex setup. The concept of blocking may be clarified as being the reception of significantly large interference signals that exist at a frequency adjacent to the desired frequency. The result is that the input signal to the detector will consist of, aside from the smaller signal carrying the actual information, a powerful interference signal (resulting from insufficient filtering) which will literally block the smaller information signal at the detector. The blocking level is not to be confused with the maximum allowable input signal level, which represents a degradation of the receivers characteristics. This is a maximum level for the desired signal and specifies a boundary value for the receivers dynamics at the desired frequency. Exceeding this boundary value will result in over-excitation and distortion in the detector. Blocking is often specified for mobile communication receivers as lying at least 80 dB above the receivers threshold at a 1MHz separation. With the

threshold at -113 dBm, the blocking level will be -113+80= - 33 dBm. At a 10 MHz frequency separation between a transmitter and a receiver, which is a typical duplex separation in the 450 MHz band, the IF filter will exhibit a typical 20 dB attenuation and the blocking level will be instead -33 dBm + 20 dB = -13 dBm. Ericsson Radio Systems AB 193/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 37. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNINGIntermodulation level Intermodulation results from the fact that receivers exhibit certainnonlinear behavior and are therefore sensitive to interference signals occurring at certain frequency combinations. These frequencies may combine, as a result of this nonlinear behavior in the receiver, into one frequency that corresponds to the wanted received frequency. Intermodulation level is defined as the level assumed by these interference signals, to bring about a given degradation in receiver sensitivity when the wanted signal is at the threshold level. Intermodulation level is a function of the ordinal number for the intermodulation. The higher the ordinal number, the higher is the level of interference tolerated by the receiver. The only protection against intermodulation is through filtering before applying the signal to the RF amplifier, i.e., in the RF filter. Protection may also be achieved through frequency planning thereby avoiding the creation of dangerous intermodulation frequencies. Instead of specifying the intermodulation level, one may, on occasion, specify receiver intermodulation attenuation - which is the difference (in dB) between the level of the signals that cause the intermodulation product and the receivers threshold level. These levels are measured at the receivers antenna connector. A typical value of intermodulation attenuation for 3rdorder intermodulation is 70 dB for mobile radio and in general somewhat worse for radio links. Then, the level of the interfering signals at the input of the receivers antenna connector should be given by P Pth + 70 D = 3 dB ............................................................ (3) where Pth is the threshold level of the receiver and D the threshold degradation. Typical values for intermodulation attenuation for mobile and link are given in Table 2. Intermodulation attenuation (dB) Intermodulation order Mobile Link 3 70 50 (?) 5 90 70 (?) Table 2: Typical values for intermodulation attenuation for mobile radio systems and radio link systems.20 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 3/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 38. RADIO COMMUNICATION SYSTEM COMPONENTS The intermodulation signal will be suppressed when passing the receivers IF, to a degree corresponding to the relationship between the bandwidth of the intermodulation signal and that of the receiver. The suppression factor of intermodulation is expressed as follows, Bm R= ...................................................................................................... (4) Bi where Bi is given by Bi = n1 B1 + n2 B2 + n3 B3 + ... .......................................................... (5) and the desired bandwidth of the receiver is Bm.Feeder cabling Feeder cabling between the radio equipment and the antenna may consist of coaxial cabling or a waveguide.Coaxial cable Coaxial cabling is normally used for frequencies around 2 GHz and lower - cable attenuation would otherwise be unreasonably high at higher frequencies. See the table below showing coaxial cable attenuation at different frequencies: HF3/8 Cu2Y 6.1 dB/100 m 400 MHz HF1 5/8 Cu2Y 6.35 dB/100 m 400 MHz HF3/8 Cu2Y 14 dB/100 m 2000 MHz HF1 5/8 Cu2Y 3.1 dB/100 m 2000 MHzWaveguides Waveguides are used for frequencies above 2 GHz. The most common waveguide forms are the rectangular, the elliptical and the circular. However, other forms also exist. Since the cross-section of a

waveguide has a given relationship to wavelength, the selection of a waveguide is dependent on the frequency band to be used. The table below shows the attenuation for various waveguides at different frequencies: Ericsson Radio Systems AB 213/038 02LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 39. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING E70 4.75 dB/100 m 7300 MHz E130 11.2 dB/100 m 13000 MHz EW220 30 dB/100 m 20000 MHzDuplex filters The purpose of duplex filtering is to protect the receiver from the disturbing effects of the transmitter when transmission and reception are concurrent (duplex operation). The transmitter can interfere with the receiver in two ways: via that portion of the transmitters sideband noise that lies within the receivers passband, or via receiver blocking caused by the transmitted power. Assume, for example, a mobile communication base station having a transmission power of 20 W (43 dBm). Typical values for sideband noise lie approximately -140 dB/Hz below the carrier, which is in this case a level of -97 dBm/Hz (43 dBm -140 dB/Hz). For a bandwidth corresponding to 12.5 kHz (41 dBHz), transmitter noise level would be within receiver bandwidth -56 dBm (-97 dBm/Hz + 41 dBHz). The receivers own noise level was in the above example -123 dBm. If one accepts an increase of the total noise level of 1 dB, i.e., an increase to 122 dBm, then the transmitters noise level to the receiver may not exceed -123-6=-129 dBm. Transmitter noise must then be attenuated by at least 129-56=73 dB before arriving at the receiver. This is accomplished via a bandpass filter at the output of the transmitter that attenuates the signal by at least 73 dB within the receivers passband. We will now consider blocking requirements. A blocking level of -13 dBm and a transmitter power of 43 dBm require a transmission signal attenuation of at least 56 dB. This can be accomplished through the use of a bandpass filter located at the receiver input that attenuates the transmitted frequency by at least 56 dB. A conclusion that may be drawn from the above example is that transmitter noise places greater demands on filtering than it does on blocking.Transmitter combiners It is often desirable, for sites having more than one transmitter, to be able to utilize one common antenna for all transmitters. To this end, so- called combiners are often used. The job of these combiners is as follows:22 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 3/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 40. RADIO COMMUNICATION SYSTEM COMPONENTS ensure that every transmitter delivers its power to the antenna without any appreciable losses. to limit the occurrence of intermodulation between the various transmitters A combiner may be either passive or active. The simplest form of a passive combiner may be constructed using hybrids as illustrated in Figure 14. In a hybrid, however, half (3 dB) of the transmitted power is lost. The more transmitters combined to use one antenna, the greater is the number of hybrids required and the greater is the loss. Using 4 transmitters requires the use of 3 hybrids and the loss is 6 dB - using 8 transmitters requires a tree-connection of 7 hybrids which results in a loss of 9 dB, and so on. LOAD TERMINATION HYBRID COUPLER BANDPASS, LOW OR F F 2ND HARM, FILTERS ISOLATOR IN EACH PATH Tx 1 Tx2 INPUT INPUT Figure 14: Example of a hybrid. An active combiner combines a number of low-power transmitters via the use of hybrids or a resistive network into a common port where the collective signal is amplified via a linear amplifier to attain the desired output power. This technique is not very widely utilized due to the fact that it is difficult to achieve sufficient output power without introducing intermodulation. Figure 15 illustrates a schematic block diagram of another transmission

combiner, a multiple connector. Each transmitter is connected via a so- called isolator and a filter to a star network, in which the different transmitters are inputs to the network and the antenna is the output. Ericsson Radio Systems AB 233/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 41. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING Tx1 ~ ~ ~ f1 -10dB at f Tx2 ~ ~ ~ Star net f2 etc Figure 15: Schematic block diagram of a multiple connector. The isolator, see Figure 16, normally a so-called circulator, is a nonreciprocal component that has negligible attenuation (at the most one or two dB) in its forward direction and a significantly high attenuation (25- 30 dB) in its reverse direction. Its function being to prevent leakage from other transmitters into the transmitter that it is connected to and thereby avoiding intermodulation. Figure 16: An isolator (circulator). The job of the filter is to create an mismatch as seen from the other transmitters so that their output power is primarily directed to the antenna and not inwards towards the network and the other transmitters. Since the frequencies of the different transmitters generally lie relatively close to one another, the filters must be of the cavity type so that sufficient signal attenuation is achieved across the frequency separations for the particular transmitters in question.24 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 3/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 42. RADIO COMMUNICATION SYSTEM COMPONENTS Typically, the lowest frequency separation between neighboring transmitters is often around 500 kHz in both the 450 and 900 MHz ranges, i.e., approximately an 0.1% frequency separation. Required attenuation for a neighboring transmitter for the achievement of sufficient mismatch can be as low as 10 dB. This does not prevent transmitter power leakage through the filter into the neighboring transmitter, which would cause damaging intermodulation. This is where the function of the isolator comes into play, providing additional attenuation to reduce transmitter leakage. Any intermodulation products are attenuated once again by the cavity filter on their way out to the antenna. A typical combiner maintains an intermodulation level at the antenna output of 70 dB below each of the transmitters power levels.Receivers multicouplers It is often desirable to use a single antenna even if more than one receiver is located at one and the same site. To this end, multicouplers are utilized. Figure 17 illustrates a schematic block diagram of a multicoupler. O 1 O 2 . ~ ~ Power . . . ~ divider . . . . O 16 connected to each receiver Figure 17: Schematic block diagram of a multicoupler. The signal from the antenna is first filtered by a highly selective bandpass filter, then amplified and then separated in a signal power divider (occasionally called splitter). Ericsson Radio Systems AB 253/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 43. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING An effective filter located at the input to the multicoupler may often serve to reduce the requirement for a duplex filter. The following amplifier is intended to compensate for the attenuation and the noise resulting from the split and distribution of the signal to several receivers. The signal power divider is constructed to achieve a dual purpose. Firstly to match to the individual receivers to the antenna and secondly to isolate the receivers from one another. Multicouplers present a problem in maintaining satisfactory performance in preventing intermodulation and blocking at its input. A typical receiver multicoupler can connect up to 16 receivers. All of the outputs of the multicouplers should be terminated even if they are not used for the connection of a receiver.Antennas The primary purpose

of a radio system antenna is: when transmitting, to deliver to the surrounding environment the power generated by the transmitter without incurring any losses in the desired direction when receiving, to deliver the available radiation power to the receiver An antenna is characterized by the following attributes: impedance bandwidth directivity polarization Directivity in a given direction is defined as the ratio of the intensity of radiation (the power per unit solid angle), in that direction, to the radiation intensity averaged over all directions. It may in turn be expressed by antenna gain and side lobe level. The antenna gain specifies the degree to which the power radiated in the desired direction as compared to the level of the power radiated equally in all directions (i.e., an isotropic antenna). On occasion, antenna gain is specified as above but relative a dipole antenna, which is 2.15 dB lower than the gain relative an isotropic antenna.26 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 3/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 44. RADIO COMMUNICATION SYSTEM COMPONENTS Antenna gain is specified in units of dBd or dBi to specify whether the gain information for a given antenna is relative a dipole or an isotropic antenna. If the gain is specified in dB then the value given is relative an isotropic antenna. To be effective, an antenna should be of the same magnitude of size as the wavelength of the frequency in question. Vertical rod antennas are normally used for mobile communications. Such antennas radiate omnidirectionally in the horizontal plane. Polarization is in this case vertical. The shortest antenna is often in such cases a quarter wavelength, i.e., just under 20 cm at 450 MHz. Base station antennas are often directional in the vertical plane, which is achieved by using a number of half-wave dipoles that are stacked one above the other. These antennas are referred to as being co-linear. The gain is then essentially proportional to the number of elements.Antenna gain for parabolic antennas Parabolic antennas, which function as mirrors, are almost without exception used for radio links having frequencies from approximately 2 GHz and upwards. The following relationship apply to these antennas: 4 A 4 A f 2 2 d 2 f 2 G= = = ....................................................... (6) 2 0.3 2 0.32 where G = Antenna gain A = Effective antenna area, m2 d= Antenna diameter, m = Wavelength, m f= Frequency, GHz The antenna gain as calculated by equation (3) is specified as a factor. The result of the equation (3) can be obtained in dB by applying the following relationship: Ericsson Radio Systems AB 273/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 45. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING G = 20.4 + 20 log(d ) + 20 log( f ) ......................................................... (7) The effective antenna surface is typically approximately 50-70% of the actual geometric surface, depending on the manner in which the aperture is illuminated. It is clearly evident that the gain, for a given antenna size, increases with decreasing wavelength, i.e., as frequency increases. Example: assume a parabolic antenna having a diameter of 2 m and operating at a frequency of 5 GHz. This corresponds to an area of 3.14 m2 and a wavelength of 0.06 m. Antenna gain can be calculated from equation (3) as being a factor of 10,965 corresponding to 40.4 dB. But the measured gain of the antenna is only 37 dB, which seems to imply that there is a 3-dB loss in effectivity, an efficiency of only 50%.Antenna diagram Side lobe level indicates how much lower the power is in a non-desired direction (side lobe) than that radiated in the desirable direction (main lobe), Figure 18. Side lobe Main lobe 0 Gbg bg = GS G (0) Figure 18: Main and side lobes. The front-to-back ratio gives the relationship between the power radiated in the forward direction vs. the

power radiated in the reverse direction. The lobe width that corresponds to a 3 dB lower gain in relation to the main lobe gain, see Figure 18, can be calculated as 0.3 =k ............................................................................................... (8) d f where = Lobe width, degree k= Constant, 75-8528 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 3/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 46. RADIO COMMUNICATION SYSTEM COMPONENTS d= Antenna diameter, m f= Frequency, GHz Figure 19 illustrates a schematic antenna diagram for a 18 GHz antenna with a 44.5 dBi gain. The antenna has a diameter of 1.2 m. The figure also shows the corresponding diagram for the cross-polarization field. dB 0 10 20 30 copolar 40 50 crosspolar 60 70 0 5 10 15 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 degree Figure 19: Antenna diagram for an 18 GHz antenna. Ericsson Radio Systems AB 293/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 47. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNINGReferences Grundlggande Radioteknik (in Swedish), Billstrm, O., Ericsson Radio Systems AB, 1993. Radio System Design for Telecommunications (1100 GHz), Freeman, R. L., 1987.30 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 3/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 48. RADIOWAVE PROPAGATION This chapter provides a presentation of the basic principles and algorithms related to radiowave propagation used in radio-relay transmission. Both loss and attenuation algorithms plus fade prediction models for different fading mechanisms are thoroughly discussed. The chapter also includes a presentation of the basic concepts of main propagation mechanisms, Fresnel zone, equivalent and true Earth radii and the decibel scale. TABLE OF CONTENTSThe decibel.................................................................................................................................... .................... 1 A relative comparison ......................................................................................................................... 1 Some motivations for using decibels................................................................................................... 1 Absolute comparisons ......................................................................................................................... 1 The comparison of field quantities...................................................................................................... 2 An overview................................................................................................................................. ....... 3The main propagation mechanisms ................................................................................................................... 3 Propagation along the earths surface ................................................................................................. 4Fading.................................................................................................................................. .............................. 4 Definition ............................................................................................................................................ 4 Cause...................................................................................................................................... ............. 4 General classification .......................................................................................................................... 4 Classification based on source ............................................................................................................ 5The Fresnel zone ............................................................................................................................................... 5 Definition ............................................................................................................................................ 5

The Fresnel ellipsoid ........................................................................................................................... 6Equivalent and true earth radii .......................................................................................................................... 7 Earthradius factor............................................................................................................................... 7 Equivalent and true Earth surface - a comparison............................................................................... 8Prediction models.................................................................................................................................... .......... 8Attenuation: free-space loss .............................................................................................................................. 9 Definition ............................................................................................................................................ 9 Free-space loss between two isotropic antennas ................................................................................. 9 Diagram................................................................................................................................. 10Attenuation: gas ................................................................................................................................................ 10 Definition ............................................................................................................................................ 10 The troposphere............................................................................................................................. ...... 11 Chemical composition......................................................................................................................... 11 Absorption peaks................................................................................................................................. 11 Calculating total gas attenuation ......................................................................................................... 12 Oxygen (dry air).................................................................................................................... 12 Water vapor........................................................................................................................... 13 Total gas attenuation ............................................................................................................. 14Total specific gas attenuation diagram............................................................................................................ 15Attenuation: reflection................................................................................................................................ ....... 15 Ground reflection interference ............................................................................................................ 16 i 49. The problems of handling reflection ................................................................................................... 16 Reflection coefficient .......................................................................................................................... 17 The Fresnel reflection coefficient ......................................................................................... 17 Divergence factor.................................................................................................................. 18 Correction factor ................................................................................................................... 18 Example: rough estimation of the total reflection coefficient ............................................................. 19 Calculation of the position of the reflection

point............................................................................... 19Attenuation: precipitation........................................................................................................................... ....... 21 Types of precipitation ......................................................................................................................... 21 Snow...................................................................................................................................... .............. 21 Hail......................................................................................................................................... ............. 22 Fog and haze ....................................................................................................................................... 22 Rain ................................................................................................................................................ ..... 22 Cumulative distribution of rain ........................................................................................................... 23 Rain zones diagram........................................................................................................................... 23 The new ITU model for calculation of rain intensity .......................................................................... 24 The calculation of the specific rain attenuation................................................................................... 26 Table containing the frequency dependent coefficients ...................................................................... 27 Calculating total rain attenuation ........................................................................................................ 32 Calculating total rain attenuation for 0.01% ....................................................................................... 32Attenuation: obstruction.............................................................................................................................. ...... 33 Knife-edge obstructions ...................................................................................................................... 33 Knife-edge loss curve.......................................................................................................................... 34 Typical knife-edge losses.................................................................................................................... 35 Singlepeak method............................................................................................................................. 36 Triple-peak method ............................................................................................................................. 37 Smoothly spherical earth..................................................................................................................... 39 Typical losses resulting from smoothly spherical earth ...................................................................... 40 Clearance and path geometry .............................................................................................................. 41 The Earth bulge..................................................................................................................... 41 Path geometry ....................................................................................................................... 41 The height of the line-of-sight............................................................................................... 42Path losses ................................................................................................................................................ ......... 42 Definition ............................................................................................................................................ 42 Fade margin....................................................................................................................................

..... 43 Power diagram .................................................................................................................................... 43 Effective fade margin .......................................................................................................................... 44Fading prediction models................................................................................................................................ 45 The concept of outage ......................................................................................................................... 45 Rain fading..................................................................................................................................... ..... 45 Calculation of the fade margin based on a yearly basis ........................................................ 45 Outage due to rain fading - annual basis ............................................................................... 46 Transformation between yearly and worst month basis ........................................................ 46 From yearly to worst month.................................................................................... 46 From worst month to yearly.................................................................................... 47 Climatic parameters .............................................................................................................. 47 Presentation of the rain fading models in diagram form ....................................................... 48 Multipath fading.................................................................................................................................. 49 The occurrence of multipath propagation ............................................................................. 49 Flat and frequency selective fading....................................................................................... 50 The effects of multipath propagation .................................................................................... 51 Measures taken against multipath fading .............................................................................. 51 Outage due to flat fading....................................................................................................... 52 Introduction............................................................................................................. 52 Fade occurrence factor ............................................................................................ 52 Flat fading and error performance......................................................................................... 53 Method for small percentages of time................................................................................... 53 Estimation of the geoclimatic factor ....................................................................... 53 Inland Links ............................................................................................................ 53 Coastal Links .......................................................................................................... 55ii 50. Link and terrain parameters overview................................................................................ 57 Estimation of the path slope.................................................................................................. 58 Outage due to flat fading....................................................................................................... 59 Range of values for the climatic factor pL ............................................................................. 59 Method for small percentage of time - conclusion................................................................ 60 Method for various percentages of time................................................................................ 61 Range of validity for the flat fading method ......................................................................... 63 Main differences between Rec. ITU-R P.530-6 and Rec. ITU-R P.530-7 ............................ 64 Outage due to frequency selective fading ........................................................................................... 64 ITU-R F.1093 model............................................................................................................. 66 Refraction fading................................................................................................................................. 68The total fading

outage..................................................................................................................................... . 68Basic radio-meteorological parameters for RLdesign...................................................................................... 69 Earth-radius factor............................................................................................................................... 69 Surface water vapor density ................................................................................................................ 69 Relative humidity................................................................................................................................ 70 pL factor (refractive factor).................................................................................................................. 70 Refractive gradient .............................................................................................................................. 70 Rain frequency-dependent coefficients ............................................................................................... 70 Rain climate zones .............................................................................................................................. 70 Rain intensity distribution ................................................................................................................... 71 Annual and worst-month statistics ...................................................................................................... 71Hardware failure..................................................................................................................................... ........... 71 The calculation of the radio-link systems MTBF ............................................................................... 71 Non-redundant systems ....................................................................................................................... 72 Redundant systems.............................................................................................................................. 73 Hardware failure per path.................................................................................................................... 75Diversity............................................................................................................................. ............................... 76 The basic concepts .............................................................................................................................. 76 The definition of the improvement factor ........................................................................................... 77 The calculation of the improvement factor: space diversity................................................................ 78 The calculation of the improvement factor: frequency diversity......................................................... 79 Analogue 1+1 system.............................................................................................. 79 Digital 1+1 system .................................................................................................. 79 The calculation of the improvement factor: space-frequency diversity .............................................. 80 The calculation of outage when employing diversity.......................................................................... 80Passive repeaters ............................................................................................................................................... 80 The basic concepts .............................................................................................................................. 80 Path calculation when using passive repeaters.................................................................................... 81References ................................................................................................................................................ ......... 83 iii 51. ii

52. RADIO WAVE PROPAGATIONThe decibelA relative comparison It is often the case within the realm of radio technique, that two different values or entities are compared with one another. For instance, two power levels can be compared by calculating their ratio. The decibel is a measure of the relationship between two power levels. Decibel is abbreviated as dB and is defined as follows P1 A[dB] = 10. log 10 ..............................................................................(1) P2 where P1 and P2 are the power levels being compared. Note that the decibel is a measure of a relationship and has no actual physical significance. The decibel is therefore not a measure of a physical entity. One decibel corresponds approximately to the smallest variation in sound volume that can be discerned by the human ear.Some motivations for using decibels Some of the motivations behind the widespread use of the decibel are: The decibel is convenient to use since the direct relationship between radio-related power levels covers a wide range of numerical values. The logarithmic nature of the relationship between two power-levels results in values that are easy to handle. Addition or subtraction operations can be easily performed on logarithmic values, simplifying the handling of amplification and attenuation. The manner in which human sensory organs perceive differences in the sensory impressions of varying intensity that they receive is in fact logarithmic.Absolute comparisons The decibel concept defined above is related to the quotient of two values, and provides no information as to the absolute value of these entities. An absolute comparison between two power levels can however be performed if a reference value is employed, for example the W (Watt) or mW (milliWatt), referred to respectively as dBW and dBm. Ericsson Radio Systems AB 14/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 53. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING P A[dBW ] = 10. log10 ....................................................................(2) 1 Watt where P is the power in Watt. P A[dBm] = 10. log10 .............................................................(3) 1 milliWatt where P is the power in milliWatt. Since, dBW P = 10 10 .........................................................................................(4) 1W and dBm P = 10 10 ......................................................................................(5) 1 mW the result obtained ............................ - dBm 3= ................................................................................(8) 10 or dBm = dBW + 30 .................................................................................(9)The comparison of field quantities The decibel concept can be generalized to also include the comparison between field magnitudes. The term field quantity refers to a quantity whose square is proportional to power. Examples of field quantities are electrical voltages, currents and field strengths.2 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 4/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 54. RA 0-3 are expressed in their equivalent decibel values in Table 1. Power dB Field quantity dB relationship relationship 1 000=103 30 1 000=103 60 100=102 20 100=102 40 10=101 10 10=101 20 9 9.5 9 19 8 9 8 18 7 8.5 7 17 6 8 6 16 5 7 5 14 4 6 4 12 3 5 3 9.5 2 3 2 6 1 0 1 0 1/2 -3 1/2 -6 1/4 -6 1/4 -12 1/8 -9 1/8 -18 1/10=10-1 -10 1/10=10-1 -20 1/100=10-2 -20 1/100=10-2 -40 1/1000=10-3 -30 1/1000=10-3 -60 Table 1: Power and field

relationship.The main propagation mechanisms Most of the propagation mechanisms are affected by climactic conditions. When calculating the transmission quality and availability of radio networks, the significance of the various mechanisms vary as a function of the radio spectrum. The following propagation mechanisms may however be considered as the most notable: free-space diffraction Ericsson Radio Systems AB 34/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 55. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING refraction absorption scattering reflectionPropagation along the earths surface An electromagnetic wave traveling close to and along the surface of the earth is affected by the following factors: the electrical properties of the earths surface the earths curvature the atmosphere the earths topography vegetationFadingDefinition Fading is often defined as a variation in signal strength over time, phase or polarization. Fading is normally the result of changes in the physical properties of the atmosphere or due to ground or water reflections.Cause Fading can be caused by the occurrence of an isolated phenomenon, one that is solely responsible for its appearance. It is however more common that fading appears in one and the same hop as the result of a combination of various phenomenon that interact with one another, leading to the degradation of signal quality and availability. Climate, topography and surroundings can vary to such great degrees that fading often depends on the aggregate effects of numerous phenomenon.General classification Fading can be classed as follows:4 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 4/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 56. RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION source propagation attributes time variation statistical distributionClassification based on source The phenomenon of fading is often classified based on the source of the phenomenon. Source can be divided into four primary groups: atmospheric fading: absorption, refraction and turbulence. groundbased fading: geology, the roughness of the surrounding terrain, propagation path differences due to tides or variations in snow depth, obstructions due to variations in vegetation man-made fading: obstruction or reflection caused by boats, aircraft and temporary constructions sites, antenna vibration. mixed fading: due to the occurrence of atmospheric inversion layers and the reflection they cause.The Fresnel zoneDefinition Fresnel zones are specified employing an ordinal number that corresponds to the number of half-wavelength multiples that represents the difference in radio wave propagation path from the direct path. The first Fresnel zone is therefore an ellipsoid whose surface corresponds to one half-wavelength path difference and represents the smallest volume of all the other Fresnel zones. The first Fresnel zone contains almost all the energy that is transmitted between the antennas and is therefore of great significance in the calculation of the attenuation caused by obstructing bodies. Ericsson Radio Systems AB 54/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 57. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNINGThe Fresnel ellipsoid The Fresnel zone is an ellipsoid having its focal points at the antenna points A and B, see Figure 1. The radius of the first Fresnel zone, r1F, is a function of the distance between A and B, the distance between any point, M, on the ellipsoid and the frequency. The radius of the first Fresnel zone is indirectly proportional to frequency and the higher the frequency the narrower the Fresnel zones.6 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 4/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999

58. RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION d d1 M Fresnel zone r1F Unobstructed line-ofsight A B N Equivalent earth surface Figure 1: The Fresnel zone.Equivalent and true earth radiiEarth-radius factor In simple terms, one can describe the ray beam between two antennas by employing an imagined propagation path that directly links the two antennas. In free-space this path would describe a straight line, a so- called optical line-of-sight. If instead, the antennas are placed on a spherical body surrounded by an atmosphere (as in the case for the earth), wave propagation will be affected by variations in atmospheric refractive index as the wave travels through the various atmospheric layers. The ray beam will now not follow the optical line-of-sight, but will describe a curved line between the two antennas. The form of the curve will vary as a function of variations in the refractive index of the atmosphere traversed by the wave. To simplify the description of this curved ray beam, the concept of equivalent earth surface having an equivalent earth radius, Re, has been introduced. Defined as follows: Re = k R ............................................................................................(11) where k = Earth-radius factor Ericsson Radio Systems AB 74/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 59. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING R = True earth radius (6.37106 m) The earth-radius factor is a function of the refractive index gradient. For normal atmosphere (i.e., atmosphere in which the refractive index gradient decreases linearly with altitude), the k-value is 4/3 if the refractive index gradient is -39 N-units/km.Equivalent and true Earth surface - a comparison The equivalent earth surface is that earth surface that would be required for the ray beam between the antennas to lie along a straight line, see Figure 2. A beam that travels outside of the optical line-of-sight must bend downwards in order to become a straight line, which is equivalent to enlarging the earths radius, i.e. reducing the curvature of the earth. The earth-radius factor, k, describes exactly the degree to which the earths radius would have to be changed in order that the ray beam describe a straight line. True ray beam Optical line-of-sight Equivalent ray beam Optical line-of-sight True earth surface R Equivalent earth surface Re = k R Figure 2: The equivalent and the true earth surface.Prediction models Prediction models for the purpose of performing fading prognoses are almost always empirical (comes from the Greek word empeiria meaning experience), i.e., they are not founded on theoretical considerations but are only built upon observation and experience. Empirical models are arrived as the result of the application of mathematical regression techniques on measurement data and therefore result in a relationship that describes a variables dependency under certain given conditions.8 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 4/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 60. RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION Empirical prediction models often provide a fair description of the fading process for distances and frequencies that lie within the dataranges for which measurements have actually been collected. Their application to other distances and frequency ranges may, on the other hand, result in significant error.Attenuation: free-space lossDefinition Free-space wave propagation implies that the effects caused by disturbing objects and other obstacles that are located at sufficiently long distances are assumed to be negligible.Free-space loss between two isotropic antennas The free-space loss between two isotropic antennas can be derived from the relationship between total output power and received power. The resulting expression is 4 d Abf = 20 log .........................................................................(12) where Abf = Free-space loss, dB d = Distance from the transmitting antenna, km = Wavelength, m

Following the transformation of wavelength into frequency (c=2.99792500 108 m/s) and entering of the actual units, the following is attained Abf = 92.5 + 20 log d + 20 log f ......................................................(13) where Abf = Free-space loss, dB d = Distance from the transmitting antenna, km f = Frequency, GHz If the distance is doubled while maintaining constant frequency, the free-space loss is increased by 20log 2= 6 dB. The same applies to a doubling of the frequency while maintaining a constant distance. In other words, an additional attenuation of 6 dB will be caused for every doubling of either the distance or the frequency. Ericsson Radio Systems AB 94/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 61. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNINGDiagram The free-space loss (dB) as a function of distance (km) is illustrated in Figure 3 for eight different frequencies (GHz). -80 -90 -100 Free-space loss, dB -110 -120 1 GHz -130 -140 5 10 -150 15 20 30 40 -160 50 -170 0 10 20 30 40 50 Distance, km Figure 3: The freespace loss as a function of distance for eight different frequencies. Note that the freespace loss in the GHz range is a minimum of approximately 92 dB.Attenuation: gasDefinition The atmosphere, up to an altitude of 30-40 km, consists of two layers troposphere stratosphere The two layers are separated by an often sharply demarcated transition layer referred to as the troposphere. It is within this troposphere in which all weather-related processes (precipitation, cloud formation, electrical storms, etc.) arise.10 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 4/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 62. RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION The troposphere lies at an altitude of 10 km over the earths medium latitudes and somewhat less over its poles. At the equator, the troposphere lies at an altitude varying between 16 and 18 km above the earths surface.The troposphere The troposphere consists of approximately 9/10 of the earths atmospheric mass, and aside from variations in moisture content, density and temperature, its constitution is more or less constant throughout its volume. This layer contains just a few notable elements and their compounds, which are of significance in the propagation of radio waves.Chemical composition Nitrogen and oxygen molecules account for approximately 99% of the total volume. From the propagation point of view, it is suitable to consider the atmosphere as being a mixture of two gases, dry air and water vapor. The chemical composition of the earths atmosphere is illustrated in Table 2. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF THE EARTHS ATMOSPHERE, % N2 O2 Ar CO2 Ne He Kr Xe H2 78.09 20.93 0.93 0.03 0.00018 5.210-4 1.010-4 8.00-6 <510-5 Table 2: The chemical composition of the earths atmosphere.Absorption peaks Water and dry air (oxygen) result in the following absorption peaks: Water (H2O) displays absorption peaks at the following radio frequencies: 22,235 GHz, 183,310 GHz and at 323.8 GHz. In addition, even greater absorption occurs at higher frequencies, where the propagation of IR and visible light transmission are primarily affected. Oxygen molecules (O2) displays absorption peaks at the following radio frequencies: 50-70 GHz (a complex system of absorption peaks lie in this frequency band), 118.75 GHz and at 367 GHz. Ericsson Radio Systems AB 114/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 63. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNINGCalculating total gas attenuation In what follows, the algorithms for the calculation of the specific attenuation due to oxygen (dry air) and water vapor will be described step-by-step.Oxygen (dry air) Two atmospheric parameters are involved in the calculation of the specific attenuation of oxygen: the atmospheric pressure and the

temperature. The atmospheric pressure is normalized to the value at see level (1013 hPa) by p rp = ...........................................................................................(14) 1013 where rp is the normalization factor and p (hPa) the pressure of the atmosphere at a certain altitude. A normal atmosphere is the atmosphere where the pressure at the see level is 760 mmHg, which corresponds to 1 atm or 1013.25 hPa. The non-SI unity is bar (100 kPa). The temperature is normalized to a mean value of 15 C by 288 rt = ......................................................................................(15) (273 + t ) where rt is the normalization factor and t is the temperature (C). The following parameters are determined: e [1.5663(1 rt )1] ...........................................(16) 0.5050 1 = 6.7665 rp rt 0.5106 e [0.5496(1 rt )1] .......................................(17) 0.4908 0.8491 2 = 27.8843 rp ........................................................................................(18) ln (3.5) 4a b= ................................................................................................(19) 112 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 4/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 64. RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION O (54 ) = 2.128 rp e [2.5280(1 rt )] ......................................(20) 1.6032 rt 1.4954 Finally, the specific attenuation due to rp 2 rt 3 0.3429 b f rp 2 (54 vapor In the calculation of the specific attenuation due to water vapor, one more atmospheric parameter is required: water-vapor content (g/m3). This parameter can be selected from the charts included in [4]. However, in combination with a given temperature, the water-vapor content selected from the charts might not be physically consistent with the appropriate value correspondent to the vapor saturation pressure. In other words, the water-vapor pressure can not exceed the vapor saturation pressure at the temperature considered. To avoid this common mistake, one more atmospheric parameter has been introduced in the step-by-step calculation: relative humidity (%). The vapor t e ........................................................................(22) The relative humidity of the atmosphere, RH, is given as the ratio between the water vapor pressure in the atmosphere, pH2O, and the vapor saturation pressure, ps. p H 2O RH = 100 .............................................................................. (23) ps Solving the above expression for the vapor pressure it is obtained RH p H 2O = p s ................................................................................. (24) 100 The water vapor content (water-vapor density) can be derived from the general gas equation. It is given by p H 2O = 216.7 ........................................................................(25) t + 273.15 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 134/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 65. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING The following parameters are determined w1 = 0.9544 rp rt + 0.0061 .................................................... (26) 0.69 w 2 = 0.95 rp rt + 0.0067 ....................................................... (27) 0.64 w3 = 0.9561 rp rt + 0.0059 ................................................... (28) 0.67 w 4 = 0.9543 rp rt + 0.0061 ....................................................(29) 0.68 w5 = 0.955 rp rt + 0.006 ....................................................... (30) 0.68 g 22 = 1 + (f 22.235) 2 ..................................................................... (31) (f + 22.235) 2 g 557 = 1+ (f 557 ) 2 ......................................................................... (32) (f + 557 ) 2 g 752 = 1 + (f 752 ) 2

......................................................................... (33) (f + 752) 2 Finally, the specific 3.84 w1 g 22 w 2 e 0.078 w3 w 2 2 ( f 321.226)2 + 6.29 w 4 e (1.6 (1 rt )) 26.36 w5 10 r p rt + 1.76 10 rt + rt f 325.153) + 9.22 w5 e (1.46 (1 rt )) 883.7 w5 g 557 e ( w5 g 752 gas attenuation Adding the oxygen (dry air) and water vapor contributions, the total gas attenuation is obtained as follows 14 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 4/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 66. RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION AG = ( O + w ) d ............................................................................. (35) where AG = Total gas attenuation, dB w = Specific absorption due to the effects of water vapor,dB/km o = Specific absorption due to the effects of oxygen (dry air), dB/km d = Path length, kmTotal specific gas attenuation - diagram Figure 4 shows the total specific atmospheric attenuation as a function of frequency up to 50 GHz for three different values of temperature and relative humidity. Figure 4: The total specific atmospheric attenuation as a function of frequency for different values of temperature and humidity.Attenuation: reflection Reflection loss is normally not considered in RL-applications since its uncertain contribution in the linkbudget may lead to heavy over or under dimensioning. Rough estimations of reflection loss as a function of the total reflection coefficient is described below. Ericsson Radio Systems AB 154/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 67. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNINGGround reflection interference The respective field strength components of the direct and reflected waves interfere with one another at the receiver. Receiver interference due to ground reflection is the result of the reception of the resultant field strength, i.e., the vector addition of the field components. Signal strength is dependent on the total reflection coefficient (resulting from dielectric constant, conductivity and polarization) and the total phase shift (resulting from antenna height, path length, earth-radius factor, frequency and the phase angle of the reflection coefficient). Figure 5 illustrates two extreme cases: 1) how the highest value of signal strength, AMAX, varies with the total reflection coefficient. This case illustrates amplification, i.e., the field strength components have the exact same direction, a phase angle of 0. 2) how the lowest value of signal strength, AMIN, varies with the total reflection coefficient. This case illustrates a loss, i.e., the field strength components are directed opposite to one another, a phase angle of 180. Figure 5: The signal strength as a function of the total reflection coefficient. The highest value of signal strength is obtained for a phase angle of 0 and the lowest value for a phase angle of 180.The problems of handling reflection The handling of reflection is a very difficult and intricate problem including the utilization of numerous parameters. For example:16 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 4/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 68. RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION high frequencies mean short wavelengths (at 23 GHz, the wavelength 1.3 cm) terrain data accuracy can affect the total reflection

coefficient which in effect, consists of three factors, of which one is directly coupled to the degree of irregularity of the terrain antenna height cannot be determined with sufficient accuracy since the height database has its limitations the earth-radius factorReflection coefficient The total reflection coefficient for a smooth spherical surface consists of three elements: Fresnel reflection coefficient, divergence factor and correction factor.The Fresnel reflection coefficient The Fresnel reflection coefficient for a smooth flat surface is dependent on frequency, grazing angle, polarization and ground characteristics (from the dielectric and conductivity constant). Figure 6 shows the Fresnel reflection coefficients absolute value for sea water as a function of grazing angle, two different frequencies and both horizontal and vertical polarization. Ericsson Radio Systems AB 174/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 69. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING Figure 6: The Fresnel reflection coefficient as a function of the grazing angle for seawater.Divergence factor The divergence factor is applied to the Fresnel reflection coefficient when approximating the earths surface as being spherical. Its value is a function of antenna height, earth radius factor and the path length. The divergence factor increases as both the difference in antenna heights, transmitter-receiver, and the value of the earth radius factor increase - it decreases with hop length (longer distances along the earths surface must be considered as being an arc).Correction factor The correction factor accounts for the surface irregularities (roughness) in different types of ground formations. Table 3 illustrates the approximate values of the correction factor for different ground surfaces at two different frequencies, 1 and 10 GHz. Ground-surface types s s 1 GHz 10 GHz Sea, lake, mirror-face ice field 0.95-1 0.90-1 Snow & ice field, frozen soil, naked damp 0.85-0.95 0.80-0.90 ground Damp field, flat and large scale agricultural 0.75-0.85 0.65-0.80 and cattle breeding land Flat grass land, flat field with thin bush, 0.55-0.75 0.45-0.65 desert Gently rolling terrain, savanna, partitioned 0.350.55 0.25-0.45 plowed fields and pasture Rolling terrain, forest, thick forest against 0.180.35 0.09-0.25 sandy wind, wind break, medium or small city area, area where a bank or a high way transverses the radio path near the reflection point Terrain with outstanding undulation, 0.08-0.18 0.04-0.09 undulated forest, medium or small city with high rise buildings, area with large factories, stadiums located to transverses the radio path near the reflection point Mountainous area, area with a deep ridge to 0.04-0.18 <0.04 shield the reflected area18 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 4/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 70. RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION Table 3: Approximate values of the correction factor for different ground-surface types.Example: rough estimation of the total reflection coefficient The Fresnel reflection coefficient is very close to 1 for small grazing angles, regardless of frequency and polarization. Ordinarily, grazing angles, in connection with radio links, lie between 1 and 10 mrad which is equivalent to 1/1000 and 1/100, respectively, of the relationship between the antenna height and the hop length (both are to be specified in the same units). The Fresnel reflection coefficient for a surface having good reflective characteristics may lie in the vicinity of 0.90. The value of the divergence factor may also lie around 0.90. For example the divergence factor is 0.91, for a 30 kilometer hop and a height difference of 30 m between the antennas and k=1.33. If the height difference is increased to 330 m, the divergence factor increases to 0.97 for the same k value. If the hop length is decreased to 15 km, the divergence factor increases to

0.99 for a height difference of 30 m and a k value of 1.33. The value of the correction factor varies with frequency and ground surface type in accordance with the Table 3. For very smooth surfaces, e.g., the surface of a body of water, the correction factor is approximately 0.90. The total reflection coefficient for a spherical and very smooth surface can be approximated to 0.90 x 0.90 x 0.90 0.73. From the diagram in Figure 5, the reflection loss is approximately 12 dB. Estimations can be easily performed if one assumes that the values of both the Fresnel reflection coefficient and divergence factor lie close to 0.90 and then apply the correction factor value given in the Table 3 for the different ground surface types.Calculation of the position of the reflection point The calculation of the position of the reflection point is primarily a geometric problem and the result is therefore presented in connection with the presentation of the path profile. The ground-reflected beam path and the reflection points position are clarified. There are two different methods available for the calculation of the reflection points position. The simplest algorithm avoids the numerical solution of third-degree equation and is therefore employed in here. The following intermediate parameters are calculated initially: Ericsson Radio Systems AB 194/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 71. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING Intermediate parameter c h A h B c= .......................................................................................(36) h A + h B where c = Intermediate parameter m hA = Antenna height at station A, m hB = Antenna height at station B, m Intermediate parameter m d2 m= .................................................................(37) 4 Re (h A + h B ) 10 3 where m = Intermediate parameter d = Distance between stations A and B, km Re = Equivalent earth radius, km hA = Antenna height at station A, m hB = Antenna height at station B, m c 3 ...........................(38) 3 point is calculated from d dA = (1 + b ) ....................................................................................(39) 2 and d B = d d A ........................................................................................(40) where dA = The distance between station A and the reflection point, km dB = The distance between station B and the reflection point, km d = The distance between stations A and B, km b = The intermediate parameter as above20 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 4/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 72. RADIO WAVE PROPAGATIONAttenuation: precipitationTypes of precipitation Precipitation can take the form of: rain snow hail fog and haze In common for all of the above forms of precipitation is the fact that they all consist of water particles (haze can also consist of small solid particles). Their distinctions lie in the distribution of the size and form of their water drops. Sharp demarcations between these forms of precipitation is however not always apparent. Intermediate states can very well occur.Snow Attenuation is only caused by wet snow. The attenuation caused by dry snow can be considered as negligible for frequencies below 50 GHz. Snow cover on antennas and radomes, so-called ice coatings, can result in two problems: increased attenuation the deformation of the antennas field radiation diagram Both cases result in the reduction of the input signal strength at the receiving station. Antenna ice coating can of course be alleviated by electrically heating the antennas, however the disadvantages are unfortunately greater than the advantages. Some of the disadvantages are: the antennas

must be held warm constantly, there is otherwise the risk that melted snow forms to ice Ericsson Radio Systems AB 214/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 73. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING electrical heating may be interrupted in the event of an electrical power loss there is no knowledge as to the impact, or its degree, on an antennas field radiation diagram due to electrical heatingHail The effects of hail on radio connections are first apparent when hail particle sizes approach the size of radio waves, for example, 150 mm (2 GHz), 9.6 mm (31 GHz) and 6 mm (50 GHz). Hail particle sizes greater than 10 mm are however quite rare. Measurements made in Sweden show that the deepest fading lasted for just under 5 minutes and was less than 10 dB. Hail storms can not therefore be considered as availability limiting factor, since they occur quite infrequently together with other forms of precipitation.Fog and haze Measurements performed in Sweden show that the deepest fading that can be related to heavy fog and haze amounted to between 4 and 7 dB. Fog and haze can not therefore be considered as availability limiting factor, since both fog and haze occur quite infrequently together with other forms of precipitation.Rain Attenuation due to rain is the generally responsible for two principal attenuation mechanisms: absorption and scattering caused by the raindrops. The extent of the attenuation due to rain is primarily a function of the form of the rain drops the size distribution of the rain drops The most common form of falling raindrops under the influence of air resistance is the oblate form (not exactly ellipsoidal). This causes horizontally polarized waves to attenuate more than vertically polarized waves.22 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 4/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 74. RADIO WAVE PROPAGATIONCumulative distribution of rain Due to the rapid time-variation of rain, the measured cumulative distribution of rain intensity is heavily dependent of the integration time selected for the measuring process. The rain intensity statistical distributions used in ITU-R reports are assumed to be the results of measurements or transformations corresponding to an integration time of 1 minute. The instantaneous rain intensity (which is extremely difficult to measure) is however more suitable from a network-planning standpoint. For the purpose of availability calculations, one is however interested in the cumulative distribution of rain intensity, i.e., that percentage of time during which a given level of rain intensity is attained or exceeded. Normally, the reference level applied to rain intensity is the rain intensity that is exceeded during 0.01% of the time, which is often designated as R0.01. ITU-R subdivides the earth into 15 different rain zones. Rain intensity (mm/h) that is exceeded for different fractions of time (%) are shown in Table 4 for the different rain zones. The rain zones are defined in the Radiowave propagation appendix. Sweden is covered by three rain zones, C, E and G and Brazil by three rain zones, K, N and P. RAIN ZONES Percentage of time (%) A B C D E F G H J K L M N P Q 1.0 <0.1 0.5 0.7 2.1 0.6 1.7 3 2 8 1.5 2 4 5 12 24 0.3 0.8 2.0 2.8 4.5 2.4 4.5 7 4 13 4.2 7 11 15 34 49 0.1 2 3 5 8 6 8 12 10 20 12 15 22 35 65 72 0.03 5 6 9 13 12 15 20 18 28 23 33 40 65 105 96 0.01 8 12 15 19 22 28 30 32 35 42 60 63 95 145 115 0.003 14 21 26 29 41 54 45 55 45 70 105 95 140 200 142 0.001 22 32 42 42 70 78 65 83 55 100 150 120 180 250 170 Table 4: Rain zones. The values in the table represent a percentage of time for which a given rain intensity is attained or exceeded.Rain zones - diagram The cumulative distributions that are shown in the previous table are illustrated in diagram form, see Figure 7. The curves represent ITU-Rs 15 different rain zones covering the entire earth. The distribution of rain intensity (mm/h)

represents a percentage of time that is equivalent to the attainment or exceeding of a given rain intensity. The Y-axis to the right shows the time percentage expressed in minutes per year. Ericsson Radio Systems AB 234/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 75. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING 1.0009 8 5256.00 Percentage of time rain intensity 7 6 5 4 3 intensity is exceeded, % 2 Percentage of time rain 0.1009 525.60 Minutes/yr 8 7 6 5 is exceeded, % 4 3 J 2 0.0109 52.56 Q 8 7 N C E 6 5 D 4 3 L P 2 AB H K M G F 0.001 5.26 0 50 100 150 200 250 Rain intensity, mm/h Figure 7: The rain zones represented as cumulative distributions.The new ITU model for calculation of rain intensity The new ITU-R rainfall rate procedure, also known as Baptista- Salonen model, is conditioned to the following aspects: 1. High quality, long integration-time (few hours) and high spatial resolution (about one grid point per 100 km) 2. Models for transforming long integration-time rain data to short integration-time rain data The new procedure does not demand any rain zone chart and the rainfall rates (rain intensity) are directly calculated as a function of the geographical location of the site. The basic of the new ITU-rainfall model is the rainfall rate data that is now available from two different rain-data programs: 1) Global Precipitation Climate Project (GPCP-data) and 2) European Center for Medium-Range Weather Forecast (ECMWF-data).24 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 4/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 76. RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION The new model is derived in two steps. First, suitable functions describing properly the rainfall rate distributions in tropical and midlatitude climates are derived. This function is expressed as follows: a R (1+bR ) (1+ c R ) p = P0 e ...............................................................................(41) where p is the annual probability that the rainfall rate R (mm/h) is exceeded, P0 is the rain probability obtained from statistical data and a, b and c are parameters. The next step is to optimize the above parameters by employing empirical functions. The difference between predicted and measured rainfall rates is minimized. The rainfall rate data used in the optimization is from ITU-R databases covering a large amount of sites at different 0.0117 ainfall amount of stratiform-type rains and Pr6 (%) is the probability of rainy 6 hours periods. The annual probability that the rainfall rate R (mm/h) is obtained from the previous expression B + B2 4 AC R= .................................................................. (43) 2 A where A = a b .............................................................................. (45 R(p)=0 The parameters a, b and c are empirically optimized and finally given by the expressions: a = 1.1 ............................................................................................... (47) Ericsson Radio Systems AB 254/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 77. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING (M c + M s ) b= .................................................................................. (48) 22932 P0 where Mc (mm) is the annual rainfall amount of convective-type rains. c = 31.5 b ......................................................................................... (49) The users of the new ITU rainfall rate model are, however, not forced to calculate the parameters Ms, Mc and Prg6 since they are calculated and stored in the following data files, see ??:

ESARAINPR6.TEXT contains the numerical values of the parameter Pr6. ESARAIN_MC.TXT contains the numerical values of the parameter Mc. ESARAIN_MS.TXT contains the numerical values of the parameter Ms. The values of the parameters Ms, Mc and Pr6 are stored as 121-rows and 241-columns matrix (121x241) corresponding to each point in a grid system. The values of the longitude and latitude for all grid points are also stored as 121-rows and 241-columns matrix (121x241) and can be obtained from the following data files, see ??: ESARAINLON.TXT contains the longitude values for each grid point. ESARAINLAT.TXT contains the latitude values for each grid point. For each specific grid point (LONi, LATj) there will be Msij, Mcij and Pr6ij corresponding values. Parameter values for other geographical locations than the grid points given in the above matrices are obtained by two-dimensional interpolation technique.The calculation of the specific rain attenuation The calculation of specific rain attenuation is performed in two steps:26 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 4/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 78. RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION first, a calculation is performed of the values of the coefficients corresponding to certain assumptions concerning the distribution of raindrop size, form, temperature and type of polarization (horizontal/vertical) then, a calculation is performed of the specific rain attenuation for a given instantaneous rain intensity Calculate the coefficients as follows k H + kV + (k H kV ) cos 2 cos(2 ) kf = .......................................(50) 2 k H H + kV V + (k H H kV V ) cos 2 cos(2 ) f = ..........(51) 2kf where kH,aH,kV,aV = Frequency dependent coefficients that are provided in Table 5 = The paths elevation angle = The polarization tilt angle relative to the horizontal planeTable containing the frequency dependent coefficients The values of the frequency dependent coefficients provided in Table 5 are for frequencies between 1 and 50 GHz (the symbol * implies values that have been interpolated). Frequency GHz kH kV H V 1 0.0000387 0.0000352 0.912 0.880 2 0.000154 0.000138 0.963 0.923 3* 0.000358 0.000323 1.055 1.012 4 0.000650 0.000591 1.121 1.075 5* 0.001120 0.001000 1.224 1.180 6 0.00175 0.00155 1.308 1.265 7 0.00301 0.00265 1.332 1.312 8 0.00454 0.00395 1.327 1.310 9* 0.00692 0.00605 1.300 1.286 10 0.0101 0.00887 1.276 1.264 11* 0.0140 0.01240 1.245 1.231 12 0.0188 0.0168 1.217 1.200 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 274/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 79. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING 13* 0.0239 0.0215 1.194 1.174 14* 0.0298 0.0271 1.173 1.150 15 0.0367 0.0335 1.154 1.128 16* 0.0431 0.0394 1.142 1.114 17* 0.0501 0.0459 1.130 1.101 18* 0.0578 0.0530 1.119 1.088 19* 0.0661 0.0607 1.109 1.076 20 0.0751 0.0691 1.099 1.065 21* 0.0838 0.0769 1.091 1.057 22* 0.0930 0.0853 1.083 1.05028 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 4/038 02LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 80. RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION Frequency GHz kH kV H V 23* 0.1030 0.0940 1.075 1.043 24* 0.1130 0.1030 1.068 1.036 25 0.124 0.113 1.061 1.030 26* 0.135 0.123 1.052 1.024 27* 0.147 0.133 1.044 1.017 28* 0.160 0.144 1.036 1.011 29* 0.173 0.155 1.028 1.006 30 0.187 0.167 1.021 1.000 31* 0.201 0.179 1.012 0.992 32* 0.216 0.192 1.003 0.985 33* 0.231 0.205 0.995 0.977 34* 0.247 0.219 0.987 0.970 35 0.263 0.233 0.979 0.963 36* 0.279 0.247 0.971 0.956 37* 0.296 0.262 0.962 0.949 38* 0.314 0.278 0.954 0.942 39* 0.332 0.294 0.947 0.935 40 0.350 0.310 0.939 0.929 41* 0.368 0.326 0.931 0.922 42* 0.386 0.342 0.924 0.916 43* 0.404 0.359 0.917 0.909 44* 0.423 0.376 0.910 0.903 45 0.442 0.393 0.903 0.897 46* 0.456 0.410 0.897 0.891 47* 0.479 0.426

0.891 0.885 48* 0.497 0.444 0.885 0.879 49* 0.517 0.461 0.879 0.874 50 0.536 0.479 0.873 0.868 Table 5: Frequency dependent coefficients for the calculation of specific rain attenuation. The calculation of specific rain attenuation (dB/km) is performed as follows f R = kf R ......................................................................................(52) where kf,af = Frequency dependent coefficients R = Rain intensity, mm/h The specific rain attenuation that is exceeded during 0.01% of the time, can be calculated by relating the rain intensity to the reference level 0.01%, i.e., Ericsson Radio Systems AB 294/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 81. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING R0.01 = k f R0.01 ...................................................................................(53) f Figure 8 illustrates specific rain attenuation (dB/km) that are exceeded during 0.01% of the time as a function of frequency (GHz) for three different values of rain intensity, R0.01, for both horizontal and vertical polarization. Figure 8: Specific rain attenuation exceeded during 0.01% of the time as a function of frequency. Figure 9 illustrates the specific rain attenuation (dB/km) that are exceeded during 0.01% of the time as a function of rain intensity for four different values of frequency (GHz), for both horizontal and vertical polarization.30 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 4/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 82. RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION Figure 9: Specific rain attenuation exceeded during 0.01% of the time as a function of rain intensity. Figure 10 illustrates the specific rain attenuation (dB/km) that is exceeded during 0.01% of the time as a function of rain intensity for horizontal (H) and vertical (V) polarization at 23 GHz. At 23 GHz and horizontal polarization, the specific rain attenuation at R0.01=30 mm/h is almost twice the value at R0.01=12 mm/h. Figure 10: Specific rain attenuation exceeded during 0.01% of the time as a function of rain intensity for a frequency of 23 GHz. Ericsson Radio Systems AB 314/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 83. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNINGCalculating total rain attenuation The total rain attenuation for a radio link path can be calculated as follows, if the statistical distribution of the rain cells along the path is known AR = R d eff ......................................................................................(54) where AR = Total rain attenuation, dB R = Specific rain attenuation, dB/km deff = Effective path length, km The effective path length is calculated as follows d eff = d r ...........................................................................................(55) where d = Actual path length, km r = Reduction factor The reduction factor is arrived at as follows 1 r= ...........................................................................................(56) d 1+ d0 The factor 1/d0 is coupled to rain intensity for the 0.01% reference level. d0 is then d 0 = 35 e 0.015R0.01 ...............................................................................(57) The reduction factor accounts for the extensions of rain cells and transforms actual path lengths to equivalent path lengths along which the rain can be regarded as having a uniform distribution.Calculating total rain attenuation for 0.01% The total rain attenuation that is exceeded 0.01% of the time can be calculated if the rain intensity is related to the 0.01% reference level, as follows AR0.01 = R0.01 d eff ................................................................................(58) where32 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 4/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 84. RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION AR0.01 = Total rain attenuation that is exceeded during 0.01% of the time, dB R0.01 = Specific rain attenuation that is exceeded during

0.01% of the time, dB/km deff = Effective path length, km The total rain attenuation that is exceeded during 0.01% of the time is used later in the calculation of unavailability caused by rain.Attenuation: obstruction Obstruction losses are calculated based on the paths geometry and on the actual frequency used. The geometry is a function of: topography The antennas height above ground level The earth-radius factor, k Different k-values result in different obstruction loss values. Small k- values result in the greatest obstruction loss due to the fact that the beam tends to bend more towards the ground surface, or expresses in another manner, the obstruction penetrates deeper into the Fresnel zone.Knife-edge obstructions A knife-edge obstruction is one that consists of an individual obstruction having negligible length in the direction of the radio waves propagation path, see Figure 11. The loss contributed by such an obstruction is derived from the knife-edge loss curve, which is a physically derived function. Ericsson Radio Systems AB 334/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 85. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING v>0 hLOS A v<0 r1F B Equivalent earth surface Figure 11: Knife-edge obstruction showing the obstructions height relative the free line-of-sight. In the case of knife-edge obstructions, the obstruction loss value, AH is only dependent on the parameter , which is defined as the obstructions relative penetration of the Fresnel zone: hLOS = .............................................................................................(59) r1F where hLOS = The obstructions height above the free line-of-sight r1F = The Fresnel zones radius at the point of the obstruction The parameter , as defined above, differs by a factor of 2 1.41 from the definition in Rep. 715-3, vol. 5, which means a difference of approximately 1-3 dB in obstruction loss for the particular value of . The height of the obstruction over the free line-of-sight may be defined as hLOS = (ground elevation + height of the tree line or building height) - the height of the free line-of-sightKnife-edge loss curve The loss caused by an obstruction is arrived at from the knife-edge loss curve, which is a physically derived function. Knife-edge loss AH as a function of the relative penetration , is shown in Figure 12.34 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 4/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 86. RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION Figure 12: Knife-edge loss as a function of the relative penetration parameter. When performing path calculations, realistic degrees of Fresnel zone penetration are often considered as lying in the interval from -0.5 to 2 which means calculation of obstruction losses based on the diagram insertion above. For 10, obstruction losses are calculated as follows: AH = 16 + 20 log( ) 10 .................................................(60) where AH = Obstruction loss, dB v = The obstructions relative penetration of the Fresnel zoneTypical knife-edge losses Figure 13 illustrates a few typical examples of loss values (dB) for the knife-edge function. Ericsson Radio Systems AB 354/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 87. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING 0 12 16 20 0 6 Figure 13: Typical loss values (dB) resulting from the knife-edge function.Singlepeak method The single-peak method calculates the value of the obstruction loss as the greatest knife-edge obstruction loss attained as a result of an individual obstruction lying along the path, see Figure 14. The algorithm defines those peaks in the path profile between station A and station B that penetrate the Fresnel zone. The penetration, , of every peak is calculated relative to the Fresnel zone along the free line- of-sight, AB . The corresponding knife-edge loss, AH, is calculated as if only one peak existed along

the path. The greatest loss value that is found along the path is returned as the sought obstruction loss value. A B Figure 14: In the single-peak method the obstruction loss is taken as the greatest knife-edge obstruction loss lying along the path.36 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 4/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 88. RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION The single-peak method is, as is obvious, a pure application of the knife-edge model. It works best for paths that have one dominant peak. The results of the model are less reliable for more realistic paths having a number of significant peaks.Triple-peak method Simply stated, the triple-peak method may be described as a calculation of the obstruction loss value along the propagation path, based on the sum of the three largest knife-edge losses. The algorithm involves an initial calculation of the obstruction loss based on the single-peak method, as described earlier. This first calculation of the single knife-edge loss represents the first contribution, A1, to the total obstruction loss. The path profile is then split at that the point, M, which resulted in the largest knife-edge loss, see Figure 15. The peak of point M is regarded as being a common antenna or termination point along the partial paths AM and MB . If the peak consists of trees, then the mast height of the fictitious antenna is set to the height of the trees, otherwise the mast height is set to zero. In the event that the fictitious antenna attains a height beneath the original free line-of-sight, AB , then the mast height is instead set so that the antenna exactly reaches the free line-of-sight. M A B Figure 15: The path profile after the first split. Ericsson Radio Systems AB 374/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 89. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING The partial paths, AM and MB to the left and right of the located peak, M, are each searched for two new paths in the same manner as was the original path. Note that the partial paths, as illustrated in the figure above, generally have other free lines-of-sight and Fresnel zones than does the original path. Each partial path results in a separate knifeedge loss value. The higher of the two values will represent the second contribution, A2, to the total obstruction loss. The particular partial path is then subdivided at the peak, N, that resulted in the highest knife-edge loss, see Figure 16. The resultant partial paths are then each searched in the same manner as was the original partial paths. The third and final contribution, A3, to the total obstruction loss is the largest knife-edge loss resulting from one of the partial paths AN, NM, and MB. The total obstruction loss, AH, is obtained by summing the three contributions described above, A1, A2 and A3. AObst = A1 + A2 + A3 ............................................................................(61) N M A B Figure 16: The path profile after the second split. The triple-peak method is entirely empirical, but it has proven to work well in actual applications. It works better than the single-peak method for practically all most occurring path profiles, since it accounts for more than only the highest peak along the path. The difference between the triple-peak method and a hypothetical repetition (three times) of the single-peak method, lies in the fact that secondary peaks in the triple-peak method will contribute less than the primary peak considering the peaks penetration of the original Fresnel zone. This is a function of two factors:38 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 4/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 90. RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION the partial paths are always shorter than the full path the partial paths free lines-of sight always lies higher than (or at the same level as) the original full path A shorter path results in a smaller Fresnel zone radius. Higher free

line- of-sight results in a relatively lower peak free line-of-sight. Together, these factors result in a smaller relative penetration. The result is that the secondary peaks cause lower obstruction losses. The triple-peak method, as it is applied here, is a further development of the original multiple-peak method introduced by Deygout, Multiple Knife-Edge Diffraction of Microwaves, IEEE Trans. Ant. Prop. vol. AP-14, 1966.Smoothly spherical earth In the case of smoothly spherical earth (flat-earth), the obstruction is represented by an smooth surface, such as a sea or lake, penetrating the Fresnel zone. Losses are calculated using a simple function that may be derived from empirical considerations. The geometry of the smoothly spherical earth is illustrated in Figure 17. A hA B hB dA dr dB d Figure 17: The geometry of the smoothly spherical earth. The loss calculation is performed in accordance with the Cheriex method. First the distances to the radio horizon from both antennas are calculated as follows d A 2 10 3 k R h A .....................................................................(62) d B 2 10 3 k R hB .....................................................................(63) where dA = The distance from station A to the radio horizon, km dB = The distance from station B to the radio horizon, km Ericsson Radio Systems AB 394/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 91. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING hA = The antenna height at station A, m hB = The antenna height at station B, m k = The earthradius factor R = True earth radius ( 6370 km) The distance between both radio horizons may be easily calculated as d r d (d A + d B ) .............................................................................(64) where d = Distance between station A and B, km The obstruction loss for evenly curved earth is calculated as 2 AObst 20 + 0.112 3 f k 3 d r .........................................................(65) where AObst = Obstruction loss, dB f = Frequency, MHzTypical losses resulting from smoothly spherical earth Figure 18 illustrates typical loss values (dB) for smoothly spherical earth for a path of 50 kilometers and a frequency of 2.2 GHz. 40 20 10 Figure 18: Typical loss values (dB) resulting from a smoothly spherical earth. For grazing lines-of-sight, i.e., the antennas have the same horizon (dA + dB = d), the loss is 20 dB, which applies regardless of frequency and path length.40 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 4/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 92. RADIO WAVE PROPAGATIONClearance and path geometryThe Earth bulge The local height of the Earth bulge (h) is dependent of the k-value. The parameter h is very important for clearance purposes. The shadow region in Figure 19 covers its local value. y=-d/2 y=d/2 d1 d2 y M hmax h N B A kR kR-hmax kR O x Figure 19: The local height of Earth bulge. The local height of the Earth bulge is given by d1 d 2 h= ...................................................................................... (66) 12.74 k where the distances d1 and d2 are normally expressed in km and h in meters. The local height of the Earth bulge is inversely proportional to the earth-radius factor. For high k-values, the Earth surface is close to a plane surface while for low k-values the Earth surface becomes more curved and may penetrate the radio path.Path geometry Ericsson Radio Systems AB 414/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 93. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING In what follows, clearance, obstacle penetration and antenna height will be discussed. Figure 20 displays the path geometry for which the path parameter clearance c is depicted. The height of the line-of-sight is x, the bulge of the Earth is h and the height of the obstacle above the earth surface is h3. The other parameters have their habitual designation.

Referring to the Earth surface, the height of the line-of-sight is x = c + h3. The antenna heights are represented as total heights, that is, both the terrain and the actual antenna heights are included. h c x-h 1 h2 h3 x h1 h d1 d2 d Figure 20: Path geometry.The height of the line-of-sight The height of the line-of-sight with respect to the Earth surface h2 h1 x= d1 + h1 .................................................................................... (67) d where h1and h2 are given in m and d and d1 in km.Path lossesDefinition The path loss is the sum of all losses and gains between the transmitters and the receivers antenna contacts and is calculated as follows:42 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 4/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 94. RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION AS = Abf + AG + AObst + AL + AF G ATx G ARx .............................(68) where AS = Path loss, dB Abf = Free-space loss, dB AG = Gas attenuation, dB AObst = Obstruction loss, dB AL = Additional loss, dB AF = Antenna feeder loss, dB GATx = Transmitter antenna gain, dBi GARx = Receiver antenna gain, dBiFade margin Under interference-free conditions, the fade margin is defined as the difference between the received signal level under normal wave propagation conditions (fade-free time) and the receivers threshold level at a given biterror level, i.e., M = PR PTr ......................................................................................(69) where M = Fade margin, dB PR = Receiver signal level, dBm PTr = Receiver threshold level, dBm Receiver signal level is calculated as the difference between the transmitters output power and the path loss, i.e., PR = PTr AS ......................................................................................(70) where PR = Receiver signal level, dB PTr = Transmitter output power, dBm AS = Path loss, dBPower diagram A power diagram is a schematic approach to the illustration of the effects on a transmitters radiated power as it propagates towards a receiving station, see Figure 21. Concepts such as fade margin and receiver threshold value are also included in the definition. Ericsson Radio Systems AB 434/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 95. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING POWER output power antenna gain feeder loss wave propagation losses received power feeder loss fade margin antenna gain receiver threshold value Figure 21: The power diagram.Effective fade margin The receivers threshold value as defined earlier only applies under negligible or interference-free conditions. In reality, this is however not the case. A certain interference contribution is almost always present when performing path calculations, which usually affects availability results. The interference contribution can be interpreted as degradation in the receivers threshold value, i.e., threshold degradation. The effective fade margin is therefore defined as the difference between the fade margin and the threshold degradation. The effective fade margin is used later in availability calculations. Interference calculations provide the value of the threshold degradation.44 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 4/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 96. RADIO WAVE PROPAGATIONFading - prediction modelsThe concept of outage Outage is generally defined as the probability that a pre-defined bit- error ratio is exceeded during a certain measured period of time.Rain fadingCalculation of the fade margin based on a yearly basis The fade margin that is exceeded during different periods of time based on a yearly basis is calculated as follows M P = 0.12 AR0.01 P (0.546+ 0.043log P ) ......................................................(71) where AR0.01 = Total rain attenuation that is exceeded 0.01% of the time, dB MP = Fade margin that is exceeded p% of the time, dB P = The percentage of the time during which 0.001 < P < 1% The

total attenuation for 0.01% of time, A0.01, is calculated as a function of the rain intensity (rainfall rate) for 0.01% of time, R0.01, and the effective path length by equation (??). The attenuation exceeded for a certain percentage of time can be referred to as the fade depth. If we adapt the fade margin, M, to be as much as the fade depth, then Ap can be replaced by M in both expressions above. In the previous ITU-model, the above expression was valid for all values of latitude and longitude. In the new revision of the ITU-R recommendation [2], however, the above expression is modified to fit different values of the latitude. Thus, for radio links located at latitudes equal or greater than 30 (North and South) the above expression is still applied. On the other side, for latitudes lower than 30N and 30S (60 belt along the equator), the valid expression is Ap = 0.07 p (0.855+ 0.139log p ) ..............................................................(72) A0.01 with the parameters defined as previously. Ericsson Radio Systems AB 454/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 97. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING Compared to the previous model, the new model presented in [2] does not provide any remarkable improvement. In addition, it seems to be statistically inconsistent since it gives higher p values than the model used for latitudes equal to or greater than 30N and 30S. When discussing both models for calculating the probability (percentage of time) that the fade margin will be exceeded, transmission network planners are encouraged to stress the inconsistency of the new model to be used in the 60 belt along the equator. Particularly, the fact the model does not provide any remarkable improvement.Outage due to rain fading - annual basis The prediction model for the rain fading across a particular area is a cumulative distribution over fade margin. It calculates the probability that a given fade margin will be exceeded. The probability that a given fade margin M is exceeded, on an annual basis, can be attained from the previous mathematical expression by solving the equation for the fraction of time, P. The empirical prediction model for rain fading percent of a year, during which a given fade-depth M (fade margin) is exceeded, % AR0.01 = Total rain attenuation that is exceeded 0.01% of the time, dB M = Fade margin, dBTransformation between yearly and worst month basis From yearly to worst month The transformation from an annual probability to one based on a worst month is achieved as follows pw = Q P ..........................................................................................(74) where46 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 4/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 98. RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION pw = The portion of time, expressed in percent of the worst month, during which a given fade-depth M (fade margin) is exceeded, % P = The portion of time, expressed in percent of a year, during which a given fade-depth M (fade margin) is exceeded, % Q = Conversion factor (climatic constant), 12> Q >1 The probability pw and P are referred to the same threshold level. The conversion factor Q is expressed as a function of P and the climatic parameters Q1 and . In the range of interest for microwave planning, Q is given by following expression 1 P transformation from yearly basis to worst month basis is given by pw = Q1 P 1 .....................................................................................(76) The values of the climatic constants, for global planning purposes are specified by ITU-R as Q1 = 2.85 = 0.13

From worst month to yearly The transformation from a yearly probability to worst-month probability is obtained from expression (74) 1 1 P = Q1 1 p w 1 ...............................................................................(77)Climatic parameters The values of the climatic parameters Q1 and and the interval of validity for pw are given in Table 6 for rain and multipath propagation for different climatic regions. Ericsson Radio Systems AB 474/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 99. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING RAIN MULTIPATH Region Q1 p w interval Q1 p w interval Global planning 0.13 2.85 -4 1.910 - 7.4 0.13 2.85 1.910 -4 - 7.4 Europe (Nordic) 0.15 3.0 1.210 -3 - 7.6 0.12 5.0 8.110 -3 - 13.2 Europe (North West) 0.13 3.0 2.810 -4 - 7.8 0.13 4.0 2.610 -3 - 10.4 Europe (Mediterranean) 0.14 2.6 2.210 -4 - 6.7 - - - Europe (Alpine) 0.15 3.0 -3 1.210 7.6 - - - Europe (Poland) 0.18 2.6 2.510 -3 - 6.4 - - - Europe (Russia) 0.14 3.6 -3 2.210 9.3 - - - Canada (Prairie & North) 0.08 4.3 -5 3.210 -11.8 - - - Canada (Cost & Great Lake) 0.10 2.7 -6 4.010 - 7.3 - - - Canada (Central & Mountain) 0.13 3.0 -3 1.210 - 7.6 - - Japan (Tokyo) 0.20 3.0 -2 1.210 - 7.2 - - - Congo 0.25 1.5 -3 2.910 - 3.4 - - Indonesia 0.22 1.7 1.710 -3 - 4.0 - - - Table 6: Values of the climatic parameters Q1 and for rain and multipath fading for different regions. The range of validity is also displayed. The selection of the climatic parameters when transforming annual worstmonth time percentage to average annual time percentages may have a conclusive impact when dimensioning microwave links. In a near future, when more climatic values become available, employing adequate values for the climatic parameters will increase in importance. The range of validity of the conversion model is strongly dependent on the climate and should be known by microwave designers.Presentation of the rain fading models in diagram form Figure 22 illustrates the rain fading models (worst month and on a yearly basis) for different values of the quotient between total rain attenuation exceeding 0.01% of the time (AR0.01) and the fade margin, M. When the quotient is equal to 0.155, outage is set to 810-7.48 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 4/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 100. RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION 1 100 Rain fading model fade margin is exceeded, % 10-1 worst month 10-2 Percentage of time the 10-3 Rain fading model 10-4 annual basis 10-5 10-6 10-7 10-8 0 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 91 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 10 AR0.01/M Figure 22: The rain fading models for worst month and on a yearly basis.Multipath fadingThe occurrence of multipath propagation Figure 23 illustrates a multipath scenario. Atmospheric layer Figure 23: Multipath propagation illustrated by three radio beams: Ericsson Radio Systems AB 494/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 101. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING Beams that are reflected by the atmosphere or the ground travel a longer distance than do direct beams. Dependent on the size of the time delays and the employed channel bandwidth, fading can either be flat, or frequency selective In general: Fading due to rain, for frequencies below 10 GHz, may be considered as negligible in comparison with fading due to multipath propagation, which is often dominant below 10 GHz. Fading due to multipath propagation, for frequencies above 10 GHz, may be considered as negligible in comparison with fading due to rain, which is often dominant above 10 GHz. A good rule of thumb is however, that there exists a cross-over region between the frequencies of 10 and 18 GHz, and a point at which fading due to rain and multipath propagation are of about the same order of magnitude.Flat and frequency selective fading Flat fading

implies that there does not exist any noticeable local variation within the transmitted frequency band, see Figure 24, i.e., fading has the same degree throughout the band. Frequency selective fading implies that there does exist a noticeable variation within the transmitted frequency band (see the figure below). A Flat fading A Frequency selective fading B f B f Figure 24: Flat and frequency selective fading.50 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 4/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 102. RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION The extent of the influence of multipath propagation on a radio link system depends on whether the system is analog or digital and whether the fading is flat or frequency selective.The effects of multipath propagation The effect of flat fading for digital and analog connections is similar. Signal level decreases and quality degrades. Continued quality degradation will eventually lead to the breakdown of the connection. Digital systems usually exhibit a somewhat higher tolerance to flat fading than do analog systems. In the case of base band, analog link connections utilize frequency multiplexing in which each channel of N channels contains a small (B/N) frequency band. For frequency selective fading, signal levels vary locally within the frequency band, both in amplitude and phase. The result, in the case of analog connections, is that a number of channels may attain signal levels that are so low that connection within these channels is virtually impossible. The connection can, however, be maintained at a lower capacity. In the case of base band, digital link connections utilize the entire frequency band, B, of all channels in a time-multiplexed manner. This means that every channel has a time slot and synchronism is therefore required for system management purposes. In-band variations in the case of a time-duplexed digital connection represents a loss of information, the connection loses synchronization, resulting in the fact that the connection can no longer be maintained. The disturbance affects all channels and is abated, only after synchronization is once again established.Measures taken against multipath fading Measures that are aimed at suppressing fading due to multipath propagation can be divided into three categories: diversity Diversity implies that a signal reaches the receiver via a number (at least two) of different alternatives, the purpose being that the received signals are to be uncorrelated. Examples of diversity are frequency, space, path, polarization and angle. adaptive equalizer Ericsson Radio Systems AB 514/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 103. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING The purpose of adaptive equalizer (in both the time and frequency domains) is the equalization of signal amplitude and phase. system By modifying system parameters or other system attributes, one can attain an improvement in system tolerance to multipath fading. For example, improvements can, in some cases, be achieved through the modification of path geometry or by simply changing the antenna.Outage due to flat fading Introduction Flat fading, also known as single-frequency, frequency independent or narrow-band fading, can generally be predicted for any part of the world. The method relies on the prediction of the distribution at large fade depths in the average worst month. Unlike the former prediction method, the present method normally employed for large fade depths does not take into account the path profile and, therefore, is suitable for initial planning, licensing or design purposes. In addition, there is a method applicable for all fade depths, in which the method for large fade depths and an interpolation procedure for small fade depths are employed Fade occurrence factor Worldwide measurements and

statistical compilations of fading events indicate that the probability the received level fades F dB below the free-space level is given by F p flat = p0 10 10 ..................................................................................(78) where the fade depth F is normally interpreted as the fade margin (M) and p0 is the fade occurrence factor. The fade occurrence factor, p0, is usually given as a function of climatic and path parameters and is obtained as p0 = K d 3.6 f 0.89 (1 + ) 1.4 .............................................................(79) where K = Geoclimactic factor52 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 4/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 104. RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION d = Path length, km f = Frequency, GHz = Path slope, mrad M = Fade margin, dB The estimations of the geoclimatic factor correspondent to different climates are discussed in the following sections.Flat fading and error performance Generally, multipath fading is considered as negligible for frequencies above 10 GHz for which rain is the dominating fading mechanism. The significance of multipath fading in rain abundant regions may even be negligible for frequencies lower than 10 GHz. Multipath fading (flat fading and frequency selective) is normally the main contributor to Severely Errored Seconds (SES). Comparing flat and frequency selective fading, the former is usually more frequent in narrow bandwidth systems.Method for small percentages of time Estimation of the geoclimatic factor The geoclimatic factor is strongly dependent on the geographical path location, antenna altitude and size of bodies of water in the vicinity of the path (refraction anomalies). The geoclimatic factor is calculated for known terrain (inland and coastal links) or for unknown terrain. Inland Links Inland links are links for which The entire path profile is above 100 m altitude (with respect to mean sea level) or beyond 50 km from the nearest coastline or part or all the entire path profile is below 100 m altitude (with respect to mean sea level) and entirely within 50 km of the coastline, but having an intervening height of land higher than 100 m between the link and the coastline. Links passing over a river or a small lake should normally be classed as passing over land. Normally, measured values of the geoclimatic factor Ki are not available, but it can be estimated according to Ericsson Radio Systems AB 534/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 105. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING K i = 5.0 10 7 10 0.1(C0 CLat C Lon ) p 1.5 .................................................(80) L Where C0 =Antenna altitude coefficient, dB CLat =Latitude coefficient, dB CLon =Longitude coefficient, dB pL =Percentage of time the refractivity gradient in the lowest 100 m of the atmosphere is lower than 100 N units/km in the estimated average worst month, % Antenna altitude coefficient The values of the antenna altitude coefficients are classified according to: Low altitude antenna: lower-antenna altitude less than 400 m above mean sea level Medium altitude antenna: lower-antenna altitude in the range 400- 700 m above mean sea level High altitude antenna: lower-antenna altitude higher than 700 m above mean sea level The terrain type is classified according to: Plains Hills Mountains The C0 values are displayed in Table 7 for links located on known terrain and in Table 8 for links located on unknown terrain. Low altitude Medium altitude High altitude antenna antenna (0-400 m) antenna (400-700 m) (above 700 m) Plains Hills Plains Hills Plains Hills Mountains 0 3.5 2.5 6 5.5 8 10.5 Table 7: Antenna altitude coefficient values for links located on known terrain. When the type of the terrain is not known, the following table gives the C0 values for planning purpose.54 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 4/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999

106. RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION Low altitude Medium altitude High altitude antenna antenna (0-400 m) antenna (400-700 m) (above 700 m) 1.7 4.2 8.0 Table 8: Antenna altitude coefficient values for links located on unknown terrain. Latitude coefficient The latitude coefficient is given for three latitude regions according to CLat = 0 for 53 S 53 N CLat = -53 + for 53 N or S < < 53 N or S CLat = 7 for < 60 N or S...................................... Longitude coefficient CLon = 3 for longitudes of Europe and Africa CLon = -3 for longitudes of North and South America CLon = 0 for all other longitudes Climatic factor pL The specific value of the refractivity gradient, pD = -157 N units/km, represents the boundary between super-refraction and ducting, thus becoming the probability for the occurrence of a radio duct. Unlike pD, pL values are readily available in the literature. In addition, it has been found that pD and pL1.5 are highly correlated. Therefore pL values are currently employed in the estimation of the geoclimatic factor. The pL values for the entire world are obtained from the maps included in Rec. ITU-R P.453-6 for four different seasons represented by the months February, May, August and November. The highest value, expressed in %, obtained from the four maps should be used for planning purposes. An exception is when planning for latitudes greater than 60 N or 60 S when the maps of May and August should be used. Coastal Links Coastal links are links having a fraction rc of the path profile Less than 100 m above a body of water Ericsson Radio Systems AB 554/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 107. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING Within 50 km of its coastline No height of land above the 100 m altitude (relative to the mean altitude of the body of water in question) between the fraction of the path profile and the coastline. Coastal links over/near large bodies of water The size of large bodies of water is considered with respect to several known examples: English Channel North Sea Large reaches of the Baltic and Mediterranean Seas Hudson Strait Other bodies of water of similar size Normally, measured values of the geoclimatic factor K are not available, but it can be estimated according to K l = 10 (1 rc )log K i + rc log K cl when K cl K i .................................(81) Ki when Kcl < Ki 0.1C0 0.011 K cl = 2.3 10 4 10 ............................................................(82) where Ki is given by expression (51) and C0 is obtained from Table 7. The condition Kcl < Ki occurs in a few regions at low and mid latitudes. The parameter rc is the fraction of the path profile below 100 m altitude above the mean sea level of the body of water in question and within 50 km of the coastline, without intervening height above 100 m altitude. Coastal links over/near medium-sized bodies of water The size of medium-sized bodies of water is considered with respect to several known examples Bay of Fundy (East Coast of Canada) Strait of Georgia (West Coast of Canada) Gulf of Finland and other bodies of water of similar size56 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 4/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 108. RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION Normally, measured values of the geoclimatic factor K are not available, but it can be estimated according to K m = 10 (1 rc )log K i + rc log K cm when K cm K i ...............................(83) Ki when Kcm < Ki K cm = 10 0.5(log K i + log K cl ) .........................................................................(84) where Ki is given by expression (51) and C0 is given by Table 7. The condition Kcm < Ki occurs in a few regions at low and mid latitudes. The parameter rc is as above. When the size of the body of water classification (medium or large) in question is not easy applicable, then the

geoclimatic factor should be estimated according to K = 10 (1 rc )log K i + 0.5rc (log K cm + log K cl ) ...........................................................(85) where the parameters are defined above. Links at other regions There are regions consisting of extensive area of lakes or water systems. Typical example is the region of lakes in southern Finland. Links not located in coastal areas but near vast area of lakes are considered as coastal areas and the geoclimatic factor should be estimated according to K = 10 0.5[( 2 rc )log K i + rc log K cm ] ...................................................................(86) where the parameters are defined above.Link and terrain parameters overview When topography databases are not available, the alternative unknown terrain and the corresponding three antenna altitude coefficient alternatives should be employed. When topography databases are available, the parameter input for the flat fading prediction can generally be structured according to Figure 25. Ericsson Radio Systems AB 574/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 109. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING 1) Low altitude antenna (0-400m) Unknown 2) Medium altitude antenna (400-700m) terrain 3) High altitude antenna (above 700m) 1) Low altitude antenna (0-400m) a) Hills b) Plains 2) Medium altitude antenna (400-700m) Inland Links a) Hills b) Plains 3) High altitude antenna (above 700m) a) Hills b) Plains c) Mountains 1) Over/near large Known bodies of water Coastal Links terrain 2) Over/near medium- sized bodies of water Links at other regions Figure 25: The structure of the parameter input in the flat fading prediction function.Estimation of the path slope Path slope is calculated as follows h A hB = .......................................................................................(87) d where =Path slope, mrad hA =Antenna height + ground elevation at the transmitter, m hB =Antenna height + ground elevation at the receiver, m d =Path length, km A general rule of thumb is that rays will penetrate a duct without being significantly reflected when the path slope is approximately greater than 0.4 (7 mrad). This would correspond approximately to a path length of 7 km and an antenna height difference of 50 m or a path length of about 3 km and an antenna height difference of 20 m.58 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 4/038 02LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 110. RADIO WAVE PROPAGATIONOutage due to flat fading The percentage of time pw that the systems fade margin, M, is exceeded in the average worst month is (1 + ) 1.4 p = K d 3.6 f 0.89 ...............................................(88) where K = Geoclimactic factor d = Path length, km f = Frequency, GHz = Path slope, mrad M = Fade margin, dBRange of values for the climatic factor pL The range of the climatic factor and its impact on the fading results is examined. The probability to exceed fade margin as a function of path length is displayed for different pL settings, ranging from 1% (areas of high latitudes) to approximately 40% (specific areas in the vicinity of the equator). Fade margin close to 30 dB and frequency 7 GHz are normally frequent values in many link applications. The path is considered horizontal through all calculations, thus giving somewhat more pessimistic probabilities to exceed fade margin. Considering the actual parameter settings, the corresponding probability range to exceed fade margin is extremely large, approximately three orders of magnitude, see Figure 26. Ericsson Radio Systems AB 594/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 111. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING 10-1 Probability to exceed fade margin, % p L (%) 10-2 1 5 10 10-3 20 30

40 M = 30 dB C 0 = 0 dB 10-4 50 = 0 deg. C Lat = 0 dB 60 f = 7 GHz C Lon = 3 dB 70 10-5 10-6 0 10 20 30 40 Path length, km Figure 26: The probability range to exceed fade margin for climatic factor in the range 1% and 40%.Method for small percentage of time - conclusion The wide range of the parameter values has considerable effects on the flat fading results. In fact, the influence of some parameters on the model is rather noticeable. Figure 27 displays two extreme planning alternatives: easy and difficult. Typical for the easy alternative are lower frequencies and low pL values, high altitude antenna situated on mountains in the vicinity of the equator at longitude corresponding to North and South America. Typical for the difficult alternative are higher frequencies and high pL values, low altitude antenna situated on plains far from the equator at longitudes corresponding to Europe and Africa. The range displayed in Figure 27 is approximately three orders of magnitude and it might be wider for regions with stronger refraction properties (high pL values). Since flat fading is one of the major contributors to severely errored seconds (SES), the wide range of parameter values plays a decisive part when dimensioning the path length to fulfil the actual error performance objectives. The transmission network planners should therefore select the parameter values with caution.60 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 4/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 112. RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION 10-1 Probability to exceed fade margin, % M = 30 dB C 0 = 0 dB 10-2 pL =40% C Lat = 7 dB = 0 deg C Lon = 3 dB 10-3 f = 7 GHz M = 30 dB C = 10.5 dB 0 pL = 1% C Lat = 0 dB 10-4 = 0 deg C Lon = -3 dB f= 2 GHz 10-5 10-6 0 10 20 30 40 Path length, km Figure 27: Two extreme planning alternatives: easy (the lowest curve) and difficult.Method for various percentages of time The prediction method described below combines an empirical interpolation procedure between the deep fading region of the distribution and 0 dB with the prediction method for small percentages of time described in the previous section. The interpolation procedure is performed in the following steps: a) The percentage of time pw that the fade margin 35 dB is exceeded is calculated according to (59) b) The parameter qa for fade l ........................................................(89) M c) The parameter qt is calculated according to Ericsson Radio Systems AB 614/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 113. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING qt = (q a + 0.3 10 0.016 M = 25 dB to obtain the final qt value. e) Depending on the value of the fade margin, the percentage of time pw can be calculated as follows: For M > 25 dB or M > 35 dB, as appropriate, calculate the percentage of time pw that the fade margin M is exceeded using the method given by (59) For M < 25 dB or M < 35 dB, as appropriate, calculate the M 10 20 p = 100 is obtained as follows: 10 0.016M obtained in step c or d. The prediction methods for small percentages of time and various percentages of time are compared in Figure 28 for a path length of 20 km and with the previous parameter setting. For fade margin values normally employed in most link

applications, the output of both methods are comparable, then making the method for small percentages of time more suitable since it is relatively straightforward.62 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 4/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 114. RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION 10 2 Probability to exceed fade margin, % Various percentages of time d = 20 km C 0 = 0 dB 10 1 = 0 deg C Lon = 0 dB f = 7 GHz C Lat = 0 dB 10 0 pL = 5% 10 -1 10 -2 Small percentages 10 -3 of time 10 -4 10 -5 0 10 20 30 40 50 Fade margin, dB Figure 28: Comparison between the prediction methods for small percentages of time and various percentages of timeRange of validity for the flat fading method The flat fading prediction models described above are valid within the following ranges: 95 d 7 km 37 f 2 GHz 24 0 mrad Path lengths up to approximately 190 km have been checked for frequencies as low as 500 MHz. The results indicate that the validity ranges described above, can be extended for larger ranges of path length and frequency, and that the lower frequency limit of validity is inversely proportional to path length, given roughly by 15 f min = ............................................................................................(93) d Ericsson Radio Systems AB 634/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 115. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNINGMain differences between Rec. ITU-R P.530-6 and Rec. ITU-R P.530-7 Comparing the methods for evaluation of flat fading depicted in Rec. ITU-R P.530-6 and in Rec. ITU-R P.530-7, the main differences are the following: a) Flat fading in the former method (Rec. ITU-R P.530-6) is predicted for paths with and without profiles. This option of path profiles are included in the actual method (Rec. ITU-R P.530-7) via the parameters (terrain type and antenna altitude coefficients) used for the calculation of the geoclimatic factor b) The classification of the antenna altitude comprises three classes (0- 400, 400700 and above 700 m above the mean sea level) in Rec. ITU- R P.530-7 while in Rec. ITU-R P.530-6 there are two classes (lower than 700 and higher than 700 m above the mean see level) c) The calculation of the geoclimatic parameter d) The dependence on the grazing angle has been removed In several climates, however, ground reflections are rather more frequent than atmospheric reflections, in some cases 70 to 80% more frequent. For those specific climates, the absence of the grazing angle dependence in the flat fading model is therefore surprising. As mentioned before (see b), there are now three antenna altitude classes instead of two classes. Comparing inland links in ITU-R P.530- 6 and ITU-R P.530-7, the latter gives probability to exceed fade margin about 3 and 1.7 times more pessimistic, for low and medium altitude antenna, respectively. For high altitude antennas, however, the probability to exceed fade margin is comparable in both recommendations.Outage due to frequency selective fading In the case of frequency selective fading, waves from different paths interfere with one another at the receiver. The different propagation waves can often be the result of ground reflections, reflections in the ducting layer or propagation in layers having highly positive refraction gradients. Layers having horizontal structures can also result in frequency selective fading. Occasionally, the various constituents unite with one another so that a field-strength minimum arises in the case of certain frequencies. Atmospheric layer movement (changes in path geometry) causes these minimums to shift across the frequency band. The speed of such shifting can vary from tens to hundreds of MHz/sec.64 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 4/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999

116. RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION Frequency selective fading is often characterized with by specifying the difference in propagation time between the direct and indirect waves. The propagation time differences are in turn a function of certain path parameters (e.g., path length and path inclination) as well as meteorological parameters. The first cause of frequency selective fading is in-band distortion, which can be described with the aid of the transfer functions slope within the frequency band. Measurements performed in Sweden and simulations employing the 3- path model have shown that a slope of a minimum of 0.22 dB/MHz is attained within bandwidth B if the relative delay, , fulfills the following relation 50 ................................................................................................(94) B where = Relative delay, ns B = Bandwidth, MHz The choice of the 0.22 dB/MHz threshold for the transfer functions slope is directly related to the fact that in-band distortion has proven to cause system outage at values as low as 0.2 dB/MHz. For a bandwidth B=50 MHz, the relative delay, , becomes 1 ns and multipath fading is classified as being frequency selective. For systems having smaller bandwidths, the relative delay is longer for a given path length which means that the system becomes less sensitive to frequency selective fading, since longer relative delays are less probable than shorter relative delays. A rule of thumb is that multipath fading, for radio links having bandwidths less than 40 MHz and path lengths less than approximately 30 km, is described as being flat instead of frequency selective. The prediction of frequency selective fading is a very difficult task. There exist many different prediction models, the results of which unfortunately deviate considerably from one another. With the exception of the fact that contributions from flat and frequency selective fading are not weighted but are additive, the prediction models described here is the model specified in the ITU-R F.1093 recommendation. Ericsson Radio Systems AB 654/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 117. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNINGITU-R F.1093 model The probability of the occurrence of multipath fading, P, is calculated as a function of the probabilities of the occurrence of selective fading ps and flat fading pf as ......................................................................... above expression determines how the probability of the occurrence of fading may be weighted.. The probability of the occurrence of multipath fading is simply obtained by the sum of the probabilities of the occurrence, ps and pfl . The probability of the occurrence of flat fading, pf , is obtained according to the previous section. The probability of the occurrence of frequency selective fading is obtained by p s = Ps / mp ......................................................................................(96) where Ps/mp = Probability of the occurrence of fading caused by intersymbol interference during multipath fading = Probability of the occurrence of multipath fading The propagation parameter is empirica ................................................................................(98) 100 where pw = Probability of the occurrence of flat fading during the worst month, % M = Fade margin, dB66 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 4/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 118. RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION Note, however, that P0 in the above expression is not expressed as a percentage. The echo delay, , can be characterized by different types

of distributions. This method employs an empirical relation, which assumes exponentially of the echo delay, ns m0 = Mean relative delay for a standard path of 50 km, ns D = Path length, km n = normalization exponent with values in the range of 1.3 and 1.5. The mean relative delay for a standard path, m0, is usually about 0.7 seconds for exponentially distributed delays. The probability of the occurrence of fading due to intersymbol interference during multipath fading can be written as follows B C pb (1) W 10 20 2 m 2 Ps / mp = ....................................................(100) r where Ps/mp = The probability of the occurrence of fading due to intersymbol interference during multipath fading C = Constant factor pb(1) = The value of pb when b=1 W = Signature width, GHz B = Signature depth, dB r = Reference delay for a (average of linear signature), ns The value of the product Cpb(1) is usually 2.16 and the value of the reference delay r is 6.3 ns. Ericsson Radio Systems AB 674/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 119. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNINGRefraction fading Refraction fading, also known as k-type fading, is characterized by the fact that a lower earth-radius factor, k, causes the effective earth radius to be less (the curvature of the effective earth surface becomes larger). This, in turn, may cause earth surface irregularities (buildings, vegetation, mountains, etc.) to penetrate the first Fresnel zone and cause obstruction attenuation. The lower the values of the earth-radius factor the smaller the effective earth radius and the greater the obstruction attenuation. The probability of refraction fading is therefore coupled to obstruction attenuation for a given value of earth-radius factor. Since the earth- radius factor is not constant, the probability of refraction fading is calculated based on the cumulative distribution of the earth-radius factor. The probability of refraction fading is calculated in four steps: 1. A table is first constructed containing probabilities that the various k- values will not be exceeded. A k-value distribution table for any specific pL factor is employed, in order to interpolate the probabilities for given k-values. 2. Obstruction attenuation values for the given k-values in the above table are calculated based on an algorithm selected by the user. 3. The calculated obstruction attenuation values then replace the k- values in the table. The earlier table is transformed into a new table containing the probabilities in which the different obstruction attenuation values will be exceeded. 4. Finally, fade margin is coupled to obstruction attenuation by applying the link budget and the probabilities are calculated that different fade margin values will be exceeded.The total fading outage The total outage is calculated by adding the contributions from the frequency selective fading, flat fading, rain and refraction fading as follows Ptot = p s + p w + p r + p k ...................................................................(101) where68 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 4/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 120. RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION ps = The portion of time, expressed as a percentage of the worst month, that the systems fade margin, M , for BER = 10-3, is exceeded due to frequency selective fading, % pw = The portion of time, expressed as a percentage of the worst month, that the systems fade margin, M , for BER = 10-3, is exceeded due to flat fading, % pr = The portion of time, expressed in percent of the worst month, during which a given fade-depth M (fade margin) is exceeded, due to rain fading, % pk = The portion of time, expressed in percent of the worst month, during which a

given fade-depth M (fade margin) is exceeded, due to refraction fading (k-type fading), % The contribution from frequency selective fading is calculated in accordance with equation (67), rain fading in accordance with equation (46), flat fading in accordance with equation (59) and refraction fading in accordance with the method described in Refraction fading.Basic radio-meteorological parameters for RL-design Several prediction models previously described in this chapter demand radio-meteorological parameters. In what follows, the definition of the parameters is presented along with the references where they are encountered. More accurate local radio-meteorological parameters are always preferable.Earth-radius factor Definition: the earth-radius factor accounts for the refractive properties of the atmosphere Used: design of path profile, estimation obstacle loss and refraction- diffraction fading Reference: estimated as a function of the refraction gradientSurface water vapor density Definition: the annual surface water vapor density is the seasonal surface water vapor density in the lowest part of the atmosphere. Used: estimation of the gas attenuation Ericsson Radio Systems AB 694/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 121. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING Reference: Rec. ITU-R P.836-1Relative humidity Definition: the ratio between the airs vapor pressure and its saturation pressure Used: estimation of the gas attenuation Reference: estimated as a function of the temperaturepL factor (refractive factor) Definition: the pL factor is the percentage of time the refractivity in the lowest 100 m of the atmosphere is lower than 100 N-units/km during the estimated average worst month. Used: estimation of flat fading. Reference: Rec. ITU-R P.453-6.Refractive gradient Definition: the refractive gradient in the lowest layer of the atmosphere, 100 m from the surface of the Earth. Used: estimation of the local Earth-radius factor Reference: Rec. ITU-R P.453-6.Rain frequency-dependent coefficients Definition: the rain frequencydependent coefficients involve the assumptions concerning the distribution of rain-drop size, form, temperature and type of polarization. Used: calculation of rain attenuation Reference: Rec. ITU-R P.838Rain climate zones Definition: 15 ITU-structured rain climate zones Used: prediction of zone-wide precipitation effects70 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 4/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 122. RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION Reference: Rec. ITU-R P.837-1Rain intensity distribution Definition: cumulative distribution of rain intensity for the corresponding rain climate zone Used: prediction of zone-wide precipitation effects Reference: Rec. ITU-R P.837-1Annual and worst-month statistics Definition: conversion parameters for annual and worst-month statistics for different locations. Used: conversion between annual and worst-month statistics in multipath and rain fading. Reference: Rec. ITU-R P.841Hardware failure Hardware failure is calculated for systems with and without redundancy. Passive redundancy applies to redundant systems configurations including monitored hot standby. The word standby, as used here, implies that a reserve component is connected when replacing one that has failed, i.e., passive redundancy. Hot refers to the fact that the reserve component functions optimally from the point at which it is introduced into the system, no warm- up/switch-over is therefore required. Monitored implies electronic control/supervision.The calculation of the radio-link systems MTBF The MTBF (Mean Time Between Failure) for a particular equipment can be arrived at both theoretically and practically. Theoretical MTBF values are attained in accordance with certain reliability models that are applied to the equipment. This is

performed on a component level and is a highly complex operation since many different parameters may be involved. Practical MTBF is, on the other hand, somewhat simpler to estimate via life-cycle testing aided by the collection of reliability data from the equipment that is included in numerous systems. However, to arrive at reliable MTBF values, it is very important that the number of investigated units (the population), from which reliability data is collected, is sufficiently large. Ericsson Radio Systems AB 714/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 123. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING Modern radio-link equipment exhibits very high availability. MTBF values between 10 and 15 years are no longer unusual. Radio-link manufacturers often specify the total MTBF of their radio-links, where the MTBFs of the individual components (Mux, BB, MF and RF units, power supplies, etc.) are included. It is however important that one always check which elements are included in the equipments MTBF before starting unavailability calculations. The systems total mean time between failures, MTBFS, can be expressed as a function of the components mean time between failure, MTBFi, as follows 1 MTBFS = n .......................................................................(102) 1 MTBF i =1 i where MTBFs = The systems total mean time between failure, years MTBFi = The components individual mean time between failure, years n = The number of components in the systemNon-redundant systems The probability of hardware failure for nonredundant systems is calculated as follows MTTR ps = 8760 100 .............................................................(103) MTTR MTBFS + 8760 where ps = Probability of hardware failure for a non-redundant system, % MTBFs = The systems total mean time between failure, years MTTR = The mean time to restore, hours72 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 4/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 124. RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION The factor (1/8760) transforms MTTR from hours into years, thereby having the same units as MTBFS. Mean time to repair, MTTR (Mean Time To Restore), is defined as the duration of the interruption. As a rule, this time consists of the travel time required between a manned supervising station and the station containing the failed equipment plus the actual repair time. It is important to note that the waiting time that always arises in connection with the ordering and delivery of spare parts is often not included in MTTR. The mean time to restore concept assumes that spare parts are always available when failure occur. MTTR may be considered as a measure of a systems maintainability and is always, for practical purposes, specified in hours. Figure 29 illustrates, for four different values of MTTR, the probability of hardware failure of a non-redundant system as a function of MTBF. 0.10 0.10 Probability of hardware failure, % 0.08 MTTR= 48 hours 0.06 MTTR= 24 hours 0.04 MTTR= 12 hours MTTR= 6 hours 0.02 0.00 0 3 6 9 12 15 MTBF, years Figure 29: Hardware failure of a non-redundant system as a function of the MTBF.Redundant systems The probability of hardware failure for redundant systems is calculated as follows Ericsson Radio Systems AB 734/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 125. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK 100 ..........(104) MTBFS hardware failure of a redundant system, % MTBFs = The systems total mean time between failure of one the duplicated equipment, years MTBFu = The mean time between failure of the non-doubled (non- redundant) equipment (base-band distributor +

switch), years MTTR = The mean time to restore of one of the doubled ................ (redundant) units of a redundant system, hours MTTRu = The mean time to restore of the non-doubled (non- redundant) equipment (base-band distributor + switch), hours The function of the switch-unit is to automatically switch traffic from failed equipment to equipment that is in proper operating condition. The comments above therefore only apply under the premise that a switch- unit fault does not cause total system failure due to the fact that the switch is required for system recovery. This means that traffic continues via the remaining operational equipment even if the switch-unit and one of the doubled components are not operating. The probability of hardware failure of a redundant system (monitored hot standby-configuration) as a function of MTBF has been calculated for four different values of MTTR and is illustrated in the figure below. In the calculation, the values of MTBFu and MTTRu, for the non- doubled equipment (the base- band distributor + switch), have been set to 10 years and 12 hours, respectively.74 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 4/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 126. RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION 10-4 Probability of hardware failure, % MTTR= 48 hours -5 10-4 MTTR= 24 hours MTTR= 12 hours MTTR= 6 hours 10-6 0 3 6 9 12 15 MTBF, years Figure 30: The probability of hardware failure of a redundant system as a function of the MTBF.Hardware failure per path The probability of hardware failure is calculated per path. The assumption is, however, that the input parameters apply to the entire radio-link system in question. This means, therefore, that the MTBF of the radiolink system includes all individual components, including their respective MTBF values, for both the transmitter and the receiver in a duplex-setup configuration. The calculation of the probability of hardware failure is performed separately for each station. The total probability of hardware failure for each direction of the path (go and return) is obtained by adding the hardware failure contributions of both stations. The calculated probability of hardware failure is given in percent per year. The following parameters are required: Configuration: redundant, non-redundant or no calculation of unavailability due to hardware failure. The paths mean time between failure for the doubled equipment, years Ericsson Radio Systems AB 754/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 127. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING The paths mean time between failure for the non-doubled equipment, years The mean time to restore for the doubled units of a redundant system, hours The mean time to restore for the non-doubled units, hoursDiversityThe basic concepts Systems that include doubled sets of equipment or systems that transmit the same signal in parallel over two or more radio channels having different frequencies are referred to as being redundant systems. In this respect, redundancy and diversity have the same meaning. Diversity receiving is an effective means of reducing the effects of, above all, multipath fading, where the received signal is the vector addition of multipath components that primarily vary in time, phase and angle of arrival. Random signal variations often occur during very short periods of time and may very well be described with the aid of the Rayleigh distribution. One utilizes the fact that deep fading in radio channels that transmit the same information but are sufficiently separated in, for example, frequency and/or space, have low correlation. The lower the correlation, the higher is the improvement gained by the use of diversity. In practice, good improvement can already be noticed at a correlation of 0.6. Diversity is therefore a method that provides statistically independent multipath components at the receiver. Two fading depth statistical distributions are compared when

measuring the diversity improvement on a radio connection: one for the path with diversity and one for the path without diversity. The measured improvement can be expressed in two different ways: diversity gain and diversity improvement.76 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 4/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 128. RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION Figure 31 illustrates two fade-depth statistical distributions, for one and the same path. Points A (without diversity) and C (with diversity) correspond to two different fading levels having the same probability. The measured improvement is referred to as diversity gain and is expressed in dB. Points A (without diversity) and B (with diversity) correspond to two different probabilities for the same level of fading and is referred to as the improvement and is expressed as a factor. Diversity improvement can therefore be expressed as the ratio of two probabilities. 0 C 10 Fading depth, dB Without diversity -20 gain With diversity -30 improvement B -40 A -50 10-2 10-3 10-4 10-5 10-6 10-7 Probability of exceeding the fading depth, % Figure 31: Two fade-depth statistical distributions for one and the same path, without and with diversity.The definition of the improvement factor Diversity is primarily utilized to reduce the effects of multipath fading. The improvement factor can therefore be associated with the statistical cumulative distribution of fading depth during the years worst month in accordance with the prediction model for flat multipath fading. In the calculation of the improvement factor for digital links, the expression for analogue or narrow-band systems is adjusted in the case of frequency diversity. For space diversity, however, it is used the same expression in the calculation of the improvement factor for both analog and digital or narrow-band systems. As shown in Figure 26, the improvement factor can be defined as the ratio of two probabilities: with the use of diversity and without the use of diversity. Note however, that the improvement implies that the probability of a given event will be even less, i.e., outage will increase. Ericsson Radio Systems AB 774/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 129. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING Pwithout (M ) I= ..................................................................................(105) Pwith (M ) where I = Improvement factor Pwithout(M) = Probability that the fading depth will be greater than or equal to M dB during the worst month for a path without diversity, (%) Pwith(M) = Probability that the fading depth will be greater than or equal to M dB during the worst month for a path with diversity, (%)The calculation of the improvement factor: space diversity The improvement factor due to the use of space diversity is calculated here using the same algorithm for both analog and digital links [ ] M G I = 1 e (3.3410 ) 10 4 s 0.87 f 0.12 d 0.48 P01.04 10 ........................................(106) where I = The improvement factor for analog and digital links s = Vertical separation between the antennas, m f = Frequency, GHz d = Path length, km M = Fade margin, dB G = The difference in antenna gain between the two antennas, dB Parameter P0 is calculated as M Pwithout (M ) 10 10 P0 = .......................................................................(107) 100 where Pwithout (M) = The probability that fading depth is greater than or equal to M dB during the worst month for a path without diversity, (%). Pwithout(M) is the outage due to flat multipath fading for the worst month. The prediction model is considered as giving valid results within the following interval:78 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 4/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 130. RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION 3 s 23 m 2 f 11 GHz 43 d 243 km The models validity for values outside of these boundaries is unknown.The calculation of the

improvement factor: frequency diversity Analogue 1+1 system The frequency-diversity improvement factor for a 1+1 analogue system or path without strong surface reflections 10 10 improvement factor for analog or narrow-band systems f = Band center frequency, GHz f = Frequency spacing, GHz d = Path length, km M = Fade margin, dB The prediction model is considered as giving valid results within the following interval: 30 d 70 km 2 f 11 GHz f /f 5 % The models validity for values outside of these boundaries is unknown. Digital 1+1 system The improvement factor for digital 1+1 system is adjusted from the analogue expression according to the following expression I d = 10 I a ........................................................................................(109) where Id = The improvement factor for digital or narrow-band systems Ericsson Radio Systems AB 794/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 131. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING Ia = The improvement factor for analog or narrow-band systemsThe calculation of the improvement factor: space-frequencydiversity The improvement factor for combined space-frequency diversity is given by I sf = I s + I f .....................................................................................(110) where Isf = The improvement factor for combined space-frequency ..... diversity Is = The improvement factor for space diversity If = The improvement factor for frequency diversityThe calculation of outage when employing diversity When calculating the improvement brought about by the use of diversity, it is important to remember that the probability that is referred to above is the outage due to flat multipath fading for the worst month. Following the calculation of the improvement factor, the outage in conjunction with the use of diversity can be attained from equation (80). Pwithout (M ) Pwith (M ) = .......................................................................(111) IPassive repeatersThe basic concepts Passive repeaters generally consist of larger mirrored surfaces than those of reflectors and are often used either on mountain peaks as plane reflectors or in conjunction with certain applications when they are referred to as back-to-back reflectors. Back-to-back reflectors are discussed here. These reflectors consist of two parabolic antennas, often mounted back-to-back on a low mast and are connected to one another by a short waveguide/cable. There exists therefore no direct connection from either a transmitter or receiver to these parabolic antennas. They are primarily used in cities where line- of-sight transmission is not possible due to buildings and other obstructions.80 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 4/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 132. RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION Path calculation in connection with the use of back-to-back reflectors requires the calculation of the received and radiated power of the repeaters path attenuation fade margin The intention behind the use of back-toback reflectors is consequently to influence the final quality of the path.Path calculation when using passive repeaters An added attenuation arises when using passive repeaters between two stations due to the fact that the path between A and B is calculated as two independent paths: from station A to the repeater R, see Figure 32, and from the repeater to station B. The added attenuation consists of obstruction, gas attenuation and freespace loss and affects the total path attenuation between A and B. R B A dA dB Figure 32: A passive repeater consisting of two parabolic antennas mounted back-to-back. Before calculating the added attenuation, one must first calculate the received and the

radiated power of the repeater. A repeater can be considered as being a directional antenna, both in the directions of the transmitter and receiver antennas. The input signal at R, from station A, is calculated as being 1 PR = PA G A G R ..................................................................(112) Lbf , AR where Ericsson Radio Systems AB 814/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 133. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING PR = Power received by the receiving antenna at R (the repeater) PA = Radiated power of the transmitting antenna atA GA = Antenna gain of the transmitting antenna at A GR = Antenna gain of the repeater R Lbf,AR = Free-space loss between the transmitting antenna and the repeater Free where = Wavelength, m dA = Distance between the transmitter antenna and the repeater, m If the repeater reflects the received power, PR, in the direction of the receiver, B, the received power at B is 1 PR = PR G R G B ..................................................................(114) Lbf , RB where PR = Power at the receiver antenna B PR = Radiated power of the repeater GR = Antenna gain of the repeater R GB = Antenna gain of the receiver B Lbf,RM = Free-space loss between the repeater and the receiver antennas Free-space loss Lbf,RM between R and B can be ......................................... between the repeater and the receiver antennas, m = Wavelength, m82 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 4/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 134. RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION Note that free-space loss, Lbf,AR and Lbf,RB are transformed to dB following logarithmic conversion, see equation (13). The total path loss is calculated as follows AS = Abf , AR + Abf , RB + AH AR + AH RB + AG AR + AG RB + .................(116) AKA + AKB G A G B G AR G RB where AS = Total path attenuation, dB Abf,AR = Free-space loss for the partial path AR, dB Abf,BR = Free-space loss for the partial path BR, dB AH-AR = Obstruction loss for the partial path AR, dB AH-BR = Obstruction loss for the partial path BR, dB AG-AR = Gas attenuation for the partial path AR, dB AG-BR = Gas attenuation for the partial path BR, dB AKA = Feeder loss at station A, dB AKB = Feeder loss at station B, dB GA = Antenna gain at station A, dBi GB = Antenna gain at station B, dBi GAR = Antenna gain for the antenna at R facing station A, dBi GBR = Antenna gain for the antenna at R facing station B, dBi The fade margin for a path using back-to-back antennas is calculated as follows M = PTr Pth AS ............................................................................(117) where M = Fade margin, dB PTr = The transmitters output power, dBm Pth = The receivers threshold for a given bit-error ratio, dBm AS = Total path loss, dBReferences Rec. ITU-R P.341-4 Rec. ITU-R P.453-6 Rec. ITU-R P.525-2 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 834/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 135. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING Rec. ITU-R P.526-5 Rec. ITU-R P.530-7 Rec. ITU-R P.581-2 Rec. ITU-R P.676-3 Rec. ITUR P.834-2 Rec. ITU-R P.836-1 Rec. ITU-R P.837-1 Rec. ITU-R P.838 Rec. ITU-R P.841 Rec. ITU-R P.1057 Radiowave Propagation, Boithias, L., North Oxford Academic, 1987. Low-Angle Microwave Propagation: Physics and Modeling, Giger, A. J., Artech

House, 1991.84 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 4/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 136. THE INTERNATIONAL TELECOMMUNICATION UNION (ITU) This chapter deals with the ITU organization and its administrative tasks. The chapter provides valuable information on how to search and locate important ITU-R and ITU-T reports and recommendations on specific subjects related to radio-relay transmission. TABLE OF CONTENTSIntroduction....................................................................................................... ................................................ 1The new ITU organization ................................................................................................................................ 2The administration of the ITU........................................................................................................................... 2 The Plenipotentiary Conference .......................................................................................................... 3 The Council................................................................................................................................... ...... 4 World Conferences on International Telecommunications ................................................................. 4 The Radio communication Sector (ITU-R) ......................................................................................... 5 Radio Communication Study Group Structure...................................................................... 5 The Telecommunication Standardization Sector (ITU-T)................................................................... 9 The Telecommunication Development Sector (ITUD)...................................................................... 9 The General Secretariat....................................................................................................................... 10 Advisory Groups ................................................................................................................................. 11Financing of the ITU ......................................................................................................................................... 11 ITU Member countries ........................................................................................................................ 11 Other organizations (Sector members) ................................................................................................ 12Publications and seminars ................................................................................................................................. 12Telecom Information Exchange Services (TIES).............................................................................................. 13References ................................................................................................................................................ ......... 13ITU-R Recommendations matrix ...................................................................................................................... 13Appendices......................................................................................................................... ............................... 14 Appendix A: ITU Top Management (1999-2002) .............................................................................. 14 Appendix B: Radio Regulations Board (1999-2002) - Members........................................................ 14 Appendix C: ITU Landmarks.............................................................................................................. 14 Appendix D: ITU Secretary-Generals (1869 to present)..................................................................... 17 Appendix E: Acronyms ....................................................................................................................... 18 Appendix F: ITU-R Recommendations...............................................................................................

19 Appendix G: P Series Recommendations - Radiowave Propagation................................................... 20 Appendix H: F Series Recommendations - Fixed service ................................................................... 23 i 137. THE INTERNATIONAL TELECOMMUNICATION UNION (ITU)Introduction The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) has been a specialized agency of the United Nations since 1947. Founded in 1865 in Paris, it was originally named the International Telegraph Union. It has been operating under its present name and since 1934. In addition to the Member States (basically the same countries which are members of the United Nations), the ITU consists of about 575 members (by November 1999) from scientific and industrial companies, public and private operators, broadcasters and regional and international organizations. There are 7 membership categories: 1) Recognized Operating Agencies, 2) Scientific or Industrial Organizations, 3) Financial or Development Institutions, 4) Other Entities dealing with telecommunication matters, 5) Regional and Other International Organizations, 6) Regional Telecommunication Organizations and 7) Intergovernmental Organizations Operating Satellite Systems. Both the private and the public sectors cooperate in the development of the telecommunications area through several ITU activities, however the primary purpose of the ITU is to adopt international regulations and agreements aimed at managing all terrestrial and space uses of the frequency spectrum, including the use of the geostationary-satellite orbit. The ITU also develops standards for making the interconnection of telecommunication systems possible, irrespective of the type of technology. Further, the ITU provides developing countries with specialized technical assistance in the areas of telecommunication policies, management, choice and transfer of technologies, financing of investment projects, installation and maintenance of networks, research and development. Generally, the following issues are the responsibility of the ITU: Technical issues: improve the efficiency and usefulness of telecommunication services and their general availability to the public by offering and promoting the development and efficient operation of telecommunication applications. Development issues: promote and offer technical assistance to developing countries in the area of telecommunication through the mobilization of human and financial resources. Policy issues: stimulate the adoption of a general approach on questions concerning telecommunication and its connection to economy and society on a worldwide scale. Ericsson Radio Systems AB 15/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 138. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNINGThe new ITU organization Regulating the use of frequencies is an essential aspect of the work of ITU. To increase the efficiency of this effort, it was decided to separate the standardssetting activities of the former International Consultative Radio Committee (CCIR) from its activities related to the efficient management of the radio-frequency spectrum in terrestrial and space radiocommunication. Following a three year study and review performed by the Member countries as to the need for the ITU to meet the rapidly evolving requirements of modern telecommunications, the 1992 Additional Plenipotentiary Conference reaffirmed the basic purposes of the Union and updated the ITU structures. The Conference restructured the ITU into three Sectors in order to improve coordination, to improve the user interface and other cooperating organizations and to provide for the continuous review of strategy and planning. The standards-setting functions were then merged with those of the former International Consultative

Telegraph and Telephone Committee (CCITT) to form a telecommunication standardization sector; the other technical activities were integrated into a new radiocommunication sector along with the regulatory activities formerly carried out by the International Frequency Registration Board (IFRB).The administration of the ITU The ITU administration body is composed of several departments and sectors. The Radiocommunication Sector was created on 1 March 1993. The other two Sectors are the Telecommunication Standardization and Telecommunication Development Sectors. This is illustrated in Figure 1 below.2 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 5/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 139. THE INTERNATIONAL TELECOMMUNICATION UNION (ITU) Plenipotentiary Conference Council Radiocommunication Telecommunication Telecommunication Sector Standardization Sector Development Sector World Conferences on International Telecommunications World/ Radio Radio World World/Regional Regional Regulation Assembly Telecommunication Radio Board Telecommunication Standardization Development Conferences Conferences Conferences TS AG TD AB Study Study Groups Groups RAG CPM Study SC Groups Member States and Sector Members Member States Figure 1: The ITU governing bodies. All ITU efforts in the field of radiocommunication have been consolidated into the Radiocommunication Sector. A two-year cycle of conferences and meetings, accelerated publications and a new ITU management system have been introduced to facilitate timely and cost- effective functions. The following is a description of each unity.The Plenipotentiary Conference The Plenipotentiary Conference is the supreme authority of the ITU. This body meets every four years to adopt the fundamental policies of the organization and a strategic plan. It also makes decisions as to its organization and activities. Ericsson Radio Systems AB 35/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 140. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNINGThe Council The Council is represented by a number of members corresponding to 25% of the ITU membership. Its responsibility is to act on behalf of the Plenipotentiary Conference by meeting annually to consider general telecommunication policy issues, the approval of budgets and the coordination of the various ongoing tasks. The annual meetings also ensure that the policies and strategies undertaken by the ITU are in line with the frequent changes and developments arising in telecommunication issues. The fifteenth Plenipotentiary Conference of the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) was held in Minneapolis, USA, during October 12 and November 6, 1998. The next ITU Council was elected for the period 1999-2002 and is composed of forty-six Members of the Union elected by the Plenipotentiary Conference with due regard as to the need for the equitable distribution of Council seats among all five regions of the world: Region A (Americas): Argentina, Brazil, Canada, Cuba, Mexico, Saint Lucia, USA and Venezuela. Region B (Western Europe): Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, Portugal, Spain, Switzerland and United Kingdom. Region C (Eastern Europe): Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Poland, Romania and Russia. Region D (Africa): Algeria, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Cte dIvoire, Egypt, Gabon, Kenya, Mali, Morocco, Senegal, South Africa, Tanzania and Tunisia. Region E (Asia & Australia): Australia, China, India, Japan, Korea (Rep), Kuwait, Malaysia, Pakistan, Philippines, Saudi Arabia, Thailand and Vietnam.World Conferences on International Telecommunications The World Conferences on International Telecommunications take place periodically to review and

revise the international telecommunication regulations applicable to administrations and operators of international communications. The world conferences establish the general principles related to the provision and operation of public international telecommunications services.4 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 5/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 141. THE INTERNATIONAL TELECOMMUNICATION UNION (ITU)The Radio communication Sector (ITU-R) The Radiocommunication Sector is in particular responsible for the providing of impartial, rational, efficient and economical use of the radio-frequency spectrum by all classes of radiocommunication services, including those services employing geostationary-satellite orbits. It handles technical and operational questions specifically related to radiocommunication. It is also responsible for performing the necessary studies on which the recommendations are then based and adopted. Its policy and legislative functions are exercised at world and regional telecommunication conferences and radiocommunication assemblies supported by study groups.Radio Communication Study Group Structure More than 1,500 specialists, from telecommunication organizations and administrations throughout the world, participate in the work of the Radiocommunication Study Groups. The functions of the Study Groups are: draft the technical basis for Radiocommunication Conferences develop drafts for ITU-R Recommendations as to the technical characteristics of, and operational procedures for, radiocommunication services and systems compile Handbooks on spectrum management and emerging radiocommunication services and systems. Drafted ITU-R Recommendations may be approved either by correspondence or by the next Radiocommunication Assembly. Studies of mutual interest to the Radiocommunication and Telecommunication Standardization Study Groups are overseen by Inter-sector Coordination Groups. Conference Preparatory Meetings (CPMs) prepare a consolidated report as to the technical, operational and regulatory/procedural bases for a WRC. The appropriate Study Groups undertake regulatory studies of a technical or operational nature. Regulatory/procedural matters are addressed in a Special Committee. The CPM updates and evaluates the material from the Study Groups and Special Committee, against any new material submitted to it. Ericsson Radio Systems AB 55/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 142. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING Each group has a consular, a chairman and several vice chairmen. The identification number of each study group follows the earlier group numbering. After the reorganization of the ITU, some groups were merged together forming a group with a specific number while some other numbers were suppressed. The groups are subdivided into working parties according to specific fields, each working party having a chairman. At present, there are 8 Study Groups (SGs), comprising 10 Task Groups and 32 Working Parties, addressing the following topics: SG 1: Spectrum management Working Party 1A (Chairman: T. Jeacock): Engineering principles and techniques, including computer-aided analysis for effective spectrum management Working Party 1B (Chairman: A. Pavliouk): Principles and techniques for spectrum planning and sharing Working Party 1C (Chairman: N. Kisrawi): Techniques for spectrum monitoring Task Group 1/4 (Chairman for Phase 2: D. Bacon): Electronic exchange of spectrum management information Task Group 1/5 (Chairman: M. S. Dhamrait): Unwanted emissions and the modification of Rec. SM.3288 concerning out-of-band emissions Task Group 1/6 (Chairman: G. Chan): Development

of method(s) for the determination of the coordination area around Earth stations SG 3: Radiowave propagation Working Party 3J (Chairman: G. Brussaard): Propagation fundamentals Working Party 3K (Chairman: E. J. Haakinson): Point-to-area propagation Working Party 3L (Chairman: R. Hanbaba): HF propagation Working Party 3M (Chairman: M. P. M. Hall): Point-to-Point and Earth-space propagation6 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 5/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 143. THE INTERNATIONAL TELECOMMUNICATION UNION (ITU) SG 4: Fixedsatellite services Working Party 4A (Chairman: A. G. Reed): Efficient orbit/spectrum utilization Working Party 4B (Chairman: D. Weinreich): Systems, performance, availability and maintenance Working Party 4-9S (Chairman: W. Rummler): Frequency sharing between the fixed-satellite service and fixed service Working Party 4SNG (Chairman: A. Uyttendaele): Satellite news gathering, outside broadcast via satellite SG 7: Science services Working Party 7A (Chairman: G. De Jong): Time signals and frequency standard emissions Working Party 7B (Chairman: R. Taylor): Space radio systems Working Party 7C (Chairman: L. Ruiz): Earth exploration - satellite systems and meteorological systems Working Party 7D (Chairman: J. Whiteoak): Radio astronomy SG 8: Mobile, radio-determination, amateur and related satellite services Working Party 8A (Chairman: O. Villanyi): Land mobile services excluding FPLMTS; amateur and amateur satellite services Working Party 8B (Chairman: R. L. Swanson): Maritime mobile services including the global maritime distress and safety system (GMDSS)and aeronautical mobile services excluding public telephone services to aircraft. Working Party 8D (Chairman: T. Mizuike): All mobile satellite services except the amateur satellite service; radio-determination satellite services; public telephone services to aircraft Task Group 8/1 (Chairman: M. H. Callendar): Future public land mobile telecommunication systems (FPLMTS) Ericsson Radio Systems AB 75/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 144. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING SG 9: Fixed services Working Party 9A (Chairman: V. M. Minkin): Performance and availability, interference objectives and analysis, effects of propagation and terminology Working Party 9B (Acting Chairman: A. Hashimoto): Radio-frequency channel arrangements, radio-system characteristics, interconnection, maintenance and applications Working Party 9C (Chairman: N. M. Serinken): HF systems Working Party 9D (Chairman: G. F. Hurt): Sharing with other services (except for the fixed-satellite service) SG 10: Broadcasting services (sound) Working Party 10A (Chairman: L. Olson): Sound broadcasting at frequencies below 30 MHz and antennas for sound broadcasting Working Party 10B (Chairman: F. Konway): Terrestrial sound broadcasting at frequencies above 30 MHz Working Party 10C (Chairman: C. Todd): Audio-frequency characteristics of sound broadcasting signals Task Group 10-6 (Chairman: J. Chilton): Digital sound broadcasting at frequencies below 30 MHz SG 11: Broadcasting service (television) Working Party 11A (Chairman: D. Wood): Television systems and data broadcasting Working Party 11B (Chairman: J. Johann): Digital television (source coding) Working Party 11C (Chairman: S. Perpar): Terrestrial television (emission and planning parameters) Working Party 10-11Q (Chairman: J.-P. Evain): Audio and video quality evaluation (documents are posted under SG 11) Working Party 10-11R (Chairman: P. Zaccarian): Recording for broadcasting (documents are posted under SG 11) Working Party 10-11S (Chairman: R. Zeitoun): Satellite broadcasting (documents are

posted under SG 11)8 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 5/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 145. THE INTERNATIONAL TELECOMMUNICATION UNION (ITU) Task Group 10/11 (Chairman: C. Weinzweig): Multimedia broadcast evolution and common content format (documents are posted under SG 11) Task Group 11/5 (Chairman: B. E. Aldous): Digital sound broadcasting at frequencies below 30 MHz SG CCV: Coordination Committee for Vocabulary (Ms. D. Fabiani)The Telecommunication Standardization Sector (ITU-T) The Telecommunication Standardization Sector is responsible for the study of technical, operational and tariff-related issues and to then provide worldwide recommendations that are to be used as documentation for telecommunications standardization. It is also responsible for recommendations concerning the interconnection of radio systems in public telecommunication networks and the necessary performance and availability required by such interconnections. Generally, ITU-T Recommendations are complied with since they guarantee the worldwide interconnectivity of networks. Supported by study groups, the policy-making and legislative functions of the Telecommunication Standardization Sector present their findings at World Telecommunication Standardization Conferences.The Telecommunication Development Sector (ITU-D) The Telecommunication Development Sector is responsible for establishing and highlighting telecommunication developments by offering, organizing and coordinating technical cooperation and assistance activities. The policy functions are fulfilled by world and regional telecommunication development conferences, which are supported by study groups. Ericsson Radio Systems AB 95/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 146. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNINGThe General Secretariat The General Secretariat is responsible for administrative and financial aspects, see Figure 2. In addition, it is also responsible for the preparation, publication and distribution of reports dealing with changes in telecommunication issues, the organization and provision of logistic support to ITU conferences, the coordination of ITU efforts with the United Nations and other international organizations, that its Members and users cooperate fully, the organization of worldwide and regional telecommunication exhibitions and discussion forums, to provide the press, institutions, general public and telecommunications users with available information, and finally, to make electronic documents, publications and databases available and accessible. Coordination Committee Director Director Director Secretary General BR TSB BDT Deputy Secretary General WTAC Bureau Bureau Bureau General BR TSB BDT Secretariat Elected Officials Staff Advisory Board Figure 2: The ITU secretariats.10 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 5/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 147. THE INTERNATIONAL TELECOMMUNICATION UNION (ITU)Advisory Groups The Director of each Bureau is assisted by a number of advisory groups (the Radiocommunication Advisory Group, RAG, the Telecommunication Standardization Advisory Group, TSAG, and the Telecommunication Development Advisory Board, TDAB) whose role is to: review Sector activity priorities and strategies review the progress of work-program implementation provide guidelines for the undertakings of the Study Groups recommend measures that foster cooperation and coordination with other organizations as well as within the various constituents of the Union. The advisory groups are open to representatives of administrations, to organizations authorized to

participate in the work of the Union and to Sector Study Group representatives. The ordinary budget covers expenditures pertaining to the Administrative Council, common Headquarters expenditures (staff, social security, premises, mission expenses, office expenses) and expenditures pertaining to ITU conferences and meetings. The Technical Cooperation Special Accounts Budget covers administrative expenditures associated with projects that are related to technical assistance grants to developing nations. Such projects are financed by the United Nations Development Program and funds-in-trust. The Publications Budget covers production costs for all publications, and is financed by the sale of these publications.Financing of the ITUITU Member countries At each Plenipotentiary Conference, ITU Member countries choose their class of contribution, generally ranging from 1/16 to 40. The classes, 1/16 and 1/8, are reserved for those countries classified as Least Developed Countries by the United Nations plus other countries, as selected by the ITU Council. Ericsson Radio Systems AB 115/038 02LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 148. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING The contribution of ITU Member countries covers their participation in all sectors and in all activities with the exception of regional radio conferences. The value of the contributory unit is calculated by dividing the ordinary budget of the Union by the number of units contributed by Members. Participation in regional radio conferences requires an additional financial contribution, and is calculated by dividing the total budget for the conference by the number of units contributed by the Members of that region.Other organizations (Sector members) All other organizations that are permitted to participate in the work of the Union, may choose a class of contribution between 1/2 and 40 with the exception of those classified as belonging to the Development sector, in which case classes of contributions may range from 1/16 to 40. The class of contribution is multiplied by 1/5th of the value of the contributory unit of Member countries. The contribution covers participation in all Sector activities including its conferences and/or assemblies, with the exception of radio conferences. A separate contribution is required for Plenipotentiary Conferences, World Conferences on International Telecommunications (which are not part of any Sector), radio conferences and Sector conferences or assemblies in which the contributor is not a member. In such cases, the value of the contributory unit is calculated by dividing the total budget for the conference/assembly by the number of units contributed by Members to the ordinary budget of the Union, multiplied by 1/5. Each member, non-exempted international organization, operating agency and scientific or industrial organization chooses the class of contribution in which it wishes to be included and then pays its annual contributory share in advance, as calculated on the basis of the ordinary budget.Publications and seminars The publications of the Sector are available for sale in three or more of the six official languages of the ITU. They are distributed in a variety of formats, including microfiche, CD-ROM, diskette and are also available on-line. The Bureau publishes the ITU-R Recommendations developed by the Study Groups, as well as Radio Regulations, Frequency Assignment and Allotment Plans, HF Broadcasting Schedules plus a weekly circular containing notifications and findings.12 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 5/038 02LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 149. THE INTERNATIONAL TELECOMMUNICATION UNION (ITU)Telecom Information Exchange Services (TIES) TIES is a set of networked information services

and resources for the global telecommunication community available via Internet. Some working documents of Study Groups and other contributions related to pre-working activities at conferences are only available via TIES. TIES- membership is not charged for the Ericsson community and registration is available at the following address: http://www.itu.int/TIES/.References General information and ITU factual information were gathered from Internet http//www.itu.int during November 1999. General information may also be obtained via Ericssons Intranet: http://standards.lme.ericsson.se. This is Ericssons source for information, documents and www-links in Telecom Standards and Regulations.ITU-R Recommendations matrix The ITU-R Recommendations currently used in the prediction cycle of radio transmission planning are structured in Figure 3 according to the main four activity blocks. ITU-R SF.1008-1 ITU-R SF.358-5 ITU-R SF.406-8 ITU-R F.1093-1 ITU-R F.1092-1 ITU-R F.1189-1 ITU-R F.1098-1 ITU-R F.1099-3 ITU-R F.1094-1 ITU-R F.1108-2 ITU-R F.1191-1 ITU-R P. 836-1 ITU-R SF.1004 ITU-R SF.1005 ITU-R SF.1006 ITU-R P.341-4 ITU-R P.453-6 ITU-R P.525-2 ITU-R P.526-5 ITU-R P.527-3 ITU-R P.530-7 ITU-R P.581-2 ITU-R P.676-3 ITU-R P.833-1 ITU-R P.834-2 ITU-R P.835-2 ITU-R P.837-1 ITU-R P.840-3 ITU-R F.556-1 ITU-R F.557-4 ITU-R F.594-4 ITU-R F.634-4 ITU-R F.696-2 ITU-R F.697-2 ITU-R F.751-2 ITU-R F.384-7 ITU-R F.387-8 ITU-R F.497-6 ITU-R F.595-6 ITU-R F.635-5 ITU-R F.746-4 ITU-R F.748-3 ITU-R F.699-4 ITU-R P.1057 ITU-R F.1241 ITU-R F.1190 ITU-R P.838 ITU-R P.841 ITU-R F.695 Free-space Attenuation Obstacle Loss Atmospheric Rain Reflection g n Rain i F a d Mechanisms Multipath - Flat Multipath - Freq. Sel Refraction - Diffract. Availability ITU-T G.821 based Quality & ITU-T G.826 based ITU-T G.827 based Frequency arrangements Interference assessment Figure 3: The ITU-R Recommendations matrix. Ericsson Radio Systems AB 135/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 150. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNINGAppendicesAppendix A: ITU Top Management (1999-2002) Yoshio Utsumi (Japan): Secretary-General Roberto Blois (Brazil): Deputy Secretary-General Robert W. Jones (Canada) : Director, Radiocommunication Bureau (BR) Hamadoun I. Tour (Mali): Director, Telecommunication Development Bureau (BDT) Houlin Zhao (China): Director, Telecommunication Standardization Bureau (TSB)Appendix B: Radio Regulations Board (1999-2002) - Members Radio Regulations Board (1999-2002) Members: Region A (Americas): Carlos Alejandro Merchn Escalante (Mexico) and James R. Carroll (USA). Region B (West. Europe): Pierre Aboudarham (France) and Gabor Kovacs (Hungary). Region C (East. Europe): Valery V. Timofeev (Russia) and Ryszard G. Struzak (Poland). Region D (Africa): Jean-Baptiste Yao Kouakou (Cte dIvoire), John Ray Kwabena Tandoh (Ghana) and Ahmed Toumi (Marocco). Region E (Asia and Australasia): Ravindra N. Agarwal (India), Mian Muhammad Javed (Pakistan) and George Hugh Railton (New Zealand).Appendix C: ITU Landmarks 1837 Invention of the first electric telegraph. 1865 17 May. Foundation of the International Telegraph Union by twenty States with the adoption of the first Convention. First Telegraph Regulations. 1868 Vienna - Telegraph Conference. Decision to establish Union headquarters in Bern.14 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 5/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 151. THE INTERNATIONAL TELECOMMUNICATION UNION (ITU) 1869 Publication of Telegraph Journal. 1876 Alexander Graham Bell patents his invention of

the telephone. 1885 Berlin - Telegraph Conference. First provisions for international telephone service. 1895 First signals transmitted by radio-relay system. 1902 First radio transmissions of the human voice. 1906 Berlin - International Radiotelegraph Conference (Plenipotentiary). First Radiotelegraph Convention; Service Regulations. Adoption of SOS signal. First trials of broadcasting (voice and music) using radiotelephony. 1920 Birth of sound-broadcasting. 1924 Paris - Creation of CCIF (international Telephone Consultative Committee). 1925 Paris - Creation of CCIT (International Telegraph Consultative Committee). 1927 Washington - Radiotelegraph Conference (Plenipotentiary). Creation of the CCIR (International Radio Consultative Committee). 1932 Madrid - Plenipotentiary Conference. Telegraph and Radiotelegraph Conventions merged into a single International Telecommunication Convention. Telegraph Union changes name to International Telecommunication Union. Telegraph Journal becomes Telecommunication Journal. 1947 Atlantic City - Plenipotentiary Conference. Creation of IFRB (international Frequency Registration Board). Administrative Council set up. ITU becomes a specialized agency of the United Nations. 1948 ITU headquarters transferred to Geneva. 1952 Buenos Aires - Plenipotentiary Conference. Start of ITU technical cooperation activities. 1956 Geneva - CCIF and CCIT merged into new CCITT (International Telegraph and Telephone Consultative Committee). 1957 Launching of Sputnik-1, the Earths first artificial satellite. 1962 New building for ITU headquarters in Geneva. Ericsson Radio Systems AB 155/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 152. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING 1963 Geneva - First World Space Radiocommunication Conference. 1965 Montreux Plenipotentiary Conference. Centenary of the Union. Commemorative ceremony in Paris. 1971 First World Telecommunication Exhibition and FORUM - TELECOM 71. 1982 Nairobi - Plenipotentiary Conference. Independent Commission for World-Wide Telecommunications Development established 1983 World Communications Year (WCY). 1985 Asia TELECOM 85 - First regional telecommunication exhibition in Asia and the Pacific region. 1986 Africa TELECOM 86 - First regional telecommunication exhibition in Africa region. 1988 America TELECOM 88 - First regional telecommunication exhibition in the Americas region. 1989 Nice - Plenipotentiary Conference, Creation of the High Level Committee to carry out an in-depth review of the structure and functioning of the Union, in order to recommend reforms enabling the organization to respond to the challenges of the new international telecommunications environment. 1990 125th anniversary of the ITU 1992 Torremolinos - World Administrative Radio Conference for dealing with frequency allocations in certain parts of the spectrum (WARC-92) Geneva - Plenipotentiary Conference to adopt any structural reforms deemed necessary in light of the Recommendations of the High Level Committee. Creation of three sectors (radiocommunications, telecommunication standardization and development) into which functions previously carried out by organs (IFRB, CCIR, CCITT, BDT) are integrated Europa TELECOM 92 - First regional telecommunication exhibition in Europe. 1993 Helsinki - First World Telecommunication Standardization Conference Geneva - First World Radiocommunication Conference and Assembly. 1994 Kyoto - Plenipotentiary Conference. 1995 130th anniversary of the ITU.16 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 5/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999

153. THE INTERNATIONAL TELECOMMUNICATION UNION (ITU) 1998 Minneapolis - Plenipotentiary Conference.Appendix D: ITU Secretary-Generals (1869 to present) Louis CURCHOD (Switzerland) Director 1 January 1869 to 24 May 1872 and 23 February 1873 to 18 October 1889 Charles LENDI (Switzerland) Director from 24 May 1872 to 12 January 1873 Auguste FREY (Switzerland) Director from 25 February 1890 to 28 June 1890 Timothie ROTHEN (Switzerland) Director from 25 November 1890 to 11 February 1897 Emile FREY (Swizerland) Director from 11 March 1897 to 1 August 1921 Henri ETIENNE (Switzerland) Director from 2 August 1921 to 16 December 1927 Joseph RABER (Switzerland) Director from 1 February 1928 to 30 October 1934 Franz von ERNST (Switzerland) Director from 1 January 1935 to 31 December 1949 Leon MULATIER (France) Secretary-General from 1 January 1950 to 31 December 1953 Marco Aurelio ANDRADA (Argentina) Secretary-General from 1 January 1954 to 18 June 1958 Gerald C. GROSS (United States) Secretary-General from 1 January 1960 to 29 October 1965 Manohar Balaji SARWATE (India) SecretaryGeneral from 30 October 1965 to 19 February 1967 Mohamed Ezzedine MILI (Tunisia) Secretary-General 20-Feb-1967 to 31-Dec-1973, 1-Jan-1974 to 31-Dec-1982 Richard E. BUTLER (Australia) Secretary-General from 1 January 1983 to 31 October 1989 Pekka TARJANNE (Finland) Secretary-General from 1 November 1989 to 31 December 1998. Ericsson Radio Systems AB 175/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 154. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING Yoshio UTSUMI (Japan) Secretary General from 1 January 1999.Appendix E: Acronyms ITU International Telecommunication Union SG General Secretariat WTAC World Telecommunication Advisory Council ITU-R Radiocommunication Sector BR Radiocommunication Bureau ITU-R Recommendations RRB Radio Regulations Board SG Study Groups RAG Radiocommunication Advisory Group WRC World Radiocommunication Conference RA Radiocommunication Assembly RRC Regional Radiocommunication Conference ITU-T Telecommunication Standardization Sector TSB Telecommunication Standardization Bureau ITU-T Recommendations SG Study Groups TSAG Telecommunication Standardization Advisory Group WTSC World Telecommunication Standardization Conference ITU-D Telecommunication Development Sector BDT Telecommunication Development Bureau ITU-D Recommendations SG Study Groups TDAB Telecommunication Development Advisory Board18 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 5/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 155. THE INTERNATIONAL TELECOMMUNICATION UNION (ITU) WTDC World Telecommunication Development Conference RTDC Regional Telecommunication Development Conference WCIT World Conference on International TelecommunicationAppendix F: ITU-R Recommendations BO Series Recommendations - Broadcasting satellite service (sound and television) (20) BR Series Recommendations Sound and television recording (29) BS Series Recommendations - Broadcasting service (sound) (46) BT Series Recommendations - Broadcasting service (television) (63) F Series Recommendations - Fixed service (123) IS Series Recommendations - Interservice sharing and compatibility (10) M Series Recommendations - Mobile, radiodetermination, amateur and related satellite services (122) P Series Recommendations - Radiowave Propagation (67) RA Series Recommendations Radioastronomy (6) S Series Recommendations - Fixed satellite service (57) SA Series Recommendations - Space applications and meteorology (45) SF Series

Recommendations - Frequency sharing between the fixed satellite service and the fixed service (16) SM Series Recommendations - Spectrum management (41) SNG Series Recommendations - Satellite news gathering (7) TF Series Recommendations - Time signals and frequency standards emissions (21) V Series Recommendations - Vocabulary and related subjects (12) Ericsson Radio Systems AB 195/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 156. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNINGAppendix G: P Series Recommendations - Radiowave Propagation [P.310-9] Definitions of terms relating to propagation in non-ionized media [P.311-8] Acquisition, presentation and analysis of data in studies of tropospheric propagation [P.313-8] (REVISED) Exchange of information for short-term forecasts and transmission of ionospheric disturbance warnings [P.341-4] (REVISED) The concept of transmission loss for radio links [P.368-7a] Ground-wave propagation curves for frequencies between 10 kHz and 30 MHz [P.368-7b] Ground-wave propagation curves for frequencies between 10 kHz and 30 MHz [P.368-7c] Ground-wave propagation curves for frequencies between 10 kHz and 30 MHz [P.370-7] (REVISED) VHF and UHF propagation curves for the frequency range from 30 MHz to 1000 MHz. Broadcasting services [P.371-7] (REVISED) Choice of indices for long-term ionospheric predictions [P.372-6a] Radio noise [P.372-6b] Radio noise [P.372-6c] Radio noise [P.372-6d] Radio noise [P.372-6e] Radio noise [P.373-7] (REVISED) Definitions of maximum and minimum transmission frequencies [P.452-8] Prediction procedure for the evaluation of microwave interference between stations on the surface of the Earth at frequencies above about 0.7 GHz [P.4536] The radio refractice index: its formula and refractivity data [P.525-2] Calculation of free space attenuation20 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 5/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 157. THE INTERNATIONAL TELECOMMUNICATION UNION (ITU) [P.526-5] Propagation by diffraction [P.527-3] Electrical characteristics of the surface of the Earth [P.528-2] Propagation curves for aeronautical mobile and radionavigation services using the VHF, UHF and SHF bands [P.529-2] (REVISED) Prediction methods for the terrestrial land mobile service in the VHF and UHF bands [P.530-7] Propagation data and prediction methods required for the design of terrestrial line-of-sight systems [P.531-4] Ionospheric propagation data and prediction methods required for the design of satellite services and systems [P.532-1] Ionospheric effects and operational considerations associated with artificial modification of the ionosphere and the radio-wave channel [P.533-5] (REVISED) HF propagation prediction method [P.534-3] Method for calculating sporadic-E field strength [P.581-2] The concept of worst month" [P.616] Propagation data for terrestrial maritime mobile services operating at frequencies above 30 MHz [P.617-1] Propagation prediction techniques and data required for the design of trans-horizon radio-relay systems [P.618-5] Datos de propagacin y mtodos de prediccin necesarios para el diseo sistemas de telecomunicacin Tierra-espacio [P.6191] Propagation data required for the evaluation of interference between stations in space and those on the surface of the Earth [P.620-3] Propagation data required for the evaluation of coordination distances in the frequency range 0.85-60 GHz [P.676-3] Attenuation by atmospheric gases [P.678-1] Characterization of the natural variability of propagation phenomena [P.679-1] Propagation data required for the design of

broadcasting- satellite systems Ericsson Radio Systems AB 215/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 158. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING [P.6802] Propagation data required for the design of Earth-space maritime mobile telecommunication systems [P.681-3] Propagation data required for the design of Earthspace land mobile telecommunication systems [P.682-1] Propagation data required for the design of Earth-space aeronautical mobile telecommunication systems [P.684-1] Prediction of field strength at frequencies below about 500 kHz [P.832-1a] World atlas of ground conductivities [P.832-1b] World atlas of ground conductivities [P.832-1c] World atlas of ground conductivities [P.832-1d] World atlas of ground conductivities [P.833-1] Attenuation in vegetation [P.834-2] Effects of tropospheric refraction on radiowave propagation [P.835-2] Reference standard atmospheres [P.836-1] Water vapour: surface density and total columnar content [P.837-1] Characteristics of precipitation for propagation modelling [P.838] Specific attenuation model for rain for use in prediction methods [P.839-1] Rain height model for prediction methods [P.840-2] Attenuation due to clouds and fog [P.841] Conversion of annual statistics to worst-months statistics [P.842-1] Computation of reliability and compatibility of HF radio systems [P.843-1] Communication by meteor-burst propagation [P.844-1] Ionospheric factors affecting frequency sharing in the VHF and UHF bands (30 MHz - 3 GHz) [P.845-3] HF fieldstrength measurement22 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 5/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 159. THE INTERNATIONAL TELECOMMUNICATION UNION (ITU) [P.846-1] (REVISED) Measurements of ionospheric and related characteristics [P.1057] Probability distributions relevant to radiowave propagation modelling [P.1058-1] Digital topographic databases for propagation studies [P.1060] Propagation factors affecting frequency sharing in HF terrestrial systems [P.1144] (NEW) Guide to the application of the propagation methods of Study Group 3 [P.1145] (NEW) Propagation data for the terrestrial land mobile service in the VHF and UHF bands [P.1146] (NEW) The prediction of field strength for land mobile and terrestrial broadcasting services in the frequency range from 1 to 3 GHz [P.1147] (NEW) Prediction of sky-wave field strength at frequencies between about and 1 700 kHz [P.1148-1] Standardized procedure for comparing predicted and observed HF sky-wave signal intensities and the presentation of such comparisons [P.1238] Propagation data and prediction models for the planning of indoor radiocommunication systems and radio local area networks in the frequency range 900 MHz to 100 GHz [P.1239] ITU-R Reference ionospheric characteristics [P.1240] ITU-R Methods of basic MUF, operational MUF and ray-path prediction [P.1321] Propagation factors affecting systems using digital modulation techniques at LF and MF [P.1322] Radiometric estimation of atmospheric attenuationAppendix H: F Series Recommendations - Fixed service [F.106-1] Voice-frequency telegraphy on radio circuits [F.162-3] Use of directional transmitting antennas in the fixed service operating in bands below about 30 MHz Ericsson Radio Systems AB 235/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 160. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING [F.2406] Signal-to-interference protection ratios for various classes of emission in the fixed service below about 30 MHz [F.246-3] Frequency-shift keying [F.268-1] Interconnection at audio frequencies of radio-relay systems for telephony [F.270-2] Interconnection at

video signal frequencies of radio-relay systems for television [F.275-3] Pre-emphasis characteristic for frequency modulation radio- relay systems for telephony using frequency-division multiplex [F.276-2] Frequency deviation and the sense of modulation for analogue radio-relay systems for television [F.283-5] Radio-frequency channel arrangements for low and medium capacity analogue or digital radio-relay systems operating in the 2 GHz band [F.290-3] Maintenance measurements on radio-relay systems for telephony using frequency-division multiplex [F.302-3] Limitation of interference from trans-horizon radio-relay systems [F.305] Stand-by arrangements for radio-relay systems for television and telephony [F.306] Procedure for the international connection of radio-relay systems with different characteristics [F.335-2] Use of radio links in international telephone circuits [F.338-2] Bandwidth required at the output of a telegraph or telephone receiver [F.339-6] Bandwidths, signal-to-noise ratios and fading allowances in complete systems [F.342-2] Automatic error-correcting system for telegraph signals transmitted over radio circuits [F.345] Telegraph distortion24 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 5/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 161. THE INTERNATIONAL TELECOMMUNICATION UNION (ITU) [F.347] Classification of multi-channel radiotelegraph systems for long- range circuits operating at frequencies below about 30 MHz and the designation of the channels in these systems [F.348-4] Arrangements of channels in multi-channel single-sideband and independentsideband transmitters for long-range circuits operating at frequencies below about 30 MHz [F.349-4] Frequency stability required for systems operating in the HF fixed service to make the use of automatic frequency control superfluous [F.380-4] Interconnection at baseband frequencies of radio-relay systems for telephony using frequency-division multiplex [F.381-2] Conditions relating to line regulating and other pilots and to limits for the residues of signals outside the baseband in the interconnection of radio-relay and line systems for telephony [F.382-6] Radio-frequency channel arrangements for radiorelay systems operating in the 2 and 4 GHz bands [F.383-5] Radio-frequency channel arrangements for high capacity radio-relay systems operating in the lower 6 GHz band [F.384-6] (REVISED) Radio-frequency channel arrangements for medium and high capacity analogue or digital radio-relay systems operating in the upper 6 GHz band [F.385-6] Radio-frequency channel arrangements for radio-relay systems operating in the 7 GHz band [F.386-4] Radio-frequency channel arrangements for radio-relay systems operating in the 8 GHz band [F.387-7] (REVISED) Radio-frequency channel arrangements for radio- relay systems operating in the 11 GHz band [F.388] Radiofrequency channel arrangements for trans-horizon radio- relay systems [F.389-2] Preferred characteristics of auxiliary radio-relay systems operating in the 2,4, 6 or 11 GHz bands [F.390-4] Definitions of terms and references concerning hypothetical reference circuits and hypothetical reference digital paths for radio-relay systems Ericsson Radio Systems AB 255/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 162. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING [F.391] Hypothetical reference circuit for radio-relay systems for telephony using frequencydivision multiplex with a capacity of 12 to 60 telephone channels [F.392] Hypothetical reference circuit for radio-relay systems for telephony using frequency-division multiplex with a capacity of more than 60 telephone channels [F.393-4] Allowable noise power in the hypothetical reference circuit for radio-relay systems for telephony using frequencydivision multiplex [F.395-2] Noise in the radio portion of circuits to be established over

real radio-relay links for FDM telephony [F.396-1] Hypothetical reference circuit for trans-horizon radio-relay systems for telephony using frequency-division multiplex [F.397-3] Allowable noise power in the hypothetical reference circuit of trans-horizon radio-relay systems for telephony using frequency- division multiplex [F.398-3] Measurements of noise in actual traffic over radio-relay systems for telephony using frequency-division multiplex [F.399-3] Measurement of noise using a continuous uniform spectrum signal on frequency-division multiplex telephony radio-relay systems [F.400-2] Service channels to be provided for the operation and maintenance of radiorelay systems [F.401-2] Frequencies and deviations of continuity pilots for frequency modulation radio-relay systems for television and telephony [F.402-2] The preferred characteristics of a single sound channel simultaneously transmitted with a television signal on an analogue radio-relay system [F.403-3] Intermediate-frequency characteristics for the interconnection of analogue radio-relay systems [F.404-2] Frequency deviation for analogue radio-relay systems for telephony using frequencydivision multiplex [F.405-1] Pre-emphasis characteristics for frequency modulation radio- relay systems for television26 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 5/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 163. THE INTERNATIONAL TELECOMMUNICATION UNION (ITU) [F.436-4] (REVISED) Arrangement of voice-frequency , frequency- shift telegraph channels over HF radio circuits [F.444-3] Preferred characteristics for multi-line switching arrangements of analogue radio-relay systems [F.454-1] Pilot carrier level for HF singlesideband and independent- sideband reduced-carrier systems [F.455-2] Improved transmission system for HF radiotelephone circuits [F.463-1] Limits for the residues of signals outside the baseband of radio-relay systems for television [F.480] Semi-automatic operation on HF radiotelephone circuits. Devices for remote connection to an automatic exchange by radiotelephone circuits [F.497-5] (REVISED) Radio-frequency channel arrangements for radio- relay systems operating in the 13 GHz frequency band [F.518-1] Single-channel simplex ARQ telegraph system [F.519] Single-channel duplex ARQ telegraph system [F.520-2] Use of high frequency ionospheric channel simulators [F.5551] Permissible noise in the hypothetical reference circuit of radio-relay systems for television [F.556-1] Hypothetical reference digital path for radio-relay systems which may form part of an integrated services digital network with a capacity above the second hierarchical level [F.557-3] Availability objective for radio-relay systems over a hypothetical reference circuit and a hypothetical reference digital path [F.592-2] Terminology used for radio-relay systems [F.593] Noise in real circuits of multi-channel trans-horizon FM radio- relay systems of less than 2500 km [F.594-3] Allowable bit error ratios at the output of the hypothetical reference digital path for radio-relay systems which may form part of an integrated services digital network [F.595-4] (REVISED) Radio-frequency channel arrangements for radio- relay systems operating in the 18 GHz frequency band Ericsson Radio Systems AB 275/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 164. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING [F.5961] Interconnection of digital radio-relay systems [F.612] Measurement of reciprocal mixing in HF communication receivers in the fixed service [F.613] The use of ionospheric channel sounding systems operating in the fixed service at frequencies below about 30 MHz [F.634-3] Error performance objectives for real digital radio-relay links

forming part of a high-grade circuit within an integrated services digital network [F.6353] (REVISED) Radio-frequency channel arrangements based on a homogeneous pattern for radio-relay systems operating in the 4 GHz band [F.636-3] Radio-frequency channel arrangements for radio-relay systems operating in the 15 GHz band [F.637-2] Radiofrequency channel arrangements for radio-relay systems operating in the 23 GHz band [F.695] Availability objectives for real digital radio-relay links forming part of a highgrade circuit within an integrated services digital network [F.696-1] Error performance and availability objectives for hypothetical reference digital sections utilizing digital radio-relay systems forming part or all of the medium-grade portion of an ISDN connection [F.697-1] Error performance and availabiltiy objectives for the local- grade portion at each end of an ISDN connection utilizing digital radio- relay systems [F.698-2] Preferred frequency bands for trans-horizon radio-relay systems [F.699-4] Reference radiation patterns for line-of-sight radio-relay system antennas for use in coordination studies and interference assessment in the frequency range from 1 to about 40 GHz [F.700-2] Error performance and availability measurement algorithm for digital radiorelay links at the system bit-rate interface [F.701-1] Radio-frequency channel arrangements for analogue and digital point-to-multipoint radio systems operating in frequency bands in the range 1.427 to 2.690 GHz [F.745] CCIR Recommendations for analogue radio-relay systems28 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 5/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 165. THE INTERNATIONAL TELECOMMUNICATION UNION (ITU) [F.746-3] Radio-frequency channel arrangements for radio-relay systems [F.747] Radio-frequency channel arrangements for radio-relay systems operating in the 10 GHz band [F.748-2] (REVISED) Radio-frequency channel arrangements for radio- relay systems operating in the 25, 26 and 28 GHz bands [F.749-1] Radio-frequency channel arrangements for radiorelay systems operating in the 38 GHz band [F.750-2] (REVISED) Architectures and functional aspects of radio- relay systems for SDH-based networks [F.751-1] Transmission characteristics and performance requirements of radio-relay systems for SDH-based networks [F.752-1] Diversity techniques for radio-relay systems [F.753] Preferred methods and characteristics for the supervision and protection of digital radiorelay systems [F.754] Radio-relay systems in bands 8 and 9 for the provision of telephone trunk connections in rural areas [F.755-1] Point-to-multipoint systems used in the fixed service [F.756] TDMA point-to-multipoint systems used as radio concentrators [F.757] Basic system requirements and performance objectives for cellular type mobile systems used as fixed systems [F.758] Considerations in the development of criteria for sharing between the terrestrial fixed service and other services [F.759] Use of frequencies in the band 500 to 3 000 MHz for radio- relay systems [F.760-1] Protection of terrestrial lineof-sight radio-relay systems against interference from the broadcasting-satellite service in the bands near 20 GHz [F.761] Frequency sharing between the fixed service and passive sensors in the band 18.6-18.8 GHz [F.762-2] (REVISED) Main characteristics of remote control and monitoring systems for HF receiving and transmitting stations Ericsson Radio Systems AB 295/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 166. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING [F.7632] (REVISED) Data transmission over HF circuits using phase- shift keying [F.764-1] Minimum requirements for HF radio systems using a packet transmission protocol [F.1092] Error performance objectives for constant bit rate digital path at or above the

primary rate carried by digital radio-relay systems which may form part of the international portion of a 27 500 KM hypothetical reference path [F.1093] Effects of multipath propagation on the design and operation of line-of-sight digital radio-relay systems [F.1094-1] (REVISED) Maximum allowable error performance and availability degradations to digital radio-relay systems arising from interference from emissions and radiations from other sources [F.1095] A procedure for determining coordination area between radio- relay stations of the fixed service [F.1096] Methods of calculating line-ofsight interference into radio- relay systems to account for terrain scattering [F.1097] Interference mitigation options to enhance compatibility between radar systems and digital radio-relay systems [F.1098-1] (REVISED) Radio-frequency channel arrangements for radio-relay systems in the 1 900-2 300 MHz band [F.1099-1] (REVISED) Radio-frequency channel arrangements for high-capacity digital radio-relay systems in the 5 GHz (4 400-5 000 MHz) band [F.1100] Radio-frequency channel arrangements for radio-relay systems operating in the 55 GHz band [F.1101] Characteristics of digital radio-relay systems below about 17 GHz [F.1102] Characteristics of radio-relay systems operating in frequency bands above about 17 GHz [F.1103] Radio-relay systems operating in bands 8 and 9 for the provision of subscriber telephone connections in rural areas [F.1104] Requirements for point-to-multipoint radio systems used in the local grade portion of an ISDN connection30 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 5/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 167. THE INTERNATIONAL TELECOMMUNICATION UNION (ITU) [F.1105] Transportable fixed radiocommunications equipment for relief operations [F.1106] Effects of propagation on the design and operation of trans- horizon radio-relay systems [F.1107] Probabilistic analysis for calculating interference into the fixed service from satellites occupying the geostationary orbit [F.1108-1] (REVISED) Determination of the criteria to protect fixed service receivers from the emissions of space stations operating in non- geostationary orbits in shared frequency bands [F.1109] ITU-R Recommendations relating to systems in the fixed service service operating at frequencies below about 30 MHz which are not reprinted [F.1110-1] (REVISED) Adaptive radio systems for frequencies below about 30 MHz [F.1111-1] (REVISED) Improved Lincompex system for HF radiotelephone circuits [F.1112-1] (REVISED) Digitized speech transmissions for systems operating below about 30 MHz [F.1113] Radio systems employing meteor-burst propagation [F.1189] (NEW) Error-performance objectives for constant bit rate digital paths at or above the primary rate carried by digital radio-relay systems which may form part or all of the national portion of a 27 500 km hypothetical reference path [F.1190] (NEW) Protection criteria for digital radio-relay systems to ensure compatibility with radar systems in the radiodetermination service [F.1191] (NEW) Bandwidths and unwanted emissions of digital radio- relay systems [F.1192] (NEW) Traffic capacity of automatically controlled radio systems and networks in the HF fixed service [F.1241] Performance degradation due to interf. from other services sharing the same freq. bands on a primary basis with digital radio-relay syst. oper. at or above the primary rate and which may form part of the intern. portion of a 27 500 km hypoth. ref. path Ericsson Radio Systems AB 315/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 168. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING [F.1242] Radio-frequency channel arrangements for digital radio systems operating in the range 1 350 MHz to 1 530 MHz [F.1243] Radio-frequency channel arrangements for digital radio

systems operating in the range 2 290-2 670 MHz [F.1244] Radio local area networks (RLANs) [F.1245] Mathematical model of average radiation patterns for line-of- sight point-to-point radio-relay system antennas for use in certain coordination studies and interference assessment in the frequency range from 1 to about 40 GHz [F.1246] Reference bandwidth of receiving stations in the fixed service to be used in coordination of frequency assignments with transmitting space stations in the mobile-satellite service in the 1-3 GHz range [F.1247] Technical and operational characteristics of systems in the fixed service to facilitate sharing with the space research, space operation and Earth exploration-satellite services operating in the bands 2 025-2 110 MHz and 2 200-2 290 MHz [F.1248] Limiting interference to satellites in the space science services from the emissions of trans-horizon radio-relay systems in the bands 2 025-2 110 MHz and 2 2002 290 MHz [F.1249] Maximum equivalent isotropically radiated power of transmitting stations in the fixed service operating in the frequency band 25.25-27.5 GHz shared with the inter-satellite service32 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 5/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 169. QUALITY AND AVAILABILITY TARGETS This chapter provides an extensive description of digital transmission network models used in error performance analysis and quality and availability targets in accordance with ITU-T Recommendations G.821 and G.826. The chapter discusses quality and availability parameters, their calculation and their relationships to existing atmospheric fading mechanisms. TABLE OF CONTENTSPredicting quality .............................................................................................................................................. 1Quality and availability targets.......................................................................................................................... 1 Why and at what price? ....................................................................................................................... 1 Recommendations - background ......................................................................................................... 1 ITU-T Recommendation G.821 ............................................................................................ 2 ITU-T Recommendation G.826 ............................................................................................ 2Digital transmission network models ................................................................................................................ 2 Introduction............................................................................................................................ ............. 2 Hypothetical Reference Connection (HRX)........................................................................................ 2 Definition .............................................................................................................................. 2 Classification......................................................................................................................... 3 Example ................................................................................................................................ 4 Other digital transmission network models ......................................................................................... 4 Hypothetical Reference Digital Path (HRDP)..................................................................................... 5 Hypothetical Reference Digital Section (HRDS) .................................................................. 5 Hypothetical Reference Path (HRP)...................................................................................... 6The ITU-T Rec. G821 - basic concepts............................................................................................................. 7 Bit

error........................................................................................................................................ ....... 7 Bit rate.......................................................................................................................................... ....... 7 Bit-error ratio ...................................................................................................................................... 7 Expressing the quality targets.............................................................................................................. 7 Bit-error ratio and time intervals ......................................................................................................... 7 Available and unavailable time definition......................................................................................... 8 Available and unavailable time - example........................................................................................... 8 Expressing available and unavailable time.......................................................................................... 8 Definitions of events occurring during available time......................................................................... 9 BER at bit rate 64 kbit/s ...................................................................................................................... 9 Error performance objectives .............................................................................................................. 9 Definition of availability parameters................................................................................................... 9 Errored second ratio .............................................................................................................. 9 Severely errored second ratio................................................................................................ 9 i 170. Quality and availability parameters..................................................................................................... 10 Performance parameters and objective allocation ............................................................................... 10 Objective allocation for the three circuit classes ................................................................................. 11 End-to-end quality allocation in the network model HRX .................................................................. 11 The derivation of the quality parameters values.................................................................................. 12 Quality allocation summary .............................................................................................................. 13Radio applications............................................................................................................................ ................. 14 Local-grade portion of the HRX ......................................................................................................... 14 Quality objectives ITU-R Rec. F.697-1 .............................................................................. 14 Availability objectives - ITU-R Rec. F.697-1 ....................................................................... 15 Medium-grade portion of the HRX ..................................................................................................... 15 Quality objectives ITU-R Rec. F.696-1 (addresses to G.821) ............................................ 15 Availability objectives........................................................................................................... 16 Digital section - medium grade ........................................................................................................... 16 Quality classification and allocation - ITU-T Rec. 921......................................................... 16 Quality objectives - ITU-R Rec. F.696-1 .............................................................................. 16 The derivation of the quality parameters values - ITU-R Rec. F.696-1 ................................ 17 Unavailability objectives - ITU-R Rec. F.696-1

................................................................... 18 High-grade portion of the HRX........................................................................................................... 19 Quality objectives - ITU-T Rec. G.821................................................................................. 19 Availability objectives........................................................................................................... 19 Hypothetical Reference Digital Path - HRDP (high grade)................................................................. 19 Quality objectives - ITU-R F.594.3 ...................................................................................... 19 Availability objectives - ITU-R Rec. F.557-3 ....................................................................... 20 Real Digital Radio Link (high grade) .................................................................................................. 20 Quality objectives - ITU-R Rec. F.634-3 .............................................................................. 20 Availability objectives - ITU-R Rec. F.695 .......................................................................... 20Summary of network models............................................................................................................................. 21 G.821 - HRX ....................................................................................................................................... 21 G.821 HRDS..................................................................................................................................... 22 G.821 HRDP..................................................................................................................................... 23 G.821 RDRL..................................................................................................................................... 23 G.826 HRP........................................................................................................................................ 24Quality and availability targets - summary ........................................................................................................ 24 Quality targets ..................................................................................................................................... 24 Availability targets .............................................................................................................................. 25Reports and recommendations summary......................................................................................................... 25Quality and availability parameters versus fading mechanisms......................................................................... 26 Fading occurrence ............................................................................................................................... 26 Calculation of the unavailability parameters - Rec. G.821 .................................................................. 27 Unavailable time ratio (UATR)............................................................................................. 27 Available time ratio (UATR) ................................................................................................ 28 Severely errored second ratio (SESR)................................................................................... 28 Errored second ratio (ESR) ................................................................................................... 28 Planning unavailable time ................................................................................................................... 28The ITU-T Recommendation G.826 - basic concepts ....................................................................................... 29 Introduction............................................................................................................................ ............. 29 Hypothetical Reference Path (HRP).................................................................................................... 29 Available and

unavailable time ........................................................................................................... 30 Definition of block .............................................................................................................................. 30 Events occurring during available time ............................................................................................... 30 Errored Block (EB) ............................................................................................................... 30 Errored Second (ES) ............................................................................................................. 30 Severely Errored Second (SES) ............................................................................................ 31 Background Block Error (BBE)............................................................................................ 31 Definitions of quality parameters ........................................................................................................ 31ii 171. Errored Second Ratio (ESR) ................................................................................................. 31 Severely Errored Second Ratio (SESR) ................................................................................ 31 Background Block Error Ratio (BBER)................................................................................ 31 A comparison of SESR (G.826) and SESR (G.821) ........................................................................... 31 End-to-end objectives apportionment in the HRP ............................................................................... 32 Quality objectives allocation in the HRP ............................................................................................ 33 National portion .................................................................................................................... 33 International portion.............................................................................................................. 34 Unavailability allocation in the HRP................................................................................................... 36Radio applications of the ITU-TS Rec. G.826................................................................................................. 36 National portion of the HRP - basic sections ...................................................................................... 37 Quality objectives allocation................................................................................................. 38 Long-haul section.................................................................................................... 38 Short-haul section.................................................................................................... 38 Access section ......................................................................................................... 39 Summary of quality objectives .............................................................................................. 39 International portion of the HRP ......................................................................................................... 40 Radio applications of the ITU-T Rec. G.826 ...................................................................................... 42The ITU-T Recommendation G.827 ................................................................................................................. 42References ................................................................................................................................................ ......... 43 iii 172. ii 173. QUALITY AND AVAILABILITY TARGETSPredicting quality 1. Is the connection available? 2. If yes, what are the values of the availability and quality parameters? 3. How good is the connection in comparison with the current availability and quality targets?Quality and availability targetsWhy and at what price? During the process of planning a radio connection, adequate quality and availability targets are established following careful consideration of those parameters that affect these attributes. These targets then provide, to a certain degree, a built-in confidence level

that guard against fading caused by interactions between the transmitted signals and the atmosphere, topography and the signals transmitted by other radio stations located in the vicinity. Quality and availability targets are often a result of a compromise. A compromise between, on the one hand, compliance with requirements of the service, and on the other hand, current economic and technical limitations. Recommendations background The recommendations in this book take into account that services are based on the concept of an Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN). The following ITU-T recommendations will be covered: Recommendation G.821 Recommendation G.826 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 16/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November1999 174. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNINGITU-T Recommendation G.821 Recommendation G.821 was developed during the late 70s and adopted in 1980. It defined quality and availability parameters and objectives applicable to international digital connections operating at 64 kbit/s. An annex (Annex D) indicating how to derive error performance data at higher bit rates was added to the former recommendation. G.821 is now restricted to bit rates in the range between 64 kbit/s and below the primary rate of the digital hierarchy. Additional experimental work indicated in many cases, however, that the annex D turned out to give doubtful results making necessary a new recommendation.ITU-T Recommendation G.826 Recommendation G.826 was developed during the late 80s and adopted in 1993. It defines quality and availability parameters and objectives applicable for constant bit-rate digital paths operating at bit rates at and above the primary rate of the digital hierarchy.Digital transmission network modelsIntroduction In order to facilitate the study of the error performance of digital transmission systems (bit errors, jitter, transmission delays, availability, etc), it is occasionally necessary to define digital transmission network models that comprise a combination of different types of transmission devices. These models are hypothetical in that they include entities of a defined length and composition corresponding to real digital radio-relay links present in international networks. Transmission may be conducted via optical fiber, radio-relay systems, satellite systems or cable.Hypothetical Reference Connection (HRX)Definition A digital HRX (Hypothetical Reference Connection) is a network model in which studies relating to overall performance may be conducted, thereby facilitating the formulation of standards and objectives. The HRX is the starting-point for the apportionment strategy found in ITU- T Recommendation G.821.2 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 6/038 02-LZU 102 152 Rev A, November 1999 175. QUALITY AND AVAILABILITY TARGETS The HRX is a 27,500 km connection operating at 64 kbit/s and is subdivided into circuit grades (classes) that represent the sections in a real end-to-end connection. The grades may be local, medium and high and are illustrated in Figure 1. 27,500 km 1250 km 25,000 km 1250 km LE ISC ISC LE T T Local Medium High Medium Local grade grade grade grade grade T=Terminal Point, LE= Local ISC=International Switching Center Figure 1: The Hypothetical Reference Connection and its grades. A precise location of the boundary between the medium and the high grade of the HRX is presently not available.Classification Local grade circuits are defined as those operating between the subscribers and the local exchange at rates below 2 Mbit/s. Typically, they are metallic subscriber loop circuits. Medium grade circuits are those operating between local exchanges and the national network. The combined length of the local and medium grade links must not exceed 1250 km. High

grade circuits are long-haul links, for example, satellite connections and international connections operating at primarily high bit-rates. Ericsson Radio Systems AB 36/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November1999 176. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNINGExample An example of a possible geographical location of grades is illustrated in Figure 2. T T T Local-grade T T LE T Uunimannaq T Medium-grade High-grade T = Terminal LE = Local Exchange ISC = International Switching Center High-grade ISC Copacabana Highgrade Fukuyama Figure 2: Possible geographical location of grades.Other digital transmission network models The following digital transmission network models will be studied: Hypothetical Reference Digital Link (HRDL) employed by ITU-T in digital systems, the length of which is 2500 km. Hypothetical Reference Digital Path (HRDP) employed by ITU-R and which is equivalent to HRDL. Designed for the performance specification of transmission systems as radio systems.4 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 6/038 02-LZU 102 152 Rev A, November 1999 177. QUALITY AND AVAILABILITY TARGETS Hypothetical Reference Digital Section (HRDS) employed by ITU-R and designed to accommodate the performance specification of transmission systems as digital lines and radio systems.Hypothetical Reference Digital Path (HRDP) An HRDP is built up of nine consecutive, equally long (approx. 280 km), radiolink sections (HRDS), see Figure 3. HRDP also includes nine sets of digital multiplexing equipment in accordance with CCITTs (currently ITU-T) recommended hierarchical levels. Each of the units may consist of a number of linked multiplexing units. HRDP comprises a portion of the entire HRX. 2500 km 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 64 kbit/s 64 kbit/s 64 kbit/s 64 kbit/s First-order digital multiplexer Other multiplexer eqipment located at the ITU- recommended hierarchical Digital radio section Figure 3: The Hypothetical Reference Digital Path (HRDP).Hypothetical Reference Digital Section (HRDS) The path lengths have been chosen to be representative of digital sections likely to be encountered in real operational networks, and are sufficiently long to permit a realistic performance specification for digital radio systems, see Figure 4. This model does not include digital equipment such as multiplexers and exchanges. An HRDS can form a constituent element of an HRDL. Ericsson Radio Systems AB 56/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November1999 178. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING The appropriate value of the distance Y is dependent on the network application. For now, the lengths of 50 km and 280 km have been identified as being necessary. Y km X kbit/s X kbit/s Terminal Terminal equipment equipment Figure 4: The Hypothetical Reference Digital Section (HRDS).Hypothetical Reference Path (HRP) A digital HRP (Hypothetical Reference Path) is, like the HRX, a network model in which studies relating to overall performance may be conducted, thereby facilitating the formulation of standards and objectives, see Figure 5. The HRP is the starting-point for the apportionment strategy found in ITU-T Recommendation G.826. Terminating Inter- Terminating Intermediate countries country country country PEP IG IG IG IG IG PEP J J J J J J J National National International portion portion portion Hypothetical Reference Path (HRP) 27,500 km PEP=Path End Point IG=International Gateway Figure 5: The Hypothetical Reference Path (HRP).6 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 6/038 02-LZU 102 152 Rev A, November 1999

179. QUALITY AND AVAILABILITY TARGETSThe ITU-T Rec. G821 - basic conceptsBit error Recommendation G.821 quantifies the occurrence of transmission impairments (bit error) restricted to the bit rates in the range between 64 kbit/s and below the primary rate, operating as a part of an ISDN- network, which is based on the control of bit impairment (bit error) of each bit position.Bit rate Bit rate is the amount of transmitted bits per time unity, usually measured in seconds. For example: 64 kbit/s and 2 Mbit/s.Bit-error ratio Bit-error ratio is the amount of bit errors with respect to the total amount of transmitted bits during a specified time interval.Expressing the quality targets The quality targets are expressed as the ratio of average periods, each of time interval T0, during which the bit-error ratio (BER) exceeds a threshold value. The ratio is assessed over a much longer time interval TL, that is, TL>>T0.Bit-error ratio and time intervals The following bit-error ratios and time intervals are used in quality target statements, in accordance with Recommendation G.821: BER > 1 10-6 during T0 = 1 minute BER > 1 10-3 during T0 = 1 second zero bit errors under T0 = 1 second, which is equivalent to the concept of EFS (Error Free Seconds). Thus, the reference values for time intervals are 1 minute and 1 second while the reference values for the bit-error ratios are 110-3 (one bit error per one thousand bits) and 110-6 (one bit error per one million bits). Ericsson Radio Systems AB 76/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November1999 180. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNINGAvailable and unavailable time - definition A period of Unavailable Time (UAT) begins when, in at least one of the transmission directions, one or both of the following conditions occur for 10 consecutive seconds: 1. the digital signal is interrupted 2. the bit-error ratio (BER) in each second of the 10 consecutive seconds is worse than 110-3. These 10 seconds are considered to be unavailable time. A new period of Available Time (AT) begins with the first second of a period of ten consecutive seconds, of which each second displays a biterror ratio (BER) better than 110-3.Available and unavailable time - example Consider a measured period of 1 month divided into one-second intervals, see Figure 6. T0 =1 s Available Unavailable Unavailable Unavailable Available Available No bit No bit error No bit error No bit error TIME error TL =1 month BER=110-3 BER>310-3 BER<6105 BER=610-3 BER=210-4 BER=310-3 BER=410-3 BER=210-4 BER=210-4 Available time Unavailable time 110-8 110-7 110-6 110-5 110-4 110-3 110-2 1101 1100 BER Figure 6: Available and unavailable time.Expressing available and unavailable time AVAILABLE TIME + UNAVAILABLE TIME = MEASURED TIME AT + UAT = 100% or8 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 6/038 02-LZU 102 152 Rev A, November 1999 181. QUALITY AND AVAILABILITY TARGETS AT + UAT = 1Definitions of events occurring during available time Errored second (ES) is defined as any second containing one or more errors. Severely errored second (SES) is an errored second with a bit error ratio worse than 110-3.BER at bit rate 64 kbit/s 64 BER = = 1 10 3 SES and UAT ......................(1) 64 000Error performance objectives The error performance objectives are stated in terms of the events discussed earlier. These events constitute the error performance parameters and should only be evaluated whilst the path is in the available state. The quality parameters (also known as performance parameters) are usually defined with respect to the total available time during a measured period, that is, generally as a ratio of the averaged measured periods. The measured periods over which the ratios are to be assessed have still not been specified since the period may depend upon the

application.Definition of availability parametersErrored second ratio Errored Second Ratio (ESR) is the ratio of ES to total seconds in available time during a fixed measurement interval.Severely errored second ratio Severely Errored Second Ratio (SESR) is the ratio of SES to total seconds in available time during a fixed measurement interval. Ericsson Radio Systems AB 96/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November1999 182. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNINGQuality and availability parameters PARAMETERS UNDER AVAILABLE TIME ES SES 1108 110-7 110-6 110-5 110-4 110-3 110-2 110-1 1100 BER UAT PARAMETERS UNDER UNAVAILABLE TIME Figure 7: Parameters under available and unavailable time. The parameters are divided in two parts: parameters under available time and parameters under unavailable time, see Figure 7.Performance parameters and objective allocation The performance parameters and objective allocation is illustrated in Table 1. The performance objectives illustrated in the table should be met concurrently. In other words, the connection fails to satisfy the objective if any of the requirements in the table are not met. Performance Performance classification objectives Severely errored seconds < 0.002 Errored seconds < 0.08 Table 1: Performance parameters and objective allocation.10 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 6/038 02-LZU 102 152 Rev A, November 1999 183. QUALITY AND AVAILABILITY TARGETSObjective allocation for the three circuit classes The quality parameters errored seconds and severely errored seconds are related to the three classes a, b and c in an ISDN-connection. The allocation is illustrated in Table 2. Circuit Allocation of errored seconds and severely errored Classification seconds given in the previous table Local grade 15% block allowance to each end (2 ends) Medium grade 15% block allowance to each end (2 ends) High grade 40% (equivalent to conceptual quality of 0.0016% per km for 25,000 km) Table 2: Objective allocation for the three circuit classes. Block allowance implies that the stated ratio of the overall end-to- end allowance is allocated to a local or medium grade portion regardless of its length. The length of the circuit is considered when allocating the high- grade portion. The high-grade allotment is then divided on the basis of the length resulting from a hypothetical per-kilometer allocation, that is, 40%25,000 km yields 0.000016 /km. The actual length covered by the medium grade part of the connection will vary considerably from one country to another. Transmission systems in this classification exhibit a variation in quality falling between the other classification.End-to-end quality allocation in the network model HRX The end-to-end allocation of quality in the HRX network model is illustrated in Figure 8. Ericsson Radio Systems AB 116/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November1999 184. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING 1250 km 25,000 km 1250 km LE ICS ICS LE T T 15% 15% 40% 15% 15% Local Medium High Medium Local grade grade grade grade grade Figure 8: The end-to-end allocation of quality in the HRX network model.The derivation of the quality parameters values The quality parameters values are derived in accordance with Table 1 and Table 2, see Figure 9.12 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 6/038 02-LZU 102 152 Rev A, November 1999 185. QUALITY AND AVAILABILITY TARGETS ES ES=8% 15% 15% At one end At one end 40% Local grade Medium grade High grade ES=1.2% ES=1.2% ES=3.2% SES SES=0.2% 50% 50% Additional allowance SES=0.1% SES=0.1% 15% 15% 40% ? ? At one end At one end Local grade Medium grade High grade SES=0.015% SES=0.015%

SES=0.040% Figure 9: The derivation of the values of the quality parameters.Quality allocation - summary The allocation of the quality parameters errored seconds and severely errored seconds for the three different classes local, medium and high grade is illustrated in Table 3. Circuit Performance objective classification ESR SESR Normal Adverse condition Local grade 0.012 0.00015 --------------------- Medium grade 0.012 0.00015 0.001 High grade 0.032 0.0004 Table 3: A summary of quality allocation. Ericsson Radio Systems AB 136/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November1999 186. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING The remaining 0.001 SESR is a block allowance to the medium and high grade classifications to accommodate the occurrence of adverse network conditions occasionally experienced (intended to mean the worst-month of the year) on transmission systems. The following allowances are consistent with the total 0.001 SESR figure: 0.0005 SESR to a 2,500 km HRDP for radio-relay systems which can be used in the high grade and the medium grade portion of the connection 0.0001 SESR to a satellite HRDP Whenever necessary, administrations may allocate the block allowances for the local and medium grade portions of the connection but within the total allowance of 30% for any one end of the connection. The objectives presented above correspond to a very long connection. However, large portions of real international connections will be shorter, thus it is expected that a significant portion of real connections will offer a better performance than the limiting values discussed above. On the other hand, a small percentage of the connections will be longer and in this case may exceed the allowances outlined in the recommendation.Radio applicationsLocal-grade portion of the HRXQuality objectives ITU-R Rec. F.697-1 The local grade is a portion in the HRX network model which together with the medium-grade has a length of 1250 km. Local grade circuits operate between the subscribers (T) and the local exchange (LE). The following quality objectives apply to each direction and to each 64 kbit/s channel of a digital radio system when constituting the entire local-grade portion of an ISDN connection. These quality objectives are to take into consideration fading, short-term and long-term interference and all other sources of performance degradation during periods under which the system is considered to be available.14 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 6/038 02-LZU 102 152 Rev A, November 1999 187. QUALITY AND AVAILABILITY TARGETS SESR: the bit error ratio should not exceed 110-3 for more than 0.00015 of any month with an integration time of 1 second. ESR: the total errored seconds should not exceed 0.012 of any month. The quality objectives correspond to the values in the first row of the Table 3.Availability objectives ITU-R Rec. F.697-1 So far, the ITU-T and ITU-R does not include availability objectives in the local-grade portion of the HRX. For example, ITU-R recommendation 697 does not include availability objectives of any kind. There are, however, a number of values in ITU-T rep. 1053-1 suggesting that unavailability objectives should range between 0.01% and 1%, averaged over one or more years for a bi-directional system. For local-grade systems, unavailability is determined as a result of two principal effects - equipment and adverse propagation.Medium-grade portion of the HRXQuality objectives - ITU-R Rec. F.696-1 (addresses to G.821) The medium grade is a portion in the HRX network model which together with the local-grade portion has a length of 1250 km. Medium grade circuits operate between the local exchange (LE) and the International Switching Center (ISC). The following quality objectives apply to each direction and to each 64 kbit/s

channel of a digital radio system when constituting the entire medium-grade portion at each end of an HRX, realized entirely with digital radio-relay systems. These quality objectives are to take into consideration fading, short-term and long-term interference and all other sources of performance degradation during periods under which the system is considered to be available. SESR: the bit error ratio should not exceed 110-3 for more than 0.0004 of any month with an integration time of 1 second. ESR: the total errored seconds should not exceed 0.012 of any month. The quality values correspond to the values in the second row of the Table 3. Note that there is an additional allowance of 0.00025 over and above the SESR value for adverse propagation conditions. Ericsson Radio Systems AB 156/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November1999 188. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNINGAvailability objectives The ITU-T and ITU-R have not specified the availability objectives for the medium-grade portion of the HRX.Digital section medium gradeQuality classification and allocation - ITU-T Rec. 921 The length of the local and medium-grade portion (1250 km) of an international connection is often far from the actual sizes employed by the countries. This means that it is difficult to define just one general quality allocation for the medium-grade portion of the HRDS, which is applicable to all countries. Depending on the different applications, four section types with different quality classifications are introduced in the medium-grade portion, see Table 4. These classes were introduced by ITU-Ts recommendation G.921 probably with the intention of allowing for more scope in future quality specifications. Section quality HRDS length Allocation Class classification (km) (%) 1 280 0.45 High grade 2 280 2 Medium grade 3 50 2 Medium grade 4 50 5 Medium grade Table 4: Digital section quality classifications for error performance. The allocations in column 3 are the percentages of the performance objectives for ESR (0.08) and SESR (0.001), see Table 1 and Figure 9. Example: The SESR corresponding to the class medium-grade class, section quality class 3, should be 2% (from column 3 of the above table) of 0.001, which gives 0.00002.Quality objectives - ITU-R Rec. F.696-1 The path lengths in the HRDS have been chosen to be representative of digital sections likely to be encountered in real operational networks, and that are sufficiently long to permit a realistic performance specification for digital radio systems. This model does not include digital equipment such as multiplexers and exchanges.16 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 6/038 02-LZU 102 152 Rev A, November 1999 189. QUALITY AND AVAILABILITY TARGETS The values for the quality parameters ESR and SESR are assigned according to column 3, Table 5, for the four quality classes. The same proportion is allocated as earlier, that is, 0.001 is allotted to SESR. The true value is 0.002, however 0.001 is apportioned for errored seconds and the remaining 0.001 is a block allowance for the medium and high- grade classifications to accommodate for the occurrence of adverse network conditions. In addition it is allocated 0.08 for ESR of the available time. The following quality objectives apply to each direction and to each 64 kbit/s channel when constituting the HRDS portion, realized entirely with digital radio-relay systems. These quality objectives are to take into consideration fading, short-term and long-term interference and all other sources of performance degradation during periods under which the system is considered to be available. Classes 1 and 2 are allotted an additional allowance of 0.0005 for the total 2500 km length of the HRDS to accommodate for the occurrence of adverse propagation

conditions. This corresponds to 0.000055 of the 280 km length representing the classes 1 and 2. Performance parameters Ratio of any month Class1 Class2 Class3 Class4 280 km 280 km 50 km 50 km BER>110-3 (SESR) 0.00006 0.000075 0.00002 0.00005 One or more errors (ESR) 0.00036 0.0016 0.0016 0.004 Table 5: Error performance objectives for a digital section in the HRDS. The quality objectives are used for dimensioning radiorelay links. It has to be taken into consideration that the allocation in the table is a block allowance and not a per kilometer allocation.The derivation of the quality parameters values - ITU-R Rec. F.696-1 The derivation of the quality parameters values for a digital section in the HRDS follows Table 4 and Table 5, and is illustrated in Figure 10. Ericsson Radio Systems AB 176/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November1999 190. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING Class 1: 280 km 0.08 ESR=0.00036 0.0045 0.001 SESR=0.0000045 Additional allowance SESR=0.000060 0.000055 Class 2: 280 km 0.08 ESR=0.0016 0.02 0.001 SESR=0.00002 Additional allowance SESR=0.000075 0.000055 Class 3: 50 km 0.08 ESR=0.0016 0.02 0.001 SESR=0.000020 Class 4: 50 km 0.08 ESR=0.004 0.05 0.001 SESR=0.000050 Figure 10: The derivation of the values of the quality parameters.Unavailability objectives - ITU-R Rec. F.696-1 The following values are assigned to the four different classes of the medium-grade of an HRDS: Class 1 (High grade): 0.00033 .......................... distance based allowance Class 2 (Medium grade): 0.0005....................... block allowance Class 3 (Medium grade): 0.0005....................... block allowance Class 4 (Medium grade): 0.001......................... block allowance The quality values are the same regardless of the length of a real HRDS section. Then, there is no compensation for the case when the length of a real section is shorter than that of the corresponding class length.18 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 6/038 02-LZU 102 152 Rev A, November 1999 191. QUALITY AND AVAILABILITY TARGETSHigh-grade portion of the HRXQuality objectives - ITU-T Rec. G.821 The high-grade is a portion of the HRX network model situated between the International Switching Centers (ISC) having a length of 25,000 km. The following quality objectives are employed: SESR: the bit error ratio should not exceed 110-3 for more than 0.0004 of any month with an integration time of 1 second. ESR: the total errored seconds should not exceed 0.032 of any month. The quality values correspond to the values in the third row of the Table 3.Availability objectives The ITU-T and ITU-R have not specified availability objectives for the high-grade portion of the HRX.Hypothetical Reference Digital Path - HRDP (high grade)Quality objectives - ITU-R F.594.3 The HRDP network model is composed of digital radio-relay systems and its length is 2500 km. The quality objectives for an HRDP is related to the quality objectives of the high-grade portion of an HRDP since, according to the ITU-T, the length of the HRDP (2500 km) is one tenth of the length of the HRXs high grade (25,000 km). The quality parameters SESR and ESR describing the quality objectives of an HRDP are stated as for each direction of the 64 kbit/s channel of the HRDP. The effects of fading, interference and all other sources of performance degradation are taken into account. The following quality objectives are one tenth of the corresponding values for the high-grade portion of the HRX: SESR = 0.00004 + 0.0005 = 0.00054 ESR = 0.0032 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 196/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November1999 192. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING Note that the SESR value is allotted an additional 0.0005 for adverse propagation

conditions.Availability objectives - ITU-R Rec. F.557-3 The availability objective for digital radio-relay systems that constitute part of an HRDP is 99.7% of the time, the percentage being considered over a period of time sufficiently long to be statistically valid. It includes all causes that are statistically predictable, unintentional and resulting from radio equipment, power supplies, propagation, interference and from auxiliary equipment and human activity. The value of 99.7% is a provisional one and it is recognized that, in reality, the selected objectives may fall into the range 99.5 to 99.9%.Real Digital Radio Link (high grade)Quality objectives - ITU-R Rec. F.634-3 Real digital radio-relay links with lengths shorter than 2500 km may form part of the highgrade portion of an ISDN, and may occasionally differ in composition from the HRDP. The following quality objectives are applied to real digital radio links intended to form a part of a high-grade circuit within an ISDN for which the length of the link L is between 280 and 2500 km. SESR: the bit error ratio should not exceed 110-3 for more than (L/2500) 0.00054 of any month with an integration time of 1 second. ESR: the total errored seconds should not exceed (L/2500) 0.0032 of any month. The availability objectives are valid for link lengths in the range 280 and 2500 km and include allowances for all performance degradations over and above fading.Availability objectives - ITU-R Rec. F.695 The following availability objective is appropriate for a real digital radio link forming a part of a high-grade circuit within an ISDN20 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 6/038 02-LZU 102 152 Rev A, November 1999 193. QUALITY AND AVAILABILITY TARGETS L UAT = 0.3 ..............................................................................(2) 2 500 where L is the length of a link in the range 280 to 2500 km. The availability objective is valid in the range between 280 and 2500 km. It includes all causes that are statistically predictable, unintentional and resulting from radio equipment, power supplies, propagation, interference and from auxiliary equipment and human activity. The estimate of unavailability should also include consideration of the mean time to restore. The value of 0.3 is a provisional one and it is recognized that, in reality, the value selected may fall into the range 0.1 to 0.5. The choice of the specific value is dependent on various aspects, such as propagation, geographical size, population distribution and the organization of maintenance.Summary of network modelsG.821 - HRX 27,500 km 1250 km 25,000 km 1250 km 64kbit/s 64kbit/s Local Medium High grade Medium Local grade grade grade grade Ericsson Radio Systems AB 216/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November1999 194. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNINGG.821 HRDS 1250 km Medium grade PORTION OF HRX HRDS X kbit/s X kbit/s 50 km and 280 km class1-4 One or more repeaters may occur.22 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 6/038 02-LZU 102 152 Rev A, November 1999 195. QUALITY AND AVAILABILITY TARGETSG.821 - HRDP 25,000 km High grade PORTION OF HRX HRDP 64 kbit/s 64 kbit/s 2500 km Composed of nine consecutive identical radio sections of about 280 km each.G.821 - RDRL 2500 km HRDP RDRL 64 kbit/s 64 kbit/s 280 < L 2500km L = The length of the model Ericsson Radio Systems AB 236/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November1999 196. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNINGG.826 HRP 27,500 km National National portion International portion portion LE = Local Exchange PC = Primary Center SC = Secondary Center TC = Tertiary Center PC SC LE TC Access Short Haul Long HaulQuality and availability targets - summaryQuality

targets Table 6 furnishes a summary of the quality objectives for the studied network models. Network Portion/Class SESR ESR model Local 0.00015 0.012 HRX Medium 0.00040 0.012 High 0.00040 0.032 Class 1 (280 km) 0.00006 0.00036 HRDS Class 2 (280 km) 0.000075 0.0016 Class 3 (50 km) 0.00002 0.0016 Class 4 (50 km) 0.00005 0.004 HRDP High grade 0.0032 0.0032 RDRL High grade 0.00054 (L/2500) 0.0032 (L/2500) Table 6: Summary of the quality and availability objectives for the studied network models.24 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 6/038 02-LZU 102 152 Rev A, November 1999 197. QUALITY AND AVAILABILITY TARGETSAvailability targets Table 7 furnishes a summary of the availability objectives for the studied network models. Network model Portion/Class UATR Local 0.0001-0.010 HRX Medium not defined High not defined Class 1 (280 km) 0.00033 HRDS Class 2 (280 km) 0.0005 Class 3 (50 km) 0.0005 Class 4 (50 km) 0.001 HRDP High grade 0.003 RDRL High grade 0.003 (L/2500) Table 7: Summary of the availability objectives for the studied network models.Reports and recommendations - summary Table 8 furnishes a summary of the reports and recommendations dealing with quality and availability objectives for the studied network models. Local grade Network model Quality objectives Availability objectives HRX ITU-R Rec. F.697-1 ITU-R Rec. F.697-1 Medium grade Network model Quality objectives Availability objectives HRX ITU-R Rec. F.696-1 --------------------- HRDS ITU-T Rec. G.921 ITU-R Rec. F.696-1 ITU-R Rec. F.696-1 High grade Network model Quality objectives Availability objectives HRX ITU-T Rec. G.821 --------------------HRDP ITU-R F.594.3 ITU-R Rec. F.557-3 RDRL ITU-R Rec. F.634-3 ITU-R Rec. F.695 Table 8: Summary of the ITU-T and ITU-R reports and recommendations. Ericsson Radio Systems AB 256/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November1999 198. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNINGQuality and availability parameters versus fadingmechanismsFading occurrence Figure 11 illustrates a fading occurrence. The received signal varies as a function of time due to different types of fading mechanisms. In this example, a simplified fading occurrence, the received signal crosses the receivers threshold level for two different bit-error ratios, 106 and 10-3, and the errored events are registered as quality parameters SESR and ESR. POWER Pr BER=10-6 Ptr 3 dB BER=10-3 Ptr time<10 s time>10 s TIME ESR SESR ESR ESR ESR ESR ATR UATR ATR Figure 11: A simplified fading occurrence showing the received signal varying as a function of time due to different types of fading mechanisms. The corresponding relationship between the quality and availability parameters and the fading mechanisms is illustrated in Figure 12.26 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 6/038 02-LZU 102 152 Rev A, November 1999 199. QUALITY AND AVAILABILITY TARGETS QUALITY AND AVAILABILITY PARAMETERS FADING MECHANISMS FADING EVENTS UATR RAIN Slow fading REFRACTION-DIFFRACTION Slow fading ESR FLAT Rapid fading MULTIPATH PROPAGATION SELECTIVE Rapid fading SESR HARDWARE FAILURE No fading Figure 12: Correspondence between the quality and availability parameters and the fading mechanisms. The relationship between the quality and availability parameters and the fading mechanisms is not described in any ITU recommendation or report!Calculation of the unavailability parameters - Rec. G.821Unavailable time ratio (UATR) UATR is the ratio of a measured period for which the bit-error ratio is worse than 110-3 due to rain and refraction fading and hardware

failure. Unavailable time ratio is calculated as the probability P1 that BER exceeds 10-3 due to rain and refraction-diffraction fading: UATR = P1 ........................................................................................(3) Unavailability due to rain and refraction fading is obtained by using the 3-dB criterion, that is, assuming that the fade margin at the threshold, BER = 10-3, is 3 dB greater than the fade margin used in the probability calculation at the threshold for BER = 10-6. Unavailability due to hardware failure causes interruption in the radio connection and should therefore be included in the dimensioning of the unavailable time. Ericsson Radio Systems AB 276/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November1999 200. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNINGAvailable time ratio (UATR) ATR, expressed as a ratio, is calculated as UATR = 1 UATR ...........................................................................(4)Severely errored second ratio (SESR) SESR is the ratio of the total AT during a measured period for which the bit-error ratio is worse than 110-3 due multipath propagation (flat and frequency selective fading). Severely errored second ratio is obtained by calculating the probability, P2, that BER exceeds 10-3 due to multipath propagation (flat and frequency selective fading). SESR = P2 .........................................................................................(5) The fade margin, at BER = 10-3, is assumed to be 3 dB greater than that at BER = 10-6.Errored second ratio (ESR) ESR is the ratio of the total AT in a measured period during which any error occurs, regardless of the type of fading mechanism, but not included in the unavailable time. Seconds during which BER is worse than 10-6 appear both during available and unavailable time. Thus, error seconds are obtained as a ratio, by calculating the probability, P3, that BER exceeds 10-6 due to multipath propagation (flat and frequency selective fading), rain and refraction fading and then subtracting unavailable time, during which, seconds having a BER worse than 10-3 are included, that is, ESR = P3 - UATR ..............................................................................(6)Planning unavailable time Unavailable time was discussed earlier and the conclusion was that its primary constituents resulted from the occurrence of two fading mechanisms (rain and refraction) and radio equipment failure. But other eventual causes must be considered, such as, auxiliary equipment human activity28 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 6/038 02-LZU 102 152 Rev A, November 1999 201. QUALITY AND AVAILABILITY TARGETS interference power suppliesThe ITU-T Recommendation G.826 - basicconceptsIntroduction Recommendation G.826 is applicable to international, constant bit-rate digital path at or above the primary rate (2048 kbit/s). Recommendation G.826 is based upon the measurement of block errorperformance.Hypothetical Reference Path (HRP) A digital HRP (Hypothetical Reference Path) is, as is the case for the HRX, a network model in which studies relating to overall performance may be conducted, thereby facilitating the formulation of standards and objectives. The HRP, see Figure 13, is the starting-point for the apportionment strategy in ITU-T Recommendation G.826. Terminating Inter- Terminating Intermediate countries country country country PEP IG IG IG IG IG PEP J J J J J J J National National International portion portion portion Hypothetical Reference Path (HRP) 27,500 km PEP=Path End Point IG=International Gateway Figure 13: The Hypothetical Reference Path (HRP). Ericsson Radio Systems AB 296/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November1999

202. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNINGAvailable and unavailable time A period of Unavailable Time (UAT) begins with the onset of 10 consecutive SES events. These 10 seconds are considered to be part of unavailable time. A new period of Available Time (AT) begins with the onset of 10 consecutive non-SES events. These 10 seconds are considered to be part of available time.Definition of block A block is a set of consecutive bits associated with the path and each bit belongs to only one block. Table 9 specifies the recommended range of the number of bits within each block for different bit-rate ranges. Bit rate (Mbit/s) 1.5-5 >5-15 >15-55 >55-160 160>3500 >3500 Bits/block 800- 2000- 4000- 6000- 15000- for further 5000 8000 20000 20000 30000 study Table 9: Recommended range of the number of bits within each block for different bit-rate ranges. Because bit-error ratios are not expected to decrease dramatically as the bit rates of transmission systems increase, the block sizes used in evaluating very high bit rate paths should remain within the range of 15 000 to 30 000 bits/block. Preserving a constant block size for very high bit-rate paths result in relatively constant BBER and SESR objectives for these paths.Events occurring during available timeErrored Block (EB) Errored Block is a block in which one or more bits are in error.Errored Second (ES) Errored Second is a one-second period containing one or more errored blocks.30 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 6/038 02-LZU 102 152 Rev A, November 1999 203. QUALITY AND AVAILABILITY TARGETSSeverely Errored Second (SES) Severely Errored Second is a one-second period containing 30% errored blocks.Background Block Error (BBE) Background Block Error is an errored block not occurring as part of a SES.Definitions of quality parameters The quality objectives are defined based on the events defined earlier. These events constitute the quality parameters and should only be evaluated whilst the path is in the available state.Errored Second Ratio (ESR) Errored Second Ratio is the ratio of ES to the total seconds of available time during a fixed measurement interval. ESR is not expressed in percentage.Severely Errored Second Ratio (SESR) Severely Errored Second Ratio (SESR) is the ratio of SES to the total seconds of available time during a fixed measurement interval. SESR is not expressed as a percentage.Background Block Error Ratio (BBER) Background Block Error Ratio (BBER) is the ratio of errored blocks to total blocks during a fixed measurement interval, excluding all blocks during SES and UAT.A comparison of SESR (G.826) and SESR (G.821) Assume an equipment having block size of 2,048 bits/block and a block rate of 1000 blocks/s. The number of transmitted/received bits during a period of one second is the following: 1000 blocks 2,048 bits/block = 2.048 106 bits One SES contains at least 30% errored blocks, that is, 30% of 1000 blocks yields a minimum of 300 errored blocks. Ericsson Radio Systems AB 316/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November1999 204. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING As a result of the fact that one errored block contains a minimum of one bit error, then 300 errored blocks contain a minimum of 300 bit errors. The bit-error ratio is therefore a minimum of 300 BER = = 1.46 10 4 ............................................................(7) 2.048 10 6 The comparison between G.821 and G.826 yields: G.821 SES 1.00 10-3 G.826 SESR 1.46 10-4 The value of SESR is then about 7 times lower than the value of SES provided that the above requirements are valid. If 300 errored blocks contain more than 300 bit errors, e.g. 2,048 bit errors, then BER= 10-3, which means that SESR and SES

have the same value. Smaller block size also causes BER in recommendation G.826 to be comparable to BER in recommendation G.821. For instance, a block size of 300 bits/block yields BER=10-3 if just one bit error appears, thereby yielding the same value for both SESR and SES.End-to-end objectives apportionment in the HRP The quality parameters are allocated as ratios, which are related to the total available time. The quality parameters apportionment for different bit rates are illustrated in Table 10. Bit rate (Mbit/s) Quality 1.5-5 >5-15 >15-55 >55-160 >160-3500 >3500 ESR 0.04 0.05 0.075 0.16 Not confirmed For further study SESR 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 For further study -4 -4 -4 -4 -4 BBER 210 210 210 210 210 For further study Table 10: The apportionment of quality parameters for different bit rates. The values in the table are not expressed as percentages.32 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 6/038 02-LZU 102 152 Rev A, November 1999 205. QUALITY AND AVAILABILITY TARGETSQuality objectives allocation in the HRPNational portion The total allocation to the national portion, see Figure 14, is composed of two components: 1. Each national portion is allocated a fixed block allowance of 17.5% of the end-to-end objective. 2. A distance-based allocation of 1% per 500 km is assigned to the portion between PEP and IG and is added to the current block allowance. The actual route length (if it is known) and the air route between the PEP and the IG should first be calculated. The calculated air route should be multiplied by an appropriate routing factor specified as follows: If the air route distance is shorter than 1000 km, the routing factor is 1.5 If the air route distance is greater or equal 1000 km but shorter than 1200 km, the calculated route length is taken to be 1500 km If the air route distance is greater or equal 1200 km, the routing factor is 1.25 When both actual and calculated route lengths are known, the smaller value is retained. This distance should be rounded up to the nearest 500 km, that is, the two national portions comprise at least 500 km each. Ericsson Radio Systems AB 336/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November1999 206. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING 1%/500 km Distance-based Distance-based 1%/500 km allocation allocation 17.5% Block allowance Block allowance 17.5% Terminating Terminating Intermediate countries country country Inter- country PEP IG IG IG IG IG PEP J J J J J J J National National International portion portion portion Hypothetical Reference Path 27,500 km Figure 14: The allocation in the national portion of the HRP. When a national portion includes a satellite hop, a total allowance of 42% of the end-to-end objectives in Table 10 is allocated to this national portion. This allowance completely replaces both the block and the distance-based allowances otherwise allotted to the national portions.International portion The total allocation to the international portion, see Figure 15, is composed of two components: 1. The international portion is allocated a block allowance of 2% per intermediate country, plus 1% for each terminating country.34 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 6/038 02-LZU 102 152 Rev A, November 1999 207. QUALITY AND AVAILABILITY TARGETS 2. A distance-based allocation of 1% per 500 km is assigned to the total international portion that may pass through intermediate countries. The actual route length between consecutive IGs (one or two for each intermediate country) should be added in order to calculate the overall length of the international portion. The air-route distance between consecutive IGs should also be used and multiplied by an appropriate routing factor specified as follows for each element

between IGs: If the air route distance between two IGs is shorter than 1000 km, the routing factor is 1.5 If the air route distance is greater or equal 1000 km but shorter than 1200 km, the calculated route length is taken to be 1500 km If the air route distance between two IGs is greater or equal 1200 km, the routing factor is 1.25 When both actual and calculated route lengths are known, the smaller value is retained for each element between IGs. This distance should be rounded up to the nearest 500 km, but shall not exceed 26 500 km. In cases where the allocation to the international portion is less than 6%, then 6% shall be used as the allocation. Independent of the distance spanned, any satellite hop in the international portion receives a 35% allocation of the objectives Table 10. When allocating 35% to a satellite hop, employed in the international portion, the distance spanned by the satellite is not included in the distance-based allocation. Ericsson Radio Systems AB 356/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November1999 208. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING Distance based allocation 1%/500 km Block allowance 1% 1% Terminating Terminating Intermediate countries country country Inter- country PEP IG IG IG IG IG PEP J J J J J J J National National International portion portion portion Hypothetical Reference Path 27,500 km Figure 15: The allocation in the international portion of the HRP.Unavailability allocation in the HRP The allocation of unavailability in the national and international portions of the HRP is not defined in Rec. G.826.Radio applications of the ITU-TS Rec. G.826 The quality objectives defined in ITU-Ts Recommendation G.826 furnish a more detailed guidance for network dimensioning than Recommendation G.821. The revised quality objectives are applicable to both the national and the international portions of the HRP.36 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 6/038 02-LZU 102 152 Rev A, November 1999 209. QUALITY AND AVAILABILITY TARGETSNational portion of the HRP - basic sections Since there is one LE and one PC (alternatively one SC or one TC, depending on the size of the country) between the PEP and the IG, the national portion of the HRP (the portion between the PEP and the IG) is further divided in three portions. These portions, digital sections, are called Access, Short Haul and Long Haul and are illustrated in Figure 16. The quality objectives for the national portion are therefore assigned separately to the three portions. PC SC PEP LE TC IG Access Short Haul Long Haul PEP IG Figure 16: The national portion of the HRP (the portion between the PEP and the IG) is divided in three portions. PEP=Path End Point, IG=International Gateway, LE=Local Exchange, PC=Primary Center, SC=Secondary Center, TC=Tertiary Center. The three portions are defined as follows: Access is the section including the connections between the Path End Point (PEP) and the Local Exchange (LE). Short Haul is the section including the connections between the Local Exchange (LE) and Primary Center (PC) - alternatively the Secondary Center (SC) or Tertiary Center (TC), depending of the network architecture. Long haul is the section including the connections between the Primary Center (PC) - alternatively Secondary Center (SC) or Tertiary Center (TC) - and the International Gate (IG). Ericsson Radio Systems AB 376/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November1999 210. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNINGQuality objectives allocation Long-haul section For each transmission direction and for each of the different bit-rates, the quality objectives related to the long-haul section are to consist of a distance-based allocation and a block allocation as illustrated in Table 11. Bit rate (

Mbit/s) Quality 1.5-5 >5-15 >15-55 >55-160 >160-3500 ESR 0.04A 0.05A 0.075A 0.16A for further study SESR 0.002A 0.002A 0.002A 0.002A 0.002A -4 -4 -4 -4 BBER 2A10 2A10 2A10 2A10 1A10-4 Table 11: The allocation of the quality objectives in the long-haul section. The parameter A in the table is calculated as follows: L A = A1 + 0.01 ...............................................................................(8) 500 where A1 has provisionally been agreed to be in the range of 1 to 2% L the nearest 500 km value rounded up from L. Short-haul section For each transmission direction and for each of the different bit-rates, the quality objectives related to the short-haul section are to consist of a block allocation as illustrated in Table 12. Bit rate ( Mbit/s) Quality 1.5-5 >5-15 >15-55 >55-160 >160-3500 ESR 0.04B 0.05B 0.075B 0.16B for further study SESR 0.002B 0.002B 0.002B 0.002B 0.002B BBER 2B10-4 2B10-4 2B10-4 2B10-4 1B10-4 Table 12: The allocation of the quality objectives in the short-haul section.38 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 6/038 02-LZU 102 152 Rev A, November 1999 211. QUALITY AND AVAILABILITY TARGETS The value of B has provisionally been agreed to be in the range of 7.5 to 8.5%. Access section For each transmission direction and for each of the different bit-rates, the quality objectives related to the access section are to consist of a block allocation as illustrated in Table 13. Bit rate ( Mbit/s) Quality 1.5-5 >5-15 >15-55 >55-160 >160-3500 ESR 0.04C 0.05C 0.075C 0.16C for further study SESR 0.002C 0.002C 0.002C 0.002C 0.002C BBER 2C10-4 2C10-4 2C10-4 2C10-4 1C10-4 Table 13: The allocation of the quality objectives in the access section. The value of C has provisionally been agreed to be in the range of 7.5 to 8.5%.Summary of quality objectives A summary of the allocation of the quality parameters in the three sections of the national portion of the HRP is illustrated in Table 14. Bit rate Quality Long haul Short haul Access (Mbit/s)parameter ESR 0.04A 0.04B 0.04C 1.5-5 SESR 0.002A 0.002B 0.002C BBER 2A10-4 2B10-4 2C10-4 ESR 0.05A 0.05B 0.05C >5-15 SESR 0.002A 0.002B 0.002C BBER 2A10-4 2B10-4 2C10-4 ESR 0.075A 0.075B 0.075C >15-55 SESR 0.002A 0.002B 0.002C BBER 2A10-4 2B10-4 2C10-4 ESR 0.16A 0.16B 0.16C >55-160 SESR 0.002A 0.002B 0.002C -4 -4 BBER 2A10 2B10 2C10-4 ESR For further study For further study For further study >160-3500 SESR 0.002A 0.002B 0.002C BBER 1A10-4 1B10-4 1C10-4 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 396/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November1999 212. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING Table 14: Allocation of the quality parameters in the three sections of the national portion of the HRP. The following conditions are provisionally valid: 1) A% + B% + C% 17.5% 2) B% + C% are in the range 15.5 to 16.5% 3) The effects of interference and all other sources of performance degradation are included in the above table. 4) The suggested evaluation period is one month for all of the parameters, and the quality objectives apply only when the system is considered to be available.International portion of the HRP The international portion of the HRP consists of the network between the International Gateways (IG) of two countries. A connection in the international portion may, however, pass through several countries. The ITU has assumed that the connection passes through four countries (each with two IGs) and that both terminating countries have one IG each. This is illustrated in Figure 17. Terminating country Terminating country InterIntermediate countries country IG IG IG IG IG J J J J J International portion Figure 17:

The international portion of the HRP.40 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 6/038 02-LZU 102 152 Rev A, November 1999 213. QUALITY AND AVAILABILITY TARGETS The following quality objectives, see Table 15, for different bit rates, are allocated to the international portion of the HRP: Bit rate ( Mbit/s) Quality 1.5-5 >5-15 >15-55 >55-160 >160-3500 ESR 0.04(FL+BL) 0.05(FL+BL) 0.075(FL+BL) 0.16(FL+BL) for further study SESR 0.002(FL+BL) BBER 2 10-4(FL+BL) 2 10-4(FL+BL) Table 15: Allocation of the quality parameters in the international portion of the HRP. The values in the table are used with a distance allocation factor given by L FL = 0.01 .....................................................................................(9) 500 and a block allowance factor BL, which is applicable under the following conditions: Intermediate countries: L BL = BR 0.02 for Lmin < L Lref .........................................(10) Lref BL = BR 0.02 for L > Lref ....................................................(11) Terminating countries: L BL = BR 0.01 for Lmin < L Lref .........................................(12) Lref BL = BR 0.01 for L > Lref ....................................................(13) Block allowance factor: BR (0<BR1) Reference length: Lref=1000 km (provisionally) The following conditions are provisionally valid: Ericsson Radio Systems AB 416/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November1999 214. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING 1) The value of BR has provisionally been agreed to be 1. Further studies are required to establish a final value for BRthat can be used for different transmission components. 2) The effects of interference and all other sources of performance degradation are included in the above table. 3) The suggested evaluation period is one month for all the parameters, and the quality objectives apply only when the system is considered to be available. 4) The overall length of the international path passing through one or more countries should be rounded up to the nearest multiple of 500 km.Radio applications of the ITU-T Rec. G.826 The objective values presented in ITU-T Rec. G.826 for the national portion of the HRP are included in the ITU-R Rec. F.1189. It is one of the prime objectives of ITU-T Rec. G.826 to define all performance parameters in such a way that in-service estimation is possible. Thus, parameter definitions based upon bit-error ratios are not chosen. As mentioned before, the quality objectives for the national portion of the HDP are assigned separately to the three portions.The ITU-T Recommendation G.827 The purpose of this recommendation is to specify the availability parameters and objectives for path elements of international constant bit-rate digital paths at or above the primary rate. Two types of paths are considered: paths between the International Switching Centers (ISCs) consisting only of an international portion and paths extending beyond the ISC consisting of both national and international portions. The ITU-T Rec. G.827 specifies objectives for the availability performance of each of these paths. Many of the subjects included in the ITU-T Rec. G.827 are, however, still for further study. For instance, the exact location of the Path End Point (PEP) in the international portion and the availability performance objectives42 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 6/038 02-LZU 102 152 Rev A, November 1999 215. QUALITY AND AVAILABILITY TARGETSReferences ITU-T Recommendation G.102 ITU-T Recommendation G.801 ITU-T Recommendation G.821 ITU-T Recommendation G.826 ITU-T Recommendation G.921 ITU-I Recommendation I.120 ITU-R Recommendation F.556-1 ITU-R Recommendation F.557-3 ITU-R Recommendation F.594-4 ITU-R Recommendation F.634-3 ITU-R Recommendation

F.695 ITU-R Recommendation F.696-1 ITU-R Recommendation F.697-1 ITU-R Recommendation F.1092 ITU-R Recommendation F.1189 ITU-R Report F-930-2 ITU-R Report F-1052-1 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 436/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November1999 216. RADIO REGULATIONS This chapter briefly describes the ITU-R publication Radio Regulations, the publisher, the contents and the general structure of the publication. The primary objective of this chapter is to deal with the subject of Radio Regulations in connection with the use of frequencies for fixed terrestrial radio-links. TABLE OF CONTENTSIntroduction....................................................................................................... ................................................ 1What is meant by Radio Regulations?............................................................................................................... 1Who is the publisher?............................................................................................................................... ......... 2Content and structure.................................................................................................................................. ....... 3 Volume 1, Radio Regulations.............................................................................................................. 3 Volume 2, Appendices ........................................................................................................................ 4 Volume 3, Resolutions and Recommendations ................................................................................... 4The principle articles dealing with frequency allocation................................................................................... 4 Article 1 (RR footnotes 2 - 207).......................................................................................................... 4 Article 2 (RR footnotes 208- 234)....................................................................................................... 5 Article 4 (RR footnotes 264 298)...................................................................................................... 5 Article 6 (RR footnotes 339 - 373)...................................................................................................... 6 Article 7 (RR footnotes 374 390)...................................................................................................... 7 Article 8 (RR footnotes 391 - 952)...................................................................................................... 7 Article 9 (RR footnotes 953 989)...................................................................................................... 8 Article 10 (RR footnotes 990 -1040)................................................................................................... 9Radio Regulations volume 4 ............................................................................................................................. 10References ................................................................................................................................................ ......... 10 i 217. RADIO REGULATIONSIntroduction The chapter does not consider all of the required provisions and, as a result, is not to be construed as a substitute for the publication Radio Regulations. Instead, it is meant as a guide when seeking important international treatise in the area of radio frequency allocations and radio frequency management.What is meant by Radio Regulations? Radio Regulations is a set of documents consisting of three main volumes and one additional volume containing updates. The volumes constitutes an international radio communication treaty and deals

with the various radio communication services and their use of the radio- frequency spectrum. The regulations contain allocation rules and regulations relating to services using the radio spectrum up to 400 GHz. The documents cover both worldwide and regional frequency allocations as well as the priorities that are assigned to the different services when sharing the same frequency band. The combination of worldwide frequency allocation regulations together with regional allocation regulations (that may vary from one region to another) is the very foundation upon which interference-free global radio communication services exist. The objective of the regulations is to maintain efficient and economical use of the radio-frequency spectrum and to coordinate the efforts that will lead to the elimination of destructive interference between radio stations located in different countries. As for terrestrial fixed radio-link transmission services, Radio Regulations controls the allocation of frequency bands both on a global and on a regional basis, i.e., the allocation of worldwide frequency bands as well as the allocation of frequency bands employed within the different geographical regions of the world. These frequency bands may either be exclusively allocated for fixed terrestrial radio or, under certain conditions, may be shared with other services. Particular attention is paid to the coordination between terrestrial services and space services, between satellites and earth stations, and between fixed and mobile services - all of which are strictly regulated. Ericsson Radio Systems AB 17/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 218. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING When attempting to establish frequencies for a radio-link hop or a radio-link network in a particular country, Radio Regulations will provide available frequency bands for the country or region in question - frequency bands that are internationally approved for the service in question. Based on these frequency allocations, the allotment will then be made in accordance with the recommendations in the ITU-R series F (Fixed Services) publications. The allotments consist of one or more alternative radio-frequency channel arrangements. These arrangements are then to be used as in accordance with the rules of the administration in question. Based on the selected radio-frequency channel arrangement and the stipulations found in Radio Regulations, the planning and assignment of frequencies for the radio-link hop or radio-link network can take place. A significant portion of Radio Regulations deals with the handling and assignment of frequencies in the areas of maritime and aeronautical services and in the areas of vital safety and distress services.Who is the publisher? Radio Regulations is published under the authority of the Secretary General of the International Telecommunication Union, ITU. As ITU is a part of the United Nations, the Radio Regulation document represents a treaty between most of the countries in the world. Radio Communication Conferences are held every two years by the ITU Radio Communication Sector, ITU-R, having their primary function as the development and adoption of Radio Regulations. Other bodies of the Radio communication sector that participate in the Radio Regulations effort are: Radio Communication Bureau, which provides administrative and technical support to Radio Communication Conferences and the Radio Regulation Board, which among all its other activities also approves the rules of procedure as used in the application of the Radio Regulations. The Radio Communication Conferences are open to all ITU Members, Administrations, the United Nations, international organizations, regional

telecommunication organizations and intergovernmental organizations.2 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 7/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 219. RADIO REGULATIONSContent and structure Radio Regulations is a consolidated document consisting of three volumes which incorporate: Volume 1: Radio Regulations Volume 2 : Appendices Volume 3: Resolutions and Recommendations Volume 4: Articles, Appendix, WRC-95 Resolutions and RecommendationsVolume 1, Radio Regulations Volume 1 consists, for the time being, of 5197 regulatory footnotes that are divided in 69 articles (subdivided into sections), 13 chapters and two parts (A and B). Volume 1 Parts A and B Chapter I - XIII Article 1 - 69 (subdivided into sections) Regulations, footnotes 1 - 5197 Furthermore, volume 1 contains sections that are aimed at helping the reader and at increasing the ease-of-use of the document. For the most part, these sections consist of: Table of contents for all three volumes Analytical tables - a list of key words in alphabetic order covering both the main body of the regulations as well as the Appendices to the Radio Regulations. Analytical index - a set of eight tables containing the primary content of the Resolutions and the Recommendations. Notes by the General Secretary where, for example, note 3 (N-3) refers to ITU-R recommendations concerning the field of Radio Regulations. Most of the other notes consist of flowcharts covering radio regulatory procedures. Ericsson Radio Systems AB 37/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 220. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNINGVolume 2, Appendices The appendices, referring to one or more articles or regulatory footnotes, contain additional information over and above that provided in RR volume 1. The information consists of more detailed and specified texts, algorithms, tables and figures. Two examples are illustrated below: 1. Appendix 6, Determination of Necessary Bandwidths Including Examples for their Calculation and Associated Examples for the Designation of Emissions 2. Appendix 28, Methods for the Determination of Coordination Area Around an Earth Station in Frequency Bands Between 1 GHz and 40 GHz Shared Between Space and Terrestrial Radio Communication Services. The Appendices are numbered in order, depending on the services they cover. An analytical table is provided in volume 1.Volume 3, Resolutions and Recommendations The Resolutions and Recommendations contain administrative decisions concerning principles, general procedures and cooperation. They also regulate how and when actions that have been decided upon, as well as future issues, are to be carried out. The Resolutions and Recommendations are numbered in order, depending on the services they cover. An analytical index is provided in volume 1.The principle articles dealing with frequencyallocation The examples below deal with fixed terrestrial radio and cover the most important sections of Radio Regulations. The examples do not reproduce the entire text found in Radio Regulations, they only serve as a guide to the contents therein. For all the provisions and their terms, see Radio Regulations, Volume 1.Article 1 (RR footnotes 2 - 207) Terms and Definitions. This article contains Terms and Definitions that are important to the understanding of Radio Regulations.4 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 7/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 221. RADIO REGULATIONS Three important definitions that relate to Frequency Management (footnotes 17, 18 and 19): Allocation (of a frequency band): Frequency distribution to services. Frequency allocation of a given frequency band for the purpose of its use, i.e. the allocation of frequencies to specific services under specified conditions.

Allotment (of a radio frequency or radio frequency channel): Frequency distribution to areas or countries. The allotment of a designated frequency channel, that is specified in an agreed frequency plan, for use in a country or area. Assignment (of a radio frequency or a radio frequency channel): Frequency distribution to stations. The authorization granted by an administration to a radio station allowing the use of a radio frequency or radio frequency channel under specified conditions.Article 2 (RR footnotes 208- 234) Nomenclature related to the Frequency and Wavelength Bands Used in Radio Communication. The radio spectrum is subdivided into nine frequency bands that are designated by band numbers (consecutive whole numbers). At present the numbers cover the range four (4) to twelve (12). The frequency range covers the spectrum from 3 kHz up to 3000 GHz. The frequency bands also have corresponding symbols (e.g., VHF, UHF), a metric band division (e.g., metric waves, decimetric waves) and metric abbreviations (e.g., B.m, B.dm)Article 4 (RR footnotes 264 - 298) Emission designations. Emissions are to be designated in accordance with their necessary bandwidth and their classification. The classification is a description of the type of modulation, nature of the signal and information to be transmitted. The purpose of the designation is to achieve a concise and standardized emission description, i.e., to achieve a concise and standardized terminology in the communication between operators, administrations and the ITU. The designation describes: Ericsson Radio Systems AB 57/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 222. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING Necessary bandwidth, by three numerals and one alphabetic character. The alphabetic character is to be H (Hz), K (KHz), M (MHz) or G (GHz) and is to occupy the position of the decimal point and is to represent the unit of bandwidth. Example: The bandwidth 28.0 MHz is designated as 28M0. The class of emission is to be designated by a set of alpha-numeric characteristics. The basic characteristics are: (1) first symbol - type of modulation of the main carrier. Example: G, Phase modulation (2) second symbol nature of signal(s) modulating the main carrier. Example: 7, Two or more channels containing quantified or digital information; (3) third symbol - type of information to be transmitted. Example: E, Telephony; Optional additional characteristics consisting of two symbols, the fourth and the fifth, are provided in Appendix 6, part A: (4) fourth symbol - signal details. Example: D, Four-condition code in which each condition represents a signal element, e.g., one or more bits; (5) fifth symbol - nature of multiplexing. Example: T, Time division multiplexing; The examples above give the designation: 28M0G7EDT for a signal having a bandwidth of 28 MHz, that is phase modulated, that handles digital telephony, in which the signal is coded with a fourcondition code and that is time division multiplexed. Appendix 6, part B, provides a number of methods for the determination of the necessary bandwidth for different modulation methods. The appendix also includes some examples of their calculation.Article 6 (RR footnotes 339 - 373) General Rules for the Assignment and Use of Frequencies. Article 6 provides general rules relating to frequency economy, harmful interference and stations in distress. The salient points are: Frequency economy: The limitation of the number of frequencies and the used spectrum to the minimum required for the satisfactory operation of the necessary services. Use the latest technical advances.6 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 7/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999

223. RADIO REGULATIONS Harmful interference: In order to avoid harmful interference, frequencies are to be assigned to radio stations in accordance with the Table of Frequency Allocations (Article 8). The frequencies assigned near the limits of an allocated band may not cause harmful interference to services allocated to adjoining frequency bands. When allocating a band of frequencies to a variety of services in adjacent regions, the basic principle is the equality of the right to operate. No harmful interference may affect the services in other regions. Distress: The Radio Regulations makes no provision for the prevention of the use of a radio or any other means of radio communications in situations of distress.Article 7 (RR footnotes 374 - 390) Special Agreements. Two or more members (of the ITU) may, with some exceptions, conclude special agreements regarding the sub-allocation of bands of services or the assignment of frequencies to specific services. The special agreements shall not be in conflict with any of the provisions of the Radio Regulations, i.e., no radio system may be affected by harmful interference resulting from such agreements.Article 8 (RR footnotes 391 - 952) Frequency Allocations. This important part of the Radio Regulations contains information concerning the allocation and regulation of frequency bands for all services. This implies that the frequency spectrum from approximately 9 kHz up to 400 GHz is allocated and regulated by these stipulations. The following subjects are of interest: Article 8, Section I: Regions and Areas The world has been divided into three regions (footnotes 393 to 399) for the purposes of frequency allocation. Notes often exist that regulate the use of the different frequency bands used in the smaller areas of a region (such as in countries). The regions are shown on a map and described in detail in the text. The three regions are roughly the following: Region 1: Europe, Russia, Middle East and Africa. Ericsson Radio Systems AB 77/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 224. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING Region 2: America, North and South. Region 3: The remainder of the world. Article 8, Section II: Service and Allocation categories The Tables of Frequency Allocations found in Section IV of Article 8 indicate that some frequency bands are allocated to more than one service, either on a worldwide or on a regional basis. These services are divided into different categories, where the main categories are (footnotes 413 - 425): Primary Service and Permitted Service which have equal rights, except that, in the preparation of frequency plans, the primary service as compared with the permitted service, shall have prior choice of frequencies. Secondary Service a) shall not cause harmful interference to stations of primary or permitted services to which frequencies already are assigned or to which frequencies may be assigned at a later Date. b) cannot claim protection from harmful interference from stations of primary or permitted service to which frequencies already are assigned or to which frequencies may be assigned at a later Date. c) can claim protection, however, from harmful interference from stations of the same or other secondary services to which frequencies may be assigned at a later Date. In addition, three more categories should be noted: Additional Allocations (footnotes 426 - 429) Alternative Allocations (footnotes 430 - 433) Miscellaneous Provisions (footnotes 434 436)Article 9 (RR footnotes 953 - 989) Special Rules for the Assignment and Use of Frequencies. Article 9 deals with rules concerning safety services, the use of low frequencies and the use of frequencies allocated to one service that are used by other services, e.g., aircraft earth stations are in some cases authorized to use frequencies

allocated to maritime mobile-satellite services. Some examples of the contents are:8 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 7/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 225. RADIO REGULATIONS Low frequencies that have long-distance characteristics, i.e., those in the band between 5 MHz and 30 MHz, are to be reserved for long distance communication as far as is possible. Of special interest, from the radio-link transmission point of view, are: Any emission capable of causing harmful interference to distress, alarm, urgency or safety communication over the international distress and emergency frequencies that have been established for these purposes by Radio Regulations is prohibited. Any administration may assign a frequency in a band allocated to the fixed service to transmit from one specified fixed point to one or more specified fixed points provided that such transmissions are not intended to be received directly by the general public (i.e., point to multipoint systems are allowed in the fixed frequency bands).Article 10 (RR footnotes 990 -1040) International Frequency Registration Board. The International Frequency Registration Board (IFRB) formed prior to 1993 is a part of the former ITU organization, equal in stature to CCITT and CCIR. Today, IFRB duties are carried out by the ITU-R Radio Communication Bureau and Radio Regulations Board. Relevant provisions in the present edition of the Radio Regulations (edition of 1990, revised 1994) still refer to the IFRB. The constitution and essential duties of the International Frequency Registration Board are defined in the ITU Convention. The Board has frequent meetings, at least once a week. Examples of functions of the Board are the following: Processing and administration of the Master International Frequency Register. Compilation for publication of frequency lists reflecting the data recorded in the Master International Frequency Register. The study, on a long-term basis, of the usage of the radio frequency spectrum, with a view to making recommendations for its more effective use. Assistance to the ITU or administrations in the investigation of harmful interference in order to achieve the efficient use of the radio-frequency spectrum. This is achieved through the use of technical standards and training in the fields of spectrum management and the utilization of frequencies. Ericsson Radio Systems AB 97/038 02LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 226. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNINGRadio Regulations volume 4 Radio regulation volume 4 is an update of Radio Regulations edition 1994. This publication is complementary to the three earlier mentioned volumes of the Radio Regulations. Volume 4 of the Radio Regulations is a consolidated document incorporating the decisions of the World Radio Communication Conference 1995 (WRC95) concerning the revised provisions of the Radio Regulationsthat came into force provisionally on 1 January 1997. Revisions are made in: Article 8, Frequency Allocations. Article 28, Space Radio Communication Services Sharing Frequency Bands with Terrestrial Radio Communication Services above 1 GHz. Article 29, Special Rules Relating to Space Radio Communication Services. Appendices 1 and 2, concerning Notification and Recording in the Master International Frequency Register of Frequency Assignments to Terrestrial Radio Communication Stations. Appendix 3, Notices Relating to Space Radio Communication and Radio Astronomy Stations. Appendix 4, Advance Publication Information to Be Furnished for a Satellite Network. Appendix 5, concerning the Frequency Allotment Plan for Coast Radiotelephone Stations.References Radio Regulations ITU publication, vol. 1-4, revised edition 1998. General information and facts on ITU were gathered from Internet http//www.itu.int

during November 1999.10 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 7/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 227. THE RADIO SPECTRUM AND CHANNEL ARRANGEMENT The chapter deals with the principles that apply to the structuring of frequency channel arrangements, necessary channel separation as a function of modulation method and transmission capacity plus a reference to currently applicable ITU-R recommendations concerning frequency channel arrangements in the frequency band 1.5 to 55 GHz. TABLE OF CONTENTSAvailable frequency bands ................................................................................................................................ 1Available frequency-channel arrangements....................................................................................................... 1The spectrum................................................................................................................................. .................... 1 The radio spectrum.............................................................................................................................. 2 Channel width ..................................................................................................................................... 3Modulation ................................................................................................................................................ ........ 5 Analog systems................................................................................................................................... . 6 Digital systems .................................................................................................................................... 6 Modulation and spectral efficiency ..................................................................................................... 6 Two-state Phase-shift Keying (2 PSK) modulation............................................................... 6 Four-state Phaseshift Keying (4 PSK) modulation .............................................................. 7 Eight-state Phase-shift Keying (8 PSK) modulation ............................................................. 7 Quadrature amplitude modulation......................................................................................... 7Frequency-channel arrangements ...................................................................................................................... 8 Construction of channel arrangements ................................................................................................ 8 Alternated Pattern ................................................................................................................. 11 Co-channel band reuse......................................................................................................... 11 Interleaved pattern................................................................................................................. 12ITU-R defined radio-frequency channel arrangements ..................................................................................... 12References ................................................................................................................................................ ......... 14 i 228. THE RADIO SPECTRUM AND CHANNEL ARRANGEMENTAvailable frequency bands When attempting to establish frequencies for a radio-link hop or a radiolink network in a particular country, Radio Regulations Article 8 will provide available frequency bands for the country or region in question - frequency bands that are internationally approved for the service in question. Based on these frequency allocations, the allotment will then be made in accordance with the recommendations in the ITU-R series F (Fixed Services) publications. The allotments consist of one or more

alternative radio-frequency channel arrangements. These arrangements are then to be used in accordance with the rules of the administration in question. Based on the selected radio-frequency channel arrangement and the stipulations found in Radio Regulations, the planning and assignment of frequencies for the radio-link hop or radio-link network can take place.Available frequency-channel arrangements Internationally recommended frequency channel arrangements exist to facilitate the achievement of international coordination and a uniform standard for the planning of spectrum utilization including standards for the manufacturers of radio equipment. A number of frequency channel arrangements that lie in the range from 1.5 to 55 GHz have been worked out by ITU-R and may be found in the F series (Fixed Service) recommendations. The frequency channel arrangements have been adapted to various bandwidth requirements through suitable channel spacing. In ITU studies that have been carried out to date, a number of bands have not been the subject of Recommendations for specific radio-frequency channel arrangements which might be fitted into an international pattern as has already been done in other parts of the frequency spectrum. On a regional basis, one may find both other frequency bands and other frequency channel arrangements than those recommended by ITU.The spectrum Electromagnetic waves exist at all frequencies (or wavelengths). This endless scale is referred to as the electromagnetic spectrum. The speed of electromagnetic waves is constant (c 3108 m/s in vacuum). Ericsson Telecom AB 18/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 229. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING The radio spectrum is a natural resource. It is limited, but to some extent recoverable. It can also be misused and can be exposed to environmentally destructive forces through laziness, unwise frugality, and ruthless exploitation. As a result, it may be difficult to effectively utilize portions of the spectrum that have been released and made available for other usage. It is necessary that one is aware of the consequences to other spectrum users, when one is vigilant in accommodating ones own communication requirements. A change can create an unpredictable chain reaction. A small-scale improvement may, from a more macro point of view, prove to be a deterioration. The scarcity of the radio spectrum requires that it has to be rationed, sometimes heavily. On occasion, more than one radio service may share the same spectral potion - a proviso being that all users must show consideration for one another. It is often the case that one must forgo ones own wishes so that the collective capacity that available to the different services is as great as possible. In todays information society, one is dependent on the fact that all communications resources operate effectively. If a dominant services is allowed to expand at the cost of a number of small services, the dominant service may prove to be of little or no use - simply because the dominating service is dependent on the support of the smaller services.The radio spectrum The radio spectrum consists of electromagnetic fluctuations that have the same physical properties as visible light, but have lower frequencies (which is the same as greater wavelengths). Frequency is measured in Hertz (Hz) and 1 Hz corresponds to one fluctuation (or cycle) per second. There is no physical limit, either upwards or downwards, for the frequency of electromagnetic fluctuations, however, in accordance with international Radio Regulations, it has been more or less arbitrarily decided that frequency limits exist at 9 kHz and 3,000 GHz (equivalent to wavelengths of 33 km and 0.1 mm respectively). These are the administrative limits of the Radio Regulations, and it is within these limits that the following traditional

frequency ranges exist: HF, high frequencies (3...30 MHz) VHF, very high frequencies (30...300 MHz) UHF, ultra high frequencies (300...3000 MHz)2 Ericsson Telecom AB 8/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 230. THE RADIO SPECTRUM AND CHANNEL ARRANGEMENT SHF, super high frequencies (3...30 GHz) EHF, extremely high frequencies (30...300 GHz) Not labeled (3003000GHz) The different frequency bands have different characteristics with respect to range and the size of the antennas used.Channel width The frequency raster is a fundamental concept in the performance of frequency planning activities. A raster is a subdivision of a frequency range or a portion of an available spectrum into segments (channels). Channel arrangements may be determined both for analog and for digital systems. When constructing a raster, and during the determination of channel assignment, consideration is given to the method of modulation and the radio links capacity both of which affect bandwidth and interference tolerance. For a digital signal, the capacity is equal to the information data rate expressed in bits/s. The concept of modulation will be explained in the next section. The method of modulation determines the required bandwidth for the transmitted signal. The suitability of a given modulation method to a particular application is determined by the following characteristics: Spectrum efficiency A common definition of spectrum efficiency is transmitted quantity of information per used spectrum. The transmitted quantity of information within a given spectrum is expressed in bits/s/Hz. Spectrum efficiency will increase with an increase in number of modulation levels. Interference tolerance Different modulation methods have different interference tolerance characteristics. The interference tolerance of digital systems is presented as a minimum C/I quotient (carrier/interference ratio) for different bit-error ratios. In general, interference tolerance deteriorates as the number of modulation levels is increased. Table 1 gives some examples of modulation schemes and their respective Nyquist bandwidths. The Nyquist bandwidth values are one of the factors determining channel separation. Ericsson Telecom AB 38/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 231. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING Modulation Variant Nyquist bandwidth (bn) PSK 2-state PSK B 4-state PSK B/2 8-state PSK B/3 16-state PSK B/4 QAM 16-QAM B/4 32-QAM B/5 64-QAM B/6 128-QAM B/7 256-QAM B/8 512-QAM B/9 TCM 16 TCM-2D B/3 32 TCM-2D B/4 128 TCM-2D B/6 512 TCM-2D B/8 64 TCM-4D B/5.5 128 TCM-4D B/6.5 512 TCM-4D B/8.5 Table 1:. Examples of different modulation schemes and their respective Nyquist bandwidths. bn = Nyquist bandwidth B = Bit rate, code redundancy is not included PSK = Phase Shift Keying QAM = Quadrature Amplitude Modulation TCM = Trellis Coded Modulation The Nyquist bandwidth occupied by the modulated signal can be used in comparing various modulation schemes. However, this does not generally indicate the radiofrequency channel bandwidth that must, in practice, be allotted to a digitally modulated signal. This channel bandwidth is, in principle, a trade-off between the choice of modulation, inter-channel interference and network constraints and is, in practice, provided by the relevant ITU-R Recommendation on radio-frequency channel arrangements. It is expected to vary in the range 1.2 bn to 2 bn for various systems.4 Ericsson Telecom AB 8/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 232. THE RADIO SPECTRUM AND CHANNEL ARRANGEMENTModulation Generally speaking, modulation is a physical operation related to the modification of

certain wave characteristics in accordance with the characteristics of another wave. In radio-relay systems, the baseband signal containing the information to be transmitted from one place to another is used to modulate the radio-frequency carrier (RF carrier) during the transmission process. The reverse occurs during the reception process in which the signal containing the information is extracted by demodulating the received signal. The RF carrier is a sine wave given by U = A cos ( + 2 f) ........................................................................(1) where U = RF carrier strength A = amplitude = phase f = frequency Modification of the RF carrier (i.e., modulation) is possible by using of one of, or combinations of the following three modes: changing its amplitude A, that is, amplitude modulation (AM) changing its phase , that is, phase modulation (PM) changing its frequency f, that is, frequency modulation (FM) Direct modulation of the baseband on the RF carrier is usually encountered in low-cost analog systems having low and medium capacities. A two-step procedure can also be used, where the baseband is modulated on an Intermediate Frequency (IF) in the first step, and the frequency is up-converted to RF in the second step. Modern equipment eliminates the IF stage by performing RF frequency generation and modulation in one and the same circuit. Ericsson Telecom AB 58/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 233. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNINGAnalog systems Frequency modulation (FM) is usually employed in analog radio- systems because it is more resistant to distortion than amplitude modulation (AM). Using frequency modulation, the IF and RF carrier deviate from their nominal values as a function of baseband frequency. The relation between frequency deviation and baseband frequency is referred to as the modulation index. The higher the modulation index, the better the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) but also the larger is the bandwidth required in the RF and IF frequency spectrums.Digital systems Digital modulation is generally much more complex than analog modulation. The following will introduce some general digital modulation concepts. A digital telephone channel requires 64 kbit/s as compared with 4 kHz for an analog telephone channel. In addition, existing frequency plans were originally established for analog transmission. The result is that the transmission capacity of digital signals must be accommodated for in such frequency plans. Economizing on the usage of frequency spectrum is therefore of great importance when applying digital modulation. Bandwidth economy may otherwise be referred to as spectral efficiency and is defined as the quotient between transmission capacity and RF carrier bandwidth, that is, by bit/s/Hz. Spectral efficiency depends largely on the modulation mode.Modulation and spectral efficiency The main objective of digital modulation is to bring the baseband signal onto the RF carrier using a minimum of bandwidth. Basically, digital signals have two amplitude states, 0 or 1, corresponding to phases 0 and 180 degrees.Two-state Phaseshift Keying (2 PSK) modulation The simplest modulation mode is two-state Phase-Shift Keying (2 PSK) and is obtained by keying the two state conditions 0 and 180 degrees onto the RF carrier by shifting the phase of the carrier. Shifting the carrier phase by 180 degrees requires one hertz of the carrier frequency for each bit of the baseband, which gives a spectral efficiency of 1 bit/s/Hz. Thus, a 2-Mbit/s baseband modulated with 2 PSK requires a RF carrier with a bandwidth of 2 MHz.6 Ericsson Telecom AB 8/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 234. THE RADIO SPECTRUM AND CHANNEL ARRANGEMENTFour-state Phaseshift Keying (4 PSK) modulation Four-state phase-shift keying modulation (4 PSK) is

also called quaternary PSK (QPSK) modulation because the binary signal is converted into a quaternary signal and the four possible phases of the quaternary signal are keyed onto the RF carrier by shifting the carrier phase in steps of 90-degrees. The spectral efficiency is 2.0 bit/s/Hz. Thus a 2-Mbit/s baseband modulated with 4 PSK requires a RF carrier with a bandwidth of 1 MHz.Eight-state Phase-shift Keying (8 PSK) modulation By shifting the carrier in steps of 45-degrees, eight possible phases of the signal are keyed onto the RF carrier. This is eight-state phase-shift keying modulation (8 PSK). The spectral efficiency is 3 bit/s/Hz. Thus a 2-Mbit/s baseband modulated with 8 PSK requires a RF carrier with a bandwidth of 0.67 MHz.Quadrature amplitude modulation Higher modulation mode, for instance 16 PSK, requires better signal-to- noise performance, which is practically difficult to accomplish. In such cases, quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) which is a combination of phase-shifting and amplitude modulation of the carrier, may be used. In this case, two carriers that are 90 degrees out of phase (this is phase quadrature) are amplitude modulated (AM) by a digital signal (baseband) having a finite number, m, of amplitude levels - that are subsequently added to one another. This is known by m-QAM. For instance, 16 QAM gives 16 different signal states, which are both amplitude and phase-shift modulated onto the RF carrier. This yields a spectral efficiency of 4 bit/s/Hz. Thus a 140 Mbit/s baseband requires a RF carrier that has a bandwidth of 1404 = 35 MHz. This fits the 40 MHz RF channel spacing for the bands in the range 4 to 11 GHz. 16 QAM modulation is however not applicable for the bands ranging from 2 to 8 GHz, where RF channel spacing is 29/30 MHz. 64 QAM modulation yields a spectral efficiency of 6 bit/s/Hz. Thus a 140 Mbit/s baseband requires an RF carrier that has a bandwidth of 1406 23 MHz, which fits the 29/30 MHz RF channel spacing in the frequency range mentioned above. Ericsson Telecom AB 78/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 235. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNINGFrequency-channel arrangementsConstruction of channel arrangements For radio systems that use Frequency Division Duplex (FDD) the available frequency band is subdivided into two equal halves, a lower and an upper duplex half. The separation between the lowest frequency in the lower half and that of the upper half is referred to as the duplex separation. The duplex separation is always to be sufficiently large such that the intended radio equipment can operate interference-free under duplex operation, i.e., concurrent transmission over, for example, the lower duplex half and reception over the duplex separation of the upper half. An additional problem arises when more than one link is located at the same site, namely that a transmitter belonging to a radio system may not interfere the receiver belonging to another radio system. To achieve this, a minimum frequency separation is required between the transmitter and receiver in question. This minimum frequency separation is less than the duplex separation, and is (among other factors) dependent on the antenna isolation between the two systems. By selecting a separation between the upper and lower duplex bands that at least corresponds to this minimum frequency separation, the conditions required for interference-free transmission will be met as long as all of the transmitters in a given node are localized to one duplex band and all of the receivers to the other. Rec. ITU-R F.746-3 describes the construction of frequency channel arrangements having two duplex halves. The recommendation also includes a table containing frequency channel arrangements defined by ITU-R plus a reference to currently valid recommendations. ITU-R recommends that the preferred

radio-frequency channel arrangements should be developed from the homogeneous patterns given by: alternated, Figure 1a co-channel band re-use, Figure 1b interleaved band re-use, Figure 1c The primary parameters affecting the choice of radiofrequency channel arrangements are:8 Ericsson Telecom AB 8/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 236. THE RADIO SPECTRUM AND CHANNEL ARRANGEMENT XS, carrier spacing, defined as the radio-frequency separation between the center frequencies of adjacent radio-frequency channels of the same polarization and in the same direction of transmission; YS, defined as the radio-frequency separation between the center frequencies of the go and return radio-frequency channels which are nearest to each other. For the case where the go and return frequency sub-bands are not contiguous, such that there exists band(s) allocated for service(s) in the gap between them; then YS is to be considered as including the band separation (BS) equal to the total width of the allocated band(s) used by such service(s). ZS, defined as the radio-frequency separation between the center frequencies of the outermost radio-frequency channels and the edge of the frequency band. For the case where the lower and upper separations differ in value, Z1S refers to the lower separation and Z2S refers to the upper separation. For the case where go and return frequency sub-bands are not contiguous, such that there exists band(s) allocated for service(s) in the gap between them; then ZSi will be defined for the innermost edges of both sub-bands and will be included in YS. DS, Tx/Rx duplex spacing, defined as the radio-frequency separation between corresponding go and return channels, constant for each couple of i-th and i-th frequencies, within a given channel arrangement. Ericsson Telecom AB 98/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 237. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING FIGURE 1 Channel arrangements for the three possible schemes considered in the text DS XS Polarizations 1 3 1 3 H(V) a) Alternated pattern Main frequencies V(H) XS 2 4 N 2 4 N Channel number 2 XS YS ZS A B DS XS 1 2 3 4 N Main frequency Polarizations 1 2 3 4 N H(V) pattern b) Band re-use in the co-channel mode V(H) 1r 2r 3r 4r Nr 1r 2r 3r 4r Nr Channel number YS ZS A B DS XS Main frequency Polarizations 1 2 3 4 N 1 2 3 4 N H(V) pattern c) Band re-use in the interleaved mode V(H) Nr 1r 2r 3r 4r Nr 1r 2r 3r 4r Channel number XS YS ZS 2 XS A B D01 A: go channels B: return channels Figure 1: Channel arrangements for the three possible schemes. The choice of radio-frequency channel arrangement depends on the values of cross-polar discrimination, XPD [see equation 2], and net filter discrimination, NFD [see equation 3], where these parameters are defined as: PRXH XPD = ........................................................................................(2) PRXV where: XPD = crosspolar discrimination PRXH = power received on horizontal polarization transmitted on horizontal polarization, mW. PRXV = power received on vertical polarization transmitted on horizontal polarization, mW.10 Ericsson Telecom AB 8/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 238. THE RADIO SPECTRUM AND CHANNEL ARRANGEMENT Equation (2) also applies for the case where the polarization plan is the reverse. PRX(ADJ) NFD = ..............................................................................(3) PRX(ADJ + filter) where: NFD = net filter discrimination PRX(ADJ) = Adjacent channel received power, mW PRX(ADJ+filter) = Adjacent channel received power by the main receiver, mW following the RF (radio frequency), IF (intermediate) and BB (base band) filters. The

XPD and NFD parameters are usually expressed in dB and contribute to the value of carrier-to-interference ratio. When the ratio between two received powers, expressed in mW is A, then the ratio in dB becomes AdB=10logA. The XPD and NFD parameters (dB) contribute to the value of carrier-to- interference ratio. If XPDmin is the minimum value reached for the percentage time required, the total amount of interfering power can be evaluated from this value of XPDmin and from the adjacent channel NFD. The result must be compared with the minimum value of carrier-to-interference ratio (C / I)min that is acceptable to the modulation method adopted.Alternated Pattern Alternated channel arrangements can be used (neglecting the co-polar adjacent channel interference -channel band re-use Co-channel

-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 239. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING where: XIF = XPD improvement factor of any cross-polar interference countermeasures, if implemented in the receiver affected by the interference. NFDa = Net Filter Discrimination evaluated at XS frequency spacing. The NFD value (NFD-3) takes into account double-sided like- modulated interference.Interleaved pattern Interleaved channel 10 10 10 where: NFDb = Net Filter Discrimination evaluated at XS / 2 frequency spacing.ITU-R defined radio-frequency channelarrangements Table 2 and Table 3 (from Rec. ITU-R F.746-3) present a summary of the currently ITU-R defined radio-frequency channel arrangements including references to the relevant Recommendations.12 Ericsson Telecom AB 8/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 240. THE RADIO SPECTRUM AND CHANNEL ARRANGEMENT Band Frequency range Recommendation ITU-R Channel spacing (GHz) (GHz) F-Series (MHz) 1.5 1.4271.53 746, Annex 1 0.5; 1; 2; 3.5 2 1.427-2.69 701 0.5 (pattern) 1.7-2.1; 1.9-2.3 382 29 1.7-2.3 283 14 1.9-2.3 1098 3.5; 2.5 (patterns) 1.9-2.3 1098, Annexes 1, 2 14 1.9-2.3 1098, Annex 3 10 2.3-2.5 746, Annex 2 1; 2; 4; 14; 28 2.5-2.7 283 14 4 3.8-4.2 382 29 3.6-4.2 635 10 (pattern) 3.6-4.2 635, Annex 1 90; 80; 60; 40 5 4.4-5.0 746, Annex 3 28 4.4-5.0 1099 10 (pattern) 4.4-5.0 1099, Annex 1 40; 60; 80 4.54-4.9 1099, Annex 2 40; 20 L6 5.925-6.425 383 29.65 5.85-6.425 383, Annex 1 90; 80; 60 U6 6.425-7.11 384 40; 20 6.425-7.11 384, Annex 1 80 7 7.425-7.725 385 7 7.425-7.725 385, Annex 1 28 7.4357.75 385, Annex 2 5 7.11-7.75 385, Annex 3 28 8 8.2-8.5 386 11.662 7.725-8.275 386, Annex 1 29.65 7.725-8.275 386, Annex 2 40.74 8.275-8.5 386, Annex 3 14; 7 10 10.310.68 746, Annex 4 20; 5; 2 10.5-10.68 747, Annex 1 7; 3.5 (patterns) 10.55-10.68 747, Annex 2 5; 2.5; 1.25 (patterns) 11 10.7-11.7 387, Annexes 1 and 2 40 10.7-11.7 387, Annex 3 67 10.7-11.7 387, Annex 4 60 10.7-11.7 387, Annex 5 80 12 11.7-12.5 746, Annex 5, 3 19.18 12.2-12.7 746, Annex 5, 2 20 (pattern) 13 12.75-13.25 497 28; 7; 3.5 12.75-13.25 497, Annex 1 35 12.7-13.25 746, Annex 5, 1 25; 12.5 14 14.25-14.5 746, Annex 6 28; 14; 7; 3.5 14.25-14.5 746, Annex 7 20 15 14.4-15.35 636 28; 14; 7; 3.5 14.5-15.35 636, Annex 1 2.5 (pattern) 14.5-15.35 636, Annex 2 2.5 Table 2: Radiofrequency channel arrangements for radio-relay systems in frequency bands below about 17 GHz. Ericsson Telecom AB 138/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999

241. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING Band Frequency range Recommendation ITU-R Channel spacing (GHz) (GHz) F-Series (MHz) 18 17.7-19.7 595 220; 110; 55; 27.5 17.7-21.2 595, Annex 1 160 17.7-19.7 595, Annex 2 220; 80; 40; 20; 10; 6 17.7-19.7 595, Annex 3 3.5 17.7-19.7 595, Annex 4 13.75; 27.5 23 21.2-23.6 637 3.5; 2.5 (patterns) 21.2-23.6 637, Annex 1 112 to 3.5 21.2-23.6 637, Annex 2 28; 3.5 21.2-23.6 637, Annex 3 28; 14; 7; 3.5 21.2-23.6 637, Annex 4 50 21.2-23.6 637, Annex 5 112 to 3.5 22.0-23.6 637, Annex 1 112 to 3.5 27 24.25-25.25 748 3.5; 2.5 (patterns) 24.25-25.25 748, Annex 3 56; 28 25.25-27.5 748 3.5; 2.5 (patterns) 25.25-27.5 748, Annex 1 112 to 3.5 27.5-29.5 748 3.5; 2.5 (patterns) 27.5-29.5 748, Annex 2 112 to 3.5 27.5-29.5 748, Annex 3 112; 56; 28 31 31.0-31.3 746, Annex 8 25; 50 38 36.0-40.5 749 3.5; 2.5 (patterns) 36.0-37.0 749, Annex 3 112 to 3.5 37.0-39.5 749, Annex 1 140; 56; 28; 14; 7; 3.5 38.6-40.0 749, Annex 2 50 39.5-40.5 749, Annex 3 112 to 3.5 55 54.2558.2 1100 3.5; 2.5 (patterns) 54.25-57.2 1100, Annex 1 140; 56; 28; 14 57.2-58.2 1100, Annex 2 100 Table 3: Radio-frequency channel arrangements for radio-relay systems in frequency bands above about 17 GHz.References Rec. ITU-R F.746-3. Rec. ITU-R F.1101. Ang planering av frekvensraster, Billstrm, O., Private communication, Ericsson Radio Systems, 1993. Frekvensplanering, Hultgren, D., GT/RA 9344, 1989.14 Ericsson Telecom AB 8/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 242. INTERFERENCE BASIC CONCEPTS The objective of this chapter is to introduce and describe the basic concepts that apply to the analysis of interference and, in particular, the origins and the possible sources of interference. The chapter provides a detailed discussion of the different types of interference sources and their effects on radio-relay equipment. The location of several radio systems to the same site is also discussed in some detail. TABLE OF CONTENTSIntroduction....................................................................................................... ................................................ 1 Background ......................................................................................................................................... 1 Interference sources and paths ............................................................................................................ 1 Basic concepts.................................................................................................................................. ... 2 Interference ........................................................................................................................... 2 Interference analysis.............................................................................................................. 2 Telecommunication conflicts ................................................................................................ 3 Nominal frequency................................................................................................................ 3 Frequency coincidence.......................................................................................................... 3The co-location of more than one radio station................................................................................................. 3Mutual interference ........................................................................................................................................... 4Types of interference............................................................................................................................ ............. 5Transmitter unwanted characteristics ................................................................................................................ 6 Transmitter harmonics......................................................................................................................... 6 Noise

spectrum................................................................................................................................. ... 7 The transmitters total spectrum.......................................................................................................... 8 Transmitter false frequencies .............................................................................................................. 9Receiver unwanted characteristics..................................................................................................................... 9 Receiver intermodulation .................................................................................................................... 9 Blocking .............................................................................................................................................. 9 Secondary channels ............................................................................................................................. 9 Adjacent signal interference ................................................................................................................ 10Interference-free networks................................................................................................................................. 10How may interference be avoided? ................................................................................................................... 10References ................................................................................................................................................ ......... 11 i 243. INTERFERENCE - BASIC CONCEPTSIntroductionBackground The increased use of radio communications has given rise to significant interference risks. The number of radio stations located in densely populated areas is often, for example, so large that careful network planning is of decisive importance in maintaining the availability and quality of these radio connections. Every one of a network hops must therefore exhibit such availability and quality that the entire connection, subscriber to subscriber, maintains the dimensioning standard that is to be achieved. The correct execution of optimized frequency assignments should give rise to interference levels that are sufficiently low so as not to affect radio connection availability and quality.Interference sources and paths The risk of interference between radio installations has increased in step with the increased use of radio communications services for both public and military applications. The increased demographic crowd has given rise to a situation in which installations that transmit and receive radio signals over adjacent frequencies are often placed so close to one another that the risk of unintentional interference is very great. Many different types of interference sources exist that can affect the transmitters and receivers of a radio communication system: cosmic radiation, radar and navigation systems, electrical power lines, spark generating equipment, etc. This document only addresses interference that is caused by other radio systems. Interference may reach a receiver via its antenna, its power supply system or via the equipments housing. In principle, numerous alternatives are possible, interference may propagate from: the equipment housing of one unit to that of another unit, between units housed in the same cabinet or in the same telecommunication room the transmitter antenna to the receivers equipment housing the transmitters antenna to the receivers antenna the transmitters equipment housing to the receivers antenna Ericsson Radio Systems AB 19/038 02LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 244. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING as a result of spurious signals in the power supply system Figure 1 illustrates possible interference paths. T R Figure 1: Possible interference paths. The complexity of large

installations may be so significant that finding a solution that prevents or that neutralizes the effects of interference may be very difficult. Regardless of an installations complexity, a number of interference paths can be avoided by following certain rules and regulations when placing equipment in the installation. This section will however primarily address interference that is spread via antenna systems.Basic conceptsInterference The concept of interference can be interpreted in many different ways. In the context of radio links, one often encounters the concept of interference in connection with frequency planning, which generally entails the optimization of frequency utilization based on given prerequisites such that unintentional telecommunications conflicts may be avoided.Interference analysis Interference analysis, i.e., the study of possible interference risks under given conditions. Interference analysis and frequency planning go therefore hand-in-hand with one another. Actually, interference includes many different concepts and embraces a large number of applications. Knowledge in related areas is therefore important, for example, knowledge of ITU-T and ITU-R recommendations as well as knowledge of country-wide regional and local frequency plans is of very great consequence.2 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 9/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 245. INTERFERENCE - BASIC CONCEPTSTelecommunication conflicts Interference that is the result of other radio transmitters is referred to as interference or as telecommunication conflicts and arises due to improper frequency planning or as the result of imperfections in the radio equipment. Such imperfections exist even in the latest generation radio equipment. A transmitter designed to radiate a given frequency may therefore concurrently radiate other frequencies (generally of lower power).Nominal frequency An important concept is this context is nominal frequency which is defined as the frequency to which a transmitter or receiver is tuned.Frequency coincidence Frequency coincidence refers to the fact that a radiated frequency corresponds to the frequency of a receiver, such that a transmitters nominal frequency corresponds to the receivers nominal frequency a transmitters nominal frequency corresponds to one of the secondary channels of the receiver a false frequency or harmonic produced by a transmitter corresponds to a receivers nominal frequency an intermodulation product between two or more transmitters corresponds to a receivers nominal frequency This section will describe the various possible types of interference that may arise in both transmitters and receivers.The co-location of more than one radio station Co-location is a general concept that refers to a so-called multi-station site consisting of numerous transmitters and receivers installed within a limited geographical area. The site often consists of a number of antennas that are all mounted on one and the same mast or distributed among a small number of closely positioned masts. The co-location of radio stations may give rise to significant interference if not preceded by pre-studies and careful planning. In spite of the risk of interference, the co-location of radio stations is occasionally unavoidable for the following reasons: Ericsson Radio Systems AB 39/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 246. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING for one reason or another, the licensing agency refuses to grant permission for the new construction of a mast and refers the applicant to use existing masts for the new radio users the characteristics of certain geographical locations are such that they are perceived as being attractive from a radio coverage point- of-view, for example locations

that are situated high above the surrounding areas that already have existing masts larger radio systems may often be made up of numerous stations that must be co-located for reasons such as the achievement of optimal resource utilization, such as road networks, electrical power and maintenanceMutual interference The co-location of more than one radio station may give rise to interference between the transmitters and the receivers. The source of the interference experienced by one of the co-located receivers may be one or more of the other receivers or transmitters, which is most common. Generally, the mutual interference that occurs between radio stations may be subdivided into two main groups: interference between different radio systems that utilize the same radio frequency interference between different radio systems that utilize different radio frequencies Interference between different radio systems that utilize the same radio frequency is usually corrected by the governmental agencies whose duty it is to assign frequencies. The guiding principle for such frequency assignment is the size of the geographical distance that should be applied between the different radio systems having the same frequency. Interference between different radio systems that utilize the same frequency is therefore not addressed here. As mentioned earlier, interference between different radio systems that utilize different radio frequencies is the result of imperfections in radio equipment or is due to the predominance of a high-power signal that interferes with a receiver that expects a signal of a comparatively lower power level. One condition for the occurrence of interference is the result of, among many other factors, a sort of collaboration between the transmitters and the receivers secondary characteristics, i.e., other attributes over and above the attributes that were designed into the equipment in order that they fulfill their intended function.4 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 9/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 247. INTERFERENCE - BASIC CONCEPTS Stated simply, equipment imperfections always exist and may therefore lead to situations in which the transmitted power of frequencies that lie outside of the transmitters nominal frequency may reach receivers that are sensitive to frequencies that lie outside of their nominal reception frequencies. The collaboration mentioned above refers to a certain amount of correspondence between the other frequencies of the transmitter and the other sensitivities of the receiver. This type of interference will be addressed in detail.Types of interference The cause of the aforementioned radio equipment imperfections is the non-linearities that are inherent in transmitters and receivers plus the noise generated by the various components used in these transmitters and receivers, e.g., those found in oscillators. Non-linearities are unavoidable and are therefore an innate problem in practically all active components found in radio equipment. A sinusoidal signal, sin (f0), that is applied to a non-linear amplifier stage will give rise to harmonics having frequencies nf0, see Figure 2. Vout Vin bg b g c1 sin f 0 + c2 sin 2 f 0 +... Vin Vout bg b sin f 0 f0 f0, 2f0, 3f0, 4f0 ... Figure 2: A non-linear amplifier stage gives rise to harmonics. This collaboration between a transmitter and receiver results therefore in interference that makes its presence felt in different ways depending on the secondary characteristics of the transmitter and receiver. These secondary characteristics are primarily the result of the non-linearities inherent in high-frequency circuitry. The following interference characteristics may possibly appear in transmitters: Ericsson Radio Systems AB 59/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999

248. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING transmitter harmonics transmitter false frequencies (spurious signals) transmitter noise transmitter intermodulation (more than one transmitter is involved) The following interference characteristics may possibly appear in a receiver: receiver intermodulation (more than one transmitter frequency are mixed in one receiver) blocking receiver spurious signals secondary channels adjacent signal interferenceTransmitter unwanted characteristics The description that follows deals with the most important unwanted characteristics of a transmitter that may give rise to interference.Transmitter harmonics The non-linearities mentioned above arise during signal amplification (non-linear amplification), in transmitters or receivers. In general, output signals are not completely proportional to the input signals which may result in an individual input frequency giving rise to harmonics, i.e., output frequencies that are integer multiples of the individual frequency in question. These discrete harmonic frequencies are illustrated in Figure 3.6 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 9/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 249. INTERFERENCE - BASIC CONCEPTS Power P1 P3 P2 P4 f0 2 f0 3 f0 4 f0 Frequency Carrier Harmonics Figure 3: The basic tone and its harmonics that arise as the result of non-linear amplification. Harmonic generation occurs in the transmitters output stage. A transmitter having a nominal frequency of f0 will exhibit all frequencies nf0. The power level of the harmonics diminish with increased n. Normally odd values of n represents higher power levels than even.Noise spectrum Aside from the discrete interference products described in the preceding section, the transmitters carrier frequency oscillator also generates a noise spectrum around the carrier frequency that is of a continuous character. This arises due to the oscillators inability to stably generate one and only one frequency thereby generating the aforementioned noise spectrum that is more or less centered around the transmitters carrier frequency. Figure 4 below illustrates the frequency spectrum of an oscillator. Ericsson Radio Systems AB 79/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 250. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING Unmodulated carrier Sideband noise Frequency B Figure 4: The noise spectrum existing around the unmodulated carrier frequency. Noise spectrum interference is quantitatively expressed in terms of a power density w (W/Hz), i.e., interference power per unit of bandwidth, which normally diminishes with frequencies that lie further away from the carrier frequency. The frequency band B, in Figure 4, therefore contains an interference power of P = wB.The transmitters total spectrum Discrete interference frequencies and noise almost always exist at the same time.This means that the total frequency spectrum consists of the basic tone (the clean carrier frequency), the harmonics and the noise spectrum, see Figure 5, where the levels of the basic tone and the harmonics are expressed in W while the noise level is expressed in W/Hz. Both levels may also be expressed in dBW (dB over 1 W) or dB over 1 W/Hz. Power Unmodulated carrier Harmonics Sideband noise f0 2f0 3f0 Frequency Figure 5: The total frequency spectrum consisting of the basic tone (the carrier frequency), the harmonics and the noise spectrum.8 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 9/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 251. INTERFERENCE - BASIC CONCEPTSTransmitter false frequencies Since no radio equipment is perfect (this applies even to the latest generation of radio equipment), a transmitter can transmit at other frequencies (usually having lower power levels) than at

the frequency it was designed for. These frequencies are often referred to as false frequencies. In addition to harmonics, the frequency-generating portions (oscillators and frequency multipliers) of the majority of transmitters also generate other undesirable frequencies that do not give rise to frequencies that are integer multiples of the transmitters nominal frequency. These undesirable frequencies (frequencies both below and above the carrier frequency) are specific to each transmitter type, may lie rather close to the carrier frequency and ordinarily display very complex patterns.Receiver unwanted characteristics The description that follows deals with the most important unwanted characteristics of a receiver that may give rise to interference.Receiver intermodulation Receiver intermodulation means that signals arriving from two or more transmitters are mixed with one another and give rise to a combination product that falls within the receivers pass-band. The mixing process takes place internal to the receiver.Blocking The concept of blocking may be illustrated by the fact that the input signal to the detector consists of two contributions a situation that arises when powerful interference signals exist alongside the desired frequency: a weak payload signal and a stronger interference signal (following insufficient filtering). The latter blocks the payload signal to the detector.Secondary channels Receiver secondary channels arise when the receiver is sensitive to other frequencies than its nominal frequency. Ericsson Radio Systems AB 99/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 252. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNINGAdjacent signal interference Adjacent signal interference means that a signal, whose frequency lies close to a receivers frequency, can interfere with the receiver. The interference is due to the fact that the signal mixes with the noise of the local oscillator plus the fact that the resultant noise mixture falls within the intermediate frequency.Interference-free networks Entirely interference-free radio networks do not exist! A radio network may, however, be considered as approximating an interference-free network if some general rules and simplifications are applied, see Figure 6. Are the radio relays yes Probably an interference-free sufficiently frequency network separated from each other? no Any appropriate antenna no discrimination, obstacle Trouble! loss and/or geographical separation ? yes Probably an interference-free network Figure 6: Interference-free networks.How may interference be avoided? Generally, interference may be avoided if the two following conditions are met: interference signals are sufficiently weak receiver frequencies are sufficiently separated from interference signals, i.e., no frequency overlap10 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 9/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 253. INTERFERENCE - BASIC CONCEPTS The first condition may be very difficult to meet, often as the result of frequent occurrence of co-located radio systems (occasionally forced co-location) while the second condition may be attained but requires careful frequency planning. Interference need not necessarily occur even if the aforementioned conditions are not met since all transmitters must be transmitting concurrently if all possible intermodulation products are to have a chance of arising. The probability that all, or even some, of the transmitters are concurrently transmitting traffic, may however vary for the different services however, in the case of radio links, all equipment is transmitting on a continuous basis and frequency planning should always consider the case of multiple concurrent transmission. If interference is to be avoided, it is also imperative that an installations antennas be separated so that sufficient attenuation is

achieved between the different stations. Vertical separation often gives better results than does horizontal separation.References Telekonflikter i Radioanlggningar (written in Swedish, English translation of the title is Telecommunication conflicts in radio installations), written by Frsvarets materielverk (The Swedish Department of Defense), M7773-400210,1975. Radio System Design for Telecommunications (1-100 GHz), Freeman, R. L., 1987. Ericsson Radio Systems AB 119/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 254. NEAR INTERFERENCE This chapter provides a discussion of the basic principles and definitions used in the calculation of near interference; some algorithms are also provided. The chapter contents a presentation of intermodulation at the receiver and transmitter, including some examples of intermodulation products. TABLE OF CONTENTSNear interference ............................................................................................................................................... 1Intermodulation ................................................................................................................................................ . 1 Intermodulation at the transmitter ....................................................................................................... 1 Intermodulation at the receiver............................................................................................................ 2 Intermodulation by corrosion of metallic joints .................................................................................. 2 The frequency of intermodulated signal .............................................................................................. 2Intermodulation order....................................................................................................................................... . 3Third and fifth order products example........................................................................................................... 3Near interference in receivers............................................................................................................................ 5 Receiver spurious signals and secondary channels.............................................................................. 6 Spurious signal frequencies................................................................................................... 6 Mirrored spurious signals...................................................................................................... 7 Near spurious signals ............................................................................................................ 10 Receiver intermodulation .................................................................................................................... 11 Intermodulation in the RF stage ............................................................................................ 11 Intermodulation in the mixer stage........................................................................................ 13 Spurious signals caused by LO-signal distortion................................................................................. 14Near interference at the transmitter ................................................................................................................... 15 Introduction............................................................................................................................ ............. 15 Transmitter spurious signals................................................................................................................ 17References ................................................................................................................................................ ......... 17 i

255. NEAR INTERFERENCENear interference The signification of the expression near interference is somewhat ambiguous. In this book, however, near interference means the interference contributions arising from transmitters and receivers situated at the same site or at its immediate vicinity. For the purpose of interference analyses, other interference contributions will then be considered as far interference.Intermodulation Intermodulation occurs because of different kinds of nonlinear processes taking place in the equipment forming the transmitter and receiver. Furthermore, intermodulation may also occur at the periphery of the transmitter, for instance, at antennas, towers and severe corrosion of metallic joints. Three types of intermodulation may be present: intermodulation in the transmitter intermodulation in the receiver intermodulation caused by corrosion of metallic joints Intermodulation disturbances are generally not expected to affect radio links (here considered as systems using wave-guides and parabolic antennas) and therefore they are normally excluded during the process of radiolink planning. The are two main reasons for excluding intermodulation from radio-relay planning: 1) the higher degree of antenna isolation for typical radio-link antennas and 2) the cross section of waveguides (employed for frequencies higher than 2 GHz) normally does not fit the frequencies (wavelengths) of the intermodulation products and the frequencies of radio systems operating in other frequency bands.Intermodulation at the transmitter Intermodulation at the transmitter occurs when external signals arrive at the transmitter through the antenna and occasionally together with the transmitter signal generate interfered signals in the nonlinear components. This is illustrated in Figure 1. Ericsson Radio Systems AB 110/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 256. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING TX1 RX TX2 TX3 Figure 1: Intermodulation at the transmitter.Intermodulation at the receiver Intermodulation at the receiver is possible when external signals arrive at the receiver through its antenna. In this case the local oscillator at the receiver may also contribute to the resultant intermodulated signal. Intermodulation at the receiver is illustrated in Figure 2. TX1 TX2 RX TX3 Figure 2: Intermodulation at the receiver.Intermodulation by corrosion of metallic joints Intermodulation caused by corrosion of towers, antennas and metallic joints is strongly dependent on the environment conditions like climate and air pollution. It is, therefore, very difficult to know in advance whether or not intermodulation will be formed.The frequency of intermodulated signal An intermodulated signal is formed by the addition of the interference signals and their integer products. The intermodulated signal is then expressed by2 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 10/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 257. NEAR INTERFERENCE f IM = a1 f 1 a 2 f 2 ... a z f z ..................... (1) where fIM = intermodulated signal f1...fz = interferers frequencies a1...az = positive integer coefficients When the signals are formed at the receiver, the local oscillator is included as follows f IM = a1 f 1 a 2 f 2 ... a z f z alo f lo ...... (2) where flo = frequency of the local oscillator alo = Positive integer coefficients of the local oscillatorIntermodulation order The integer coefficients may assume all positive integer values and this gives an infinitely number of possible combinations. In order to facilitate the calculations, it is necessary to simplify the number of combinations. This is possible by defining an order term N as follows z N = a1 + a 2 + ... + a z = a n ............................... (3) n =1 The higher the order term the lower the strengths of the intermodulated signals. The coefficient alo is not included in the definition of the order

term N.Third and fifth order products - example Table 1 illustrates the third and fifth intermodulation products obtained with two and three intermodulating transmitters (f1, f2 and f3). Ericsson Radio Systems AB 310/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 258. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING TWO TRANSMITTERS THREE TRANSMITTERS THIRD ORDER FIFTH ORDER THIRD ORDER FIFTH ORDER 2f1-f2 3f1-2f2 f1+f2- f3 3f1-f2- f3 2f2-f1 3f2-2f1 f1+f3- f2 3f2-f1- f3 f2+f3- f1 3f3-f1- f2 2f1+f2-2f3 2f3+f2-2f1 2f2+f1-2f3 2f3+f1-2f2 2f1+f3-2f2 2f2+f3-2f1 Table 1: Third and fifth order intermodulation products for two and three transmitters. Figure 3 illustrates the location of third order intermodulation frequencies with respect to the center frequencies for two and three transmitters. Two transmitters 2 f1 f 2 f1 f2 2 f 2 f 1 f Three transmitters f f1 + f 2 f 3 f1 f1 + f 3 f 2 f2 f3 f 2 + f3 f1 Figure 3: Location of third order intermodulation frequencies with respect to the center frequencies for two and three transmitters. Figure 4 illustrates the location of the fifth order intermodulation frequencies with respect to the center frequencies for two and three transmitters.4 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 10/038 02LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 259. NEAR INTERFERENCE Two transmitters 3 f1 2 f 2 f f1 f2 3 f 2 2 f1 Three transmitters 2 f1 + f 2 2 f 3 2 f1 + f 3 2 f 2 2 f 3 + f1 2 f 2 f3 3 f 3 f1 f 2 2 f 3 + f 2 2 f1 3 f1 f 2 f 3 2 f 2 + f1 2 f 3 f1 f2 3 f 2 f1 f 3 2 f 2 + f 3 2 f1 f Figure 4: Location of fifth order intermodulation frequencies with respect to the center frequencies for two and three transmitters.Near interference in receivers Figure 5 illustrates a desired signal of level Pr (dBm) and a frequency of fr that arrives at the RF stage. At the output of the IF filter, the level of the desired signal is Pd (dBm), which provides a certain level of transmission quality. The level following the IF filter corresponds therefore to a certain value of C/N, where C is a function of Pr and N of the receiving systems receiver noise factor F and the IF filters bandwidth (the receivers effective bandwidth) B (see Section 3). Desired input signal Desired output signal following the IF-filter Pr, fr Pd , fIF RF-amplifier Mixer ~ ~ ~ Psp, fsp Pm,n , fx interfering signal Intermodulation product Local following the IF-filter flo oscillator Crystal Figure 5: Near interference in the receiver. Ericsson Radio Systems AB 510/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 260. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING Assume that a powerful interfering signal (e.g., a spurious signal) having a level of Psp and a frequency of fsp arrives at the input to RF stage. Spurious frequencies (the secondary channels) result in an undesirable intermodulation product having a level of Pm,n and frequencies that are very close to the desired receiver frequency, thereby falling into the pass-band of the IF filter. This interfering signal is combined with the normal receiver noise N (following the IF amplifier) and C/N reduces, leading to reduced transmission quality. The spurious attenuation, P (dB), for the frequency fsp is defined as the difference in levels at the input to the receiver between the spurious signal Psp and the desired signal Pr, i.e., P = Psp Pr ......................................................... (4) An allowable level of Pm,n, i.e., the level resulting in the maximum allowable increase in N, is a function of a number of factors, such as transmission quality requirements and type of modulation.Receiver spurious signals and secondary channels Receiver secondary channels arise as the result of receiver sensitivity to frequencies other than the nominal

frequency of the receiver. Non- linearities in the RF amplifier and mixer can result in receiver spurious signals as in the case of the combination products arising in the RF stage that acquire frequencies close to the desired receiver frequency.Spurious signal frequencies Since the filtering out of spurious signals before the mixer is practically impossible, spurious signals that fall close to the frequency of the receiver can be a very difficult proposition. Figure 6 illustrates a mixer, an IF filter and a local oscillator. Desired signal fm f m f lo fIF Mixer ~ ~ fsp m f sp n f lo ~ fx Local flo oscillator Crystal6 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 10/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 261. NEAR INTERFERENCE Figure 6: Incoming spurious signals at the receivers mixer. The desired input signal, having a frequency of fm, arrives at the mixer input together with an unfiltered spurious signal of frequency fsp. Together with the local oscillator frequency flo, the spurious signal gives rise to an intermodulated signal having an intermediate frequency of fx at the output of the IF filter. The combination product that arises can be calculated as f x = m f sp n f lo .............................................. (5) where m and n are positive whole integers. The wanted combination is calculated as f IF = f m f lo ...................................................... (6) Spurious frequencies are often described as a function of the desired receiver frequency fm and the intermediate frequency fx, which, when applying equations (5) and (6), gives [(n + 1) f x + n f m ] ............................... 1 f sp = (7) m Note that if n=-1 and m=-1 in the above equation, the result is fsp = fm, which is the desired combination.Mirrored spurious signals There exists two possible cases of undesirable output signals, namely fm > f0 and fm < f0. Spurious signal frequencies for both cases, as shown above, can be expressed by considering fx as positive (fx > 0 f0 > fm) and negative (fx < 0 f0 < fm). Mirrored signal frequencies for the two cases mentioned above: f0 > fm f sp = f m + 2 f x .................................. (8) f0 < fm f sp = f m 2 f x ................................. (9) Ericsson Radio Systems AB 710/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 262. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING From a frequency aspect, the mirrored signal falls into the opposite side of the local oscillator frequency and the frequency separation between the desired signal fm and the mirrored signal is therefore 2 al is illustrated by a whole line and the desired input signal by a dashed line, see Figure 7. 2 fx f0 < fm fx < 0 Mirrored signal f0 fm 2 fx f0 > fm fx > 0 fm f0 Mirrored signal Figure 7: Mirrored frequencies for fm > f0 dangerous spurious signal frequencies, i.e., the smallest frequency separation to the when entered into equation (7) gives m 1 [( m + 1) f x m f x ] = f m + 1 f sp = fx ( 10 ) m m If the above equation is applied to both cases, the results are m 1 f0 > fm f sp = f m + f x ......................... ( 11 ) m m 1 f0 < fm f sp = f m f x ......................... ( 12 ) m8 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 10/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 263. NEAR INTERFERENCE The most troublesome spurious signals (i.e., those closest to the desired input signal and that have the lowest ordinal numbers) occur when ous signal frequencies that are considered as dangerous in this case are illustrated in Figure 8 as having whole lines. Spurious signal frequencies that are

considered as not dangerous, i.e., those having greater frequency separation to the desired input s entered into equation (7) gives m +1 f sp = f m + f x ........................................... ( 13 ) m These non-hazardous spurious signal frequencies (high filter selection requirements aimed at eliminating mirrored signals, generally result in sufficient filter attenuation for the elimination of these spurious signals) are illustrated in Figure 8 by dashed lines. Ericsson Radio Systems AB 910/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999

fx f0 < fm f f0 fx / 2 fm Mirrored signal 2 fx / 3 3 fx / 4 2 fx f0 > fm f fm fx / 2 f0 Mirrored signal 2 fx / 3 3 fx / 4 Figure 8: Mirrored signal frequencie combinations of m and n give rise to spurious signal frequencies that fall in the vicinity of the desired receiver frequency and therefore pass through the input filter without being subjected to any appreciable attenuation. Near spurious signals refers to spurious signals whose frequencies are fsp fm. The most dangerous spurious signals, so-called extremely near spurious signals, are naturally those spurious signals for which fsp = fm. Entering fsp = fm = f into equation (7) gives10 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 10/038 02LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 265. NEAR INTERFERENCE (m n ) f = (n + 1) f x ......................................... ( 14 ) which may be rewritten as f x (m n ) = ....................................................... ( 15 ) f (n + 1) Certain m, n combinations give rise to a critical value of fx / f, causing the frequency of the undesired signal to correspond exactly to the receiver frequency the same situation as in the case of the frequency of the combination product corresponding exactly to the frequency of the desired output signal from the mixer.Receiver intermodulation The RF stage is often well isolated from the local oscillators signal via the mixer which means that at least two powerful interference signals must be introduced if troublesome combination products (intermodulation) are to arise in the RF stage.Intermodulation in the RF stage Two powerful interfering signals having frequencies in the vicinity of the desired signals frequency, (fm + 1) and (fm + 2), give rise to receiver intermodulation. The situation is illustrated in Figure 9. The figure deals with intermodulation generated in a RF stage. The frequency positions of the interfering input signals (that are the cause of the intermodulation), are to be adapted so that their combination product corresponds to the desired receiver frequency (in the IF following the mixer). Ericsson Radio Systems AB 1110/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 266. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING Desired signal fm fm fm ~ ~ bf g + 1 b g b m f m + 1 + n f m + 2 g ~ m Spurios signal pair bf m + g 2 Spurious signals Desired signal f fm bf m + 1 g bf m + 2 g Figure 9: Intermodulation at the RF stage. The desired signal fm, is as shown in Figure 9, f m = m ( f m + 1 ) + n ( f m + 2 ) ........................ ( 16 ) which may be rewritten as (m + n 1) f m + m 1 + n 2 = 0 ....................... ( 17 ) where 1 << fm and 2 << fm. The above equation is applicable when (m + n 1) = 0 ...................................................... ( 18 ) (m 1 + n 2 ) = 0 .............................................. ( 19 ) The following applies in the case of third 1 and equation (16) may be rewritten as f m = 2 ( f m + 1 ) 1 ( f m + 2 ) = f m + (2 1 2 ) ( 20 ) Thus, third order intermodulation arises if the interfering frequencies are

located at each side of the desired receiver frequency at a separation of 1 and 21 respectively, see Figure 10.12 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 10/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 267. NEAR INTERFERENCE 2 1 fm f Figure 10: Possible interference frequencies for third order intermodulation are located at each side of the desired frequency at a separation of 1 and 21 respectively. The following applies in the case of fifth order 1 = 2 1 and equation (16) may be rewritten as f m = 3 ( f m + 1 ) 2 ( f m + 2 ) = f m + (3 1 2 2 ) ( 21 ) Thus, fifth order intermodulation arises if the interfering frequencies are located at each side of the desired receiver frequency at a separation of 1 and 3/21 respectively, see Figure 11. 2 1 fm f Figure 11: Possible interference frequencies for fifth order intermodulation are located at each side of the desired frequency at a separation of 1 and 21 respectively.Intermodulation in the mixer stage The occurrence of intermodulation in the mixer stage is very similar the earlier case (i.e., the occurrence of intermodulation in the RF stage). The signal from the local oscillator may even play a part in the formation of the combination product, see Figure 12. Ericsson Radio Systems AB 1310/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 268. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING Desired signal fm f m f lo = f IF fIF Mixer ~ ~ ~ Spurious bf m g + 1 fx signal pair bf m + g 2 Local b g b g m f m + 1 + n f m + 2 f lo flo oscillator Crystal Figure 12: Intermodulation in the mixer stage. The desired signal is consequently f x = f m f lo = m ( f m + 1 ) + n ( f m + 2 ) f lo ( 22 ) Third and fourth order intermodulation products are the same as those in the case of intermodulation in the RF stage (see above).Spurious signals caused by LO-signal distortion Additional combination products may arise if the signal generated by the local oscillator contains numerous frequency components, see Figure 13. Desired signal fm fm k f0 fIF Mixer ~ ~ fsp m f sp n f 0 ~ fx flo f0 Local k f 0 = f lo oscillator Crystal Figure 13: Spurious signals caused by LO-signal distortion. The desired signal is given by f IF = f m k f 0 .................................................. ( 23 )14 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 10/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 269. NEAR INTERFERENCE The combination product that arises may be expressed as f x = m f sp n f 0 ............................................... ( 24 ) and the spurious signal frequencies may be expressed as f sp = 1 [n f m (nk ) f x ] ............................. ( 25 ) k m The relationship between the coefficients k and n may be expressed as n n= .................................................................. ( 26 ) k which when substituted into equation (25) gives f sp = 1 [n f m (n 1) f x ] ................................. ( 27 ) m Providing that n is allowed to assume other values than just integer values, the above expression corresponds to spurious signal frequencies that were studied earlier, see equation (7). If the local oscillators third harmonic (k=3) is used to generate the desired intermediate frequency, see Figure 13, at the same time as n=1, 2, 3, 4, then he following will apply n=1/3, 2/3, 3/3, 4/3, . which implies the occurrence of additional spurious signal frequencies.Near interference at the transmitterIntroduction Transmitter intermodulation may arise in the output-stage amplifiers of the transmitters if the mutual isolation between the transmitters is insufficient. A mutual coupling may thereby exist between the output of the combiner that connects the transmitters to a common antenna or between

separate but neighboring transmitter antennas. Both cases are illustrated in Figure 14. Ericsson Radio Systems AB 1510/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 270. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING Disturbing Disturbing transmitter transmitter Tx2 Tx2 C fI f2 f2 o m Disturbed b Disturbed transmitter f2 i transmitter n f2 Tx1 e Tx1 f1 fI r f1 fI Disturbed receiver fI Rx 2f1-f2 Disturbed 2f2-f1 receiver Rx fI 2f1-f2 2f2-f1 Figure 14: The effect of the transmitter intermodulation product on receivers sharing a common antenna or mounted on separate but neighboring antennas. An example of a typical near interference scenario is a large number of transmitters that are concentrated to one and the same mast or concentrated base station locations that transmit and receive numerous modulated carrier waves. The transmitters described in this scenario may generate interference signals in the form of intermodulation products that interfere with neighboring receivers. Assume an interference signal having a frequency of f2 that lies in the vicinity of the transmission frequency f1, i.e., f 2 = f 1 + f for f << f 2 ........................ ( 28 ) The frequency of the resultant combination product having a transmission frequency ordinal number n and an interference frequency ordinal number m, may be expressed as f I = n f1 m f 2 ............................................. ( 29 ) Using equations (28) and (29) gives f I = (n m ) f1 + m f ................................... ( 30 )16 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 10/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 271. NEAR INTERFERENCE which indicates that only combination products having |nm| = 1 and where the size of m is moderate will fall in the vicinity of the transmission frequency. The combination products ordinal number is determined, as indicated earlier, by |m| + |n| and the lowest ordinal number of interest are the third and fifth, i.e., |m| + |n| = 3 and |m| + |n| = 5 respectively. Transmitter intermodulation responds to the combination products between the desired output signal from the transmitter and the generated interference signals. The desired output signal from a transmitter having a frequency of f1, see above, often dominates the combination process and causes the level of the combination products fall off slowly with ordinal number n of frequency f1 but fall off sharply with increasing ordinal number m of frequency f2 of the interfering signal.Transmitter spurious signals The occurrence of transmitter spurious signals may generally be addressed in the same manner as are receiver spurious signals, see under section 4. Non-linearities in sections of the transmitter such as in the section that generates the carrier frequency or in the RF amplifier, can give rise to transmitter spurious signals that of themselves or via generated combination products in the RF stage, attain frequencies that are close to the desired receiver frequency.References TEMS LinkPlanner, Users Guide, Rev. 5.0, 1999. Ericsson Radio Systems AB 1710/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 272. FAR INTERFERENCE This chapter presents general concepts considered in the field of far interference and provides guidelines for interference calculation. A typical performance diagram and interference scenario is discussed. The chapter provides the algorithm for the calculation of the contributions of the individual interference signal levels, plus the resulting interference level at one receiver and threshold degradation. TABLE OF CONTENTSIntroduction....................................................................................................... ................................................ 1Performance diagram ........................................................................................................................................

1Interference-free signal...................................................................................................................................... 3Interfering scenario ........................................................................................................................................... 3Interference-free reception ................................................................................................................................ 4Reception with interference............................................................................................................................ ... 5Example............................................................................................................................... .............................. 6Interference tolerance................................................................................................................................. ....... 7Interference signal level .................................................................................................................................... 7Resulting interference level ............................................................................................................................... 8Threshold degradation method.......................................................................................................................... 9 Introduction............................................................................................................................ ............. 9 Example .............................................................................................................................................. 9 General comments............................................................................................................................... 10References ................................................................................................................................................ ......... 10 i 273. FAR INTERFERENCEIntroduction For a particular bit-error ratio (BER), the presence of interfering signals will degrade the receivers threshold level. In order to maintain the performance, an increasing at the receiver input level during fading-free time is necessary to an unchanged fade margin. The influence of interfering signals is first noticeable during fading conditions as a deterioration of the receiver threshold level, that is, as a decrease of the paths fade margin. Far interference is present when a received signal is disturbed by signals sent on the same or an adjacent channel and generated by a transmitter located far away from the receiver.Performance diagram Performance diagram is a diagram used for the purposes of planning digital radio-relay equipment in a network. The performance diagram is some kind of radio-relay equipment signature, that is, each radio equipment type presents a specific performance diagram, basically dependent on, among other properties, the equipments capacity and modulation method. The diagram illustrates the bit-error ratio (BER) as a function of the receiver input level for different values of the carrier-to-interference ratio (C/I), see Figure 1, and is for an equipment operating at 2 GHz and with transmission capacity 2048 kbit/s. Ericsson Radio Systems AB 111/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 274. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING .001 1.E-4 Bit-Error Ratio 1.E-5 C/I=10 dB 1.E-6 C/I=15 dB C/I "infinite" C/I=20 dB 1.E-7 1.E-8 -96 -95 -94 -93 -92 -91 -90 -89 -88 -87 -86 -85 -84 -83 -82 -81 Received Signal Level (dBm) Figure 1: Performance diagram for co-channel interference for an

equipment operating at 2 GHz and with transmission capacity 2048 kbit/s. Manufactures of digital equipment normally provides set of curves (see Figure 1) which display the BER dependence on co-channel and adjacent channel interference for different modulation schemes. The two important conclusions on the performance diagram illustrated in Figure 1 may be drawn: 1. The received signal level becomes higher with decreasing carrier-to- interference ratio (C/I) if the bit-error ratio (BER) is maintained at the same value. In practice, a higher fade margin is required in order to sustain the same quality targets.2 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 11/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 275. FAR INTERFERENCE 2. The bit-error ratio (BER) gets worse for decreasing carrier-to- interference ratio (C/I) if the received signal level is retained at the same value, which means decreased quality. In practice, the equipment threshold value gets lower and the fade margin increases, and as expected it is easier to fulfill low-quality requirements. Performance diagram is normally used for analysis of co-channel and adjacent channel interference. It is not always presented as curves in the equipment data sheet, often as a C/I value corresponding to a degradation value, for instance, co-channel C/I=15 dB and adjacent C/I=-20 dB for 3 dB degradation.Interference-free signal A signal is theoretically interference free when the following condition occurs C .................................................................................. (1) I For most practical applications, however, a signal can be considered interference free when C 25 dB ........................................................................... (2) I which means that the carrier C is approximately 316 times higher than the interference signal I. The carrier and the interference signal are equal when C/I= 0 dB.Interfering scenario Figure 2 illustrates a simplified scenario containing two paths. The receiver located at site A is disturbed by the transmitter located at site D giving rise to an interfering path AD. In this specific case, the resulting interference level at the disturbed receiver located at A consists of the contribution arriving from the transmitter located at D, that is, its output power and other path and frequency dependent contributions. Ericsson Radio Systems AB 311/038 02LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 276. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING Disturbed PR = Receiver input level of the A receiver wanted signal at the disturbed receiver, dBm PR C PT = Disturbing transmitters output 1 PI power, dBm Interfering Disturbing PI = Resulting interference level at the path path disturbed receiver, dBm 2 B 1 = Angle between the interference-free PT path and the interfering path 2 = Angle between the disturbing Disturbing D and the interference path transmitter Figure 2: Simplified interfering scenario containing two paths.Interference-free reception In interference-free reception, see Figure 3, the path fade margin is solely dependent on the path parameters and it is written as M = PR Pth ........................................................................ (3) where M = path fade margin, dB PR = received signal at the receiver, dBm Pth = receivers threshold, dBm It should be pointed out that the receivers threshold value is always connected to a given bit-error ratio.4 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 11/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 277. FAR INTERFERENCE Interference-free reception means Power (dBm) The path fade margin is solely PR dependent on the path parameters M Pth = Receiver threshold level for undisturbed receiver, dBm Pth at given BER!!! PR = Receiver input level during fading-free time, dBm M = Fade margin for interference-free reception, dB Figure 3:

Interference-free reception.Reception with interference In reception with interference, see Figure 4, the fade margin is changed because the receivers threshold is degraded for the same bit-error ratio. The degradation is generally the result of two level contributions: the resulting (total) interference level (I or PI) at the receiver and the receiver noise level (N), that is, (N+I). Now, the actual fade margin (including interference), the effective fade margin, is as follows M eff = PR PthI ................................................................... (4) where PthI is the receivers threshold value when affected by a resulting interference level PI (dBm) and PR (dBm) as above. The degradation is therefore given by D = PthI Pth ....................................................................... (5) where D is the degradation (dB) and the other parameters as above. It follows that the effective fade margin as a function of the degradation is obtained as M eff = M D ..................................................................... (6) Ericsson Radio Systems AB 511/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 278. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING Now, the carrier-to-interference ratio (C/I) symbolizes the interference level arriving at the receiver, PI, thus imposing a new threshold value PthI. If C is considered as PthI (valid during fade depths equal to the fade margin), this may be expressed as follows C = PthI PI ........................................................................ (7) I or solving for the threshold PthI C PthI = PI + ....................................................................... (8) I Power (dBm) PR = Receiver input level during fading-free time, dBm Pth = Receiver threshold level for undisturbed receiver, dBm M = Fade margin for interference-free reception, dB PR N = Noise level at the receiver input, dB M-D M PthI PI (=I) = Resulting interference threshold level, dBm D Pth at given BER!!! C/I N + I = Sum of the noise and interference levels, dBm N+I D = Threshold level degradation, dB D N PthI = Resulting interference threshold level , dBm I PI M - D = Effective fade margin for reception with interference, dB Figure 4: Reception with interference.Example To operate correctly, a digital system normally requires a carrier-to- interference ratio (C/I) of 15-20 dB, depending on the used modulation scheme. In a complex network with many different interference configurations, a 15-20 dB C/Ivalue must be maintained, even under fading conditions. This means that the interfering level has to be 15-20 dB below the receiver threshold.6 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 11/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 279. FAR INTERFERENCE For instance, if the receiver threshold is 85 dBm for a specific bit-error ratio and the fade margin is 35 dB, then the interference level must be at least 15-20 dB below the receiver threshold, that is, between 100 and - 105 dBm [-85 dBm + (-15 to 20 dB)]. To make the fade margin of 35 dB fully usable for covering fading, then a C/Ivalue of 15-20 dB must still be available at the receiver threshold. Hence, the total requirement of isolation (unfaded carrier to the inteference level) must be between 50 and 55 dB (35 dB+15 to 20 dB).Interference tolerance The tolerance of digital channels to interference depends on the modulation scheme. In particular, a modulation scheme which requires a low C/I for a certain bit-error ratio is more tolerant to interference. Robust modulation schemes are 2PSK and 4PSK, while more complex modulation schemes as 128QAM require much larger C/I-values.Interference signal level Any interference signal level among j - individual interference signals is generally calculated as following: PIj = PT Abf AG + G1 + G 2 AFT AFR AA ............... (9) where PIj = The level of a single interference signal j, dBm PT = The output level of the disturbing transmitter, dBm Abf = The basic free-space loss between disturbing transmitter and disturbed receiver, dB AG = The gas attenuation, dB G1 =

The antenna gain 1 degrees from maximum gain, dBi G2 = The antenna gain 2 degrees from maximum gain, dBi AFT = The feeder attenuation at the transmitter station, dB AFR = The feeder attenuation at the receiver station, dB AA = The additional attenuation (obstacle loss, RF attenuators, etc), dB Ericsson Radio Systems AB 711/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 280. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING The antenna gains are calculated in the direction given by the angles 1 and 2, defined as follows 1 = angle between the interference-free and the interference signal 2 = angle between the interfering signal and the interference pathResulting interference level The resulting interference level of the combined individual interference levels at the receiver individual interference signal, dBm Aad = adjacent-channel attenuation, dB For cochannel Aad= 0. The Aad attenuation depends basically on channel separation. Applying = 10 I1 s expected since the resulting interference level in dBm at the receiver, considering only one interfering signal, can be obtained by subtracting the adjacent-channel attenuation from the only individual interfering participating in the interference scenario. Note, however, that the result will not be simply expressed by a subtraction when considering more than one participating interferer.8 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 11/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 281. FAR INTERFERENCEThreshold degradation methodIntroduction Generally, the degradation imposed by interfering signals in a radio network is taken into account by considering the degradation value as a free parameter. Thus, the resulting interference level and finally the fade margin for the path can be obtained. This is performed in five steps: Step 1: Assume a suitable degradation D for the receivers threshold level Step 2: Find the value for the receivers input level during interference- free condition for a given bit-error ratio according to equation (1) in the performance diagram, see Figure 1. Step 3: Calculate the degraded threshold level using equation (5) Step 4: Determine, in the performance diagram, the C/I level corresponding to the degraded threshold level for the given bit-error ratio Step 5: Calculate the resulting interference level by using equation (8)Example The performance diagram is for co-channel interference for an equipment operating at 2 GHz and with transmission capacity 2048 kbit/s. Step1: it is assumed a 2.5 dB degradation D= 2.5 dB Step 2: the receivers input level for interference-free reception for BER= 10-3 is read off on Figure 1, approximately. Pth= -94.5 dBm Step 3: the degraded threshold level is obtained by equation (5), that is, PthI= -94.5 dBm + 2.5 dB= -92 dBm Step 4: the corresponding C/I level for BER= 10-3 in the performance diagram is C/I= 15 dB Ericsson Radio Systems AB 911/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 282. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING Step 5: finally, the resulting interference level is obtained by equation (8). PI= PthI - C/I= -92 dBm - 15 dB= -107 dBmGeneral comments Advantage: the influence of the bit-error ratio (BER) on the performance and availability is considered when starting the planning

(the effective fade margin is known) Disadvantage: the final extension of the network has to be estimated with some accuracy. For example, if the number of interfering paths is less than the estimated (the network never reaches the number of planned links), the performance will be overestimated. If the number of interfering paths is larger than the estimated, existing antennas may have to be changed or another frequency band has to be employed in the network. In both cases the result is an unnecessary expensive network. A certain economical risk is, however, normally present.References TEMS LinkPlanner, Users Guide, Rev. 5.0, 1999.10 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 11/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 283. PATH AND FREQUENCY PLANNING This chapter covers some of the issues that may arise concerning path profiles, line-of-sight requirements, input signals and their variation, diversity, reflections and frequency planning. In addition, surveying possible radio- link paths and site requirements are discussed. TABLE OF CONTENTSObjective and scope .......................................................................................................................................... 1Initial planning ................................................................................................................................................ .. 1Network configurations ..................................................................................................................................... 2 Star network, alternative 1................................................................................................................... 2 Star network, alternative 2................................................................................................................... 3 Chain network ..................................................................................................................................... 4 Loop network ...................................................................................................................................... 4Line of sight ................................................................................................................................................ ...... 5Clearance.............................................................................................................................. ............................. 5Path profiles ................................................................................................................................................ ...... 7Link budget ................................................................................................................................................ ....... 9Fading.................................................................................................................................. .............................. 11 Fade margin.................................................................................................................................... ..... 11 Rain ................................................................................................................................................ ..... 11 Multipath propagation......................................................................................................................... 11 General ................................................................................................................................................ 12Diversity............................................................................................................................. ............................... 12 Space diversity

.................................................................................................................................... 12 Frequency diversity ............................................................................................................................. 13 Improvement ....................................................................................................................................... 13Reflection ................................................................................................................................................ .......... 14Path and site surveys ......................................................................................................................................... 17Frequency planning ........................................................................................................................................... 18 General ................................................................................................................................................ 18 Far interference ................................................................................................................................... 19 Near interference............................................................................................................................ ..... 20 Frequency economy ............................................................................................................................ 23References ................................................................................................................................................ ......... 23 i 284. PATH AND FREQUENCY PLANNINGObjective and scope In preparation for the configuration of a radio link network, a number of tasks must be performed that will eventually supply input to the necessary path calculations. These tasks are described herein and deal, for the most part, with terrain, climate, equipment data and site configuration. Frequency planning is considered as one of the more important tasks in the planning of a network. This section will cover some of the issues that may arise concerning path profiles, requirements regarding line-of-sight, input signal and their variation, diversity, reflections and frequency planning. A section is included which deals with the survey of possible radio-link paths and site requirements.Initial planning Before starting the actual planning of a radio link path, one should acquire an overview of the construction of the entire network (of which the path in question is to be a part of), and of the network functionality that the proposed path is to provide. This background knowledge will enable decision as to the quality and availability standards that should be conformed to when dimensioning the path. Network planning is generally based upon the networks operational requirements. These can be expressed in terms of: Quality Availability Traffic requirements and capacity The manner in which one goes about determining the requirements pertaining to the dimensioning of individual radio-link paths is a function of the configuration and the dimensioning of the local network and, if such be the case, of other surrounding networks that may be involved. Every network component path is to exhibit a level of availability and quality such that the entire connection, subscriber-to- subscriber, maintains the overall standards that were selected. Ericsson Radio Systems AB 112/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999

285. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING The International Telecommunication Union, ITU, publishes recommendationsthat provide guidance as to the dimensioning of networks intended for international connection. Practical examples of this type of network is found in the transmission to/from the radio base stations of a mobile telephone network or in the internal company networks that are connected to public communications networks. See the section QUALITY AND AVAILABILITY TARGETS, for more information.Network configurations A number of examples are included below including common network configurations in which a number of radio base stations (RBS) are to be connected to a mobile telephone exchange (MSC), see Figure 1. MSC Figure 1: RBS sites that are to be connected to an MSC.Star network, alternative 1 Figure 2 illustrates a usual pattern, in which all sites are connected directly to the MSC in a star network. In principle, this configuration is simple and offers the following advantages: The RBS-sites may be established to expanding requirements in an area instead of network configuration requirements. The network may gradually be taken into service in phase with the establishment of new sites. However a star network configuration represents some disadvantages: It involves a large number of incoming MSC routes and their respective antennas. This may cause both space and strength problems for antenna support structures. The high number of incoming routes may lead to problems in finding sufficient frequencies, i.e., bandwidth.2 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 12/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 286. PATH AND FREQUENCY PLANNING A number of the sites may be too remote, leading to range problems, i.e., distances are too great. MSC Figure 2: Star network, alternative 1.Star network, alternative 2 Figure 3 illustrates another version of the star network. Here, connections are made in two stages. The more distant sites are connected first to a common node, which is then connected to the MSC. The link from the common node to the MSC must generally have higher capacity than the individual RBS connections. It may also be necessary to assign a lower frequency band to the link between the common node and the MSC in order to handle the longer distance involved. A higher frequency band may often be used for the connection of the individual links. MSC Figure 3: Star network, alternative 2. Ericsson Radio Systems AB 312/038 02LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 287. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNINGChain network Figure 4 illustrates another configuration in which the individual sites are connected in chains , or in tandem, to the MSC. This often provides minimum length per link. Two disadvantages of the configuration are the poorer reliability caused by hardware faults since the links are coupled in sequence, and the increase in capacity requirement along the chain. Drop insert or DDC (Digital Cross Connect) may help to minimize capacity requirements. MSC Figure 4: Chain network.Loop network Figure 5 shows all sites connected in a loop. The advantage of this configuration is that it is possible to achieve a redundant (duplicated) network. In the event of a breakdown in one link, traffic can be diverted in the other direction around the loop. If the loop has sufficient capacity to carry all the traffic from every site in both directions, then one has achieved complete redundancy. The capacity requirement is then the total sum of the individual capacity requirements. Here again, drop insert or DCC, would help to minimize capacity requirements. Unavailable time caused by hardware faults is reduced in this type of network without the necessity of doubling the radio equipment. On the

other hand, if network capacity is not increased, the ability to handle traffic decreases. MSC Figure 5: Loop network.4 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 12/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 288. PATH AND FREQUENCY PLANNING It should be observed that a looped network may involve special synchronization problems. Under normal conditions, rate synchronization is supplied from the transmission end, which passes the rate to the receiving end. Using a loop to route traffic in the event of hardware failure or long lasting fading requires that the base station handle traffic to/from two directions. In this case, the base station requires the capability of handling two connection routes, both from the traffic and synchronization standpoints.Line of sight Frequencies above 7 GHz require free line-of-sight between the transmitting and receiving antennas. Obstructions that penetrate into and above the line-of-sight cause signal attenuation that may cause the path to be unusable. Such obstructions may be composed of terrain, forests, buildings, chimneys, etc. If one uses maps to investigate free line-of-sight conditions, one should be especially observant as to obstructions close to the sites (in the vicinity of 100-200 meters) that may not be indicated due to inaccuracies in the map due to insufficient resolution. Maps are not the besttool to judge the height of buildings and other man-made obstructions. A line-of-sight investigation should always be performed on site before finally selecting station sites.Clearance Even if one finds that a path exhibits proper lineof-sight characteristics, path obstacles may have attenuating effects on the signal if they are situated sufficiently close to the path. Usually, one defines a Fresnel zone around the center line of the path, see Figure 6. The first Fresnel zone is defined as a zone that takes the form of an ellipsoidal shell, having its focal points at the antennas of both sites. The Fresnel zone diminishes with increasing frequency. (See the section RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION). Provided that there is no obstacle within the first Fresnel zone, obstacle attenuation can be ignored, and clearance demands are in most cases satisfied. If one has, for example, a backbone network operating at a lower frequency than for example 7 GHz, the path length may require more clearance than that required by the first Fresnel zone. One may be required to keep the first Fresnel zone free from obstacles at a smaller effective earth-radius than for k=4/3. For example, the requirement may entail a free first Fresnel zone for k=0.5. Ericsson Radio Systems AB 512/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 289. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING On the other hand, at frequencies less than about 2 GHz, one may be able to tolerate some obstacle attenuation. The need for clearance for these frequency bands must be calculated for each individual path. The first Fresnel zone can be calculated as follows: d1 d 2 r = 17.3 (1) f (d 1 + d 2 ) where r = The radius of the first Fresnel zone at a given point along a path, m d1 = The distance from the first site to this point, km d2 = The distance from the second site to the point, km f = Frequency, GHz d d1 M d2 Rn Sight line A B Effective Earth Figure 6: Fresnel zone. Some examples of how the radius of the Fresnel zone varies with path length for different frequency bands are shown in Table 1. The table shows the Fresnel zones mid-path, which provides an indication of the clearance requirements that are demanded.6 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 12/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 290. PATH AND FREQUENCY PLANNING Frequency (GHz) Distance (km) 0.45 7 15 23 26 38 5 29 7.3 5.0 4.0 3.8 3.1 15 50 12.7 8.7 7.0 6.6 5.4 40 82 20.7 - - - - Table 1:

Radius (m) of the first Fresnel zone (mid-path) for some frequencies. The distance of 40 km is not applicable in the frequency range 0.45 to 38 GHz as indicated by the table.Path profiles The intention of the path profile is to provide material for the decision as to whether a free line-of-sight exists between the selected sites for the stations and whether sufficient clearance exists to avoid obstacle attenuation. The path profile is also useful when calculating variations in received signals (fading). The path profile is essentially a plot of the Earths elevation as a function of distance along the path between the transmitting and receiving sites. Data is derived by locating the two terminals on an elevation contour map, drawing a straight line between the two points, and then reading the elevation contours at suitable distance intervals. Topographical information, used in the construction of path profiles, may also be derived from topographical databases. Such databases are required to include both altitude data and land-use data. A path profile is plotted in a so-called path-profile chart. Path profile charts are constructed by computing earth bulge, h , see Figure 7: d1 d 2 h = (2) 2k R where: h = The Earth bulge at a given point along the path, m d1 = The distance from one site to the point, km Ericsson Radio Systems AB 712/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 291. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING d2 = The distance from the opposite site to the same point, km k = Earth radius factor R = The true earth radius, km Earth elevaition h d1 d2 Distance Figure 7: Earth bulge. A radio ray beam may be shown as a straight line in a path profile that is constructed having an earth radius factor that corresponds to the conditions defined by a normal atmosphere for the particular geographical locations at which the sites are located. A factor that may be used for the calculation of the particular k-value (N ) for different parts of the world can be found in Rec. ITU-R P.453- 6 . The maps show N from ground level and up to an altitude of one km. The transformation from N to k-factor is performed in accordance with section RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION. The path profile chart may now be completed. Antenna height and line- of-sight information are added to the chart. Adding the first Fresnel radius to the chart will allow the determination of free line-of-sight and whether or not sufficient clearance exists along the path. The path profile is to clearly indicate any forest areas, buildings and other man- made obstructions, see Figure 8.8 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 12/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 292. PATH AND FREQUENCY PLANNING Figure 8: Path profile.Link budget A link budget is established to enable calculations involving signal reception under fade-free conditions. The budget contains a summation of all losses and amplifications of the signal as it propagates from the transmitter to the receiver. This is illustrated in Figure 9. Abf AG AL Transmitter G G Receiver AF AO AF Pout Pin Figure 9: Losses and gains along a path. The power received by the radio link terminal, as illustrated in Figure 10, can be calculated as follows: Pin = Pout AF + G Abf A0 AG AL (3) Ericsson Radio Systems AB 912/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 293. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING where Pin = Received power, dBm Pout = Transmitted power, dBm AF = Antenna feeder loss, dB G = Antenna gain, dBi Abf = Free space loss between isotropic antennas, dB AO = Obstacle loss, dB AG = Gas attenuation, dB AL = Additional loss, dB POWER output power antenna gain feeder loss wave propagation losses received power feeder loss fade margin antenna gain receiver threshold value Figure 10: Losses and gains.10 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 12/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999

294. PATH AND FREQUENCY PLANNINGFadingFade margin The incoming signal that is calculated with the help of the link budget applies to fade-free time. Actual incoming signals to the radio-link receiver vary over time due to fading. To allow for a sufficient power range in connection with incoming signal variations, paths are dimensioned so that a given margin is attained between fade-free incoming signal levels and the receiver threshold value. This is referred to as the fade margin. The fade margin is to be sufficiently large so that the probability of it being exceeded due to fading is sufficiently small in order to meet with the functional demands that are placed on the path. The requirements placed on fade-margin size are indirectly set as a result of the norm used when dimensioning the path. Fade margins lying in the range 25 to 40 dB are most common. Climate, terrain and path length are factors that affect the degree to which a radio-link path is sensitive to fading.Rain The most common types of fading are ordinarily the result of precipitation (rain), multipath propagation and refraction. For frequencies greater than 10 GHz, rain is generally the determining factor. Rain intensity is a parameter that is required when calculating fading due to rain. The algorithms that are generally employed require a value for the rain intensity that is exceeded more than 0.01% of the time (based on an annual average). Actual values of the rain-intensity-at 0.01% value, for different parts of the world, can be found in Rec. ITU-R PN.8371.Multipath propagation For frequencies less than 10 GHz, multipath propagation and refraction are the dominant causes of fading. A climate dependent factor is involved in the calculation of fading caused by multipath propagation, which may be found in Rec. ITU-R PN.530-7. It should be noted that more small-scale climactic variations may exist than those found in the ITU-R recommendation (also applies to rain). For example, for paths that for the most part traverse large bodies of water, the results of the algorithms are often too optimistic when applying large-scale normal climactic factors in the calculation of fading due to multipath propagation. Ericsson Radio Systems AB 1112/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 295. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING The climate dependent portion of the algorithm should, in such cases, be adapted to local climactic conditions in order to assure better results.General More on fading, its causes and how it is calculated are described in the section RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION. The calculated probability related to how the different types of fading along a radio-link path are expected to behave are then transformed into quality and unavailability objectives that are defined in the norm that is applied in the dimensioning of the path. The quantities that are commonly applied are generally standardized by ITU. See the section QUALITY AND AVAILABILITY TARGETS.Diversity Diversity should be used when constructing paths that are heavily exposed to fading caused by multipath propagation. Extreme cases of fading due to multipath propagation are usually the result of long paths, atmospheric disturbances or reflections of the radio waves by large flat surfaces. Radio-link paths over water, are examples of paths that often require diversity. Diversity techniques reduce the effects of fading but also cause an increase in the amount of hardware required. The basis for diversity lies in the fact that radio waves are given the possibility of reaching the receiver via two or more paths. Incoming signals arriving along different paths are assumed to have faded to varying degrees, independent of one another, and are as a result, uncorrelated. The receiver then selects the signal that contains the greatest amount of energy or in some applications, a combination of both of

the received signals. The most commonplace forms of diversity are space diversity and frequency diversity.Space diversity A transmitter antenna and two receiver antennas are used when employing space diversity. The two receiving antennas make it possible to receive signals propagating along different paths. The approach requires twice as many antennas at each end of the path, a unit that selects the best signal and duplicated receiver equipment (either entirely duplicated or partially duplicated).12 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 12/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 296. PATH AND FREQUENCY PLANNINGFrequency diversity One and the same signal is transmitted via two different frequencies. As a result of the difference in frequencies, there is no correlation between the fading of the two signals. Only one antenna is required at each end of the path, but equipment for the selection of the better signal as well as duplicated transmitters and receivers are required. The inferior level of frequency economy generally causes space diversity to be chosen over frequency diversity. Combinations of the two approaches are not unusual when solving extremely difficult fading situations.Improvement Improvements that are achieved as the result of diversity are expressed as a factor, referred to as the improvement factor, which affects the calculated probability of multipath fading, see Figure 11. The improvement varies for different fade depths. It is greatest for deep fading where improvements of up to 100 times can be achieved. The improvement factor is calculated using a number of algorithms, depending on the selected diversity method. The factor is affected, for the most part, by antenna separation in the case of space diversity and by frequency difference in the case of frequency diversity. 0 C -10 Fading depth, dB Without diversity -20 gain With diversity -30 improvement B -40 A -50 10-2 10-3 10-4 10-5 10-6 10-7 Probability of exceeding the fading depth, % Figure 11: Diversity improvement. Ericsson Radio Systems AB 1312/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 297. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNINGReflection Radio wave reflections from large plane surfaces, e.g., lakes and other large bodies of water, can cause degradation of a connections quality and availability. The reflected wave propagates along a different path than that taken by the direct wave, and therefore traverses a different distance before arriving at the receiving station. This difference in distance causes the arriving waves to be phase-shifted with respect to one another. In addition to the phase-shift caused by the aforementioned difference in path length, another source causing phase difference is the phase-shift produced at the moment of reflection. The desired signal is attenuated as a result of phase differences in the direct and reflected incoming waves. The decisive factors as to the seriousness of the effects of such reflections are the electrical characteristics of the ground, the grazing angle, the frequency, the signals polarization, and any small-scale variations in elevation that exist at the point of reflection. Radio-link paths for which reflections are likely to occur should be constructed employing space-diversity. The distance between the primary and the diversity antennas should be adapted to the paths geometry so that one always achieves the best possible signal in one of the antennas. To calculate the optimum height difference between the diversity antennas, one first calculates the height difference between two adjacent points along the mast, at which signal strength is a minimum (or a maximum). This calculation is naturally performed for both stations, A and B. For example, assume that an antenna is mounted on a mast at a given position, i.e., at a given height. As the antenna is moved from this starting position,

the resultant signal strength, i.e. the sum of the signal strengths of the direct and the phase-shifted reflected waves, will either increase to a maximum or decrease to a minimum depending on the direction of movement. The distance between the points in which minimum (or maximum) signal strength is measured is the distance referred to 10 3 (4) 2 -LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 10 3 (5) 2 two maximums/minimums at station A, m h B = The height difference between the two maximums/- minimums at station B, m h A = The antenna height above the point of reflection at station A, m h B = The antenna height above the point of reflection at station B, m dA = The distance between station A and the point of reflection, km dB = The distance between station B and the point of reflection, km d = The distance between station A and B, km f = Frequency, GHz k = Earth-radius factor The distance between the stations and the point of reflection is calculated as described in section RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION. The distance required between the diversity antennas is then calculated as follows: h A h A = (6) 2 and h B h B = (7) 2 where h A = The height difference between the antennas at station A, m h B = The height difference between the antennas at station B, m Ericsson Radio Systems AB 1512/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 299. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING If possible, station locations should be selected so that the risk of reflection is avoided, see Figure 12, or reduced, e.g., do not, if possible, select paths that cross large bodies of water. If, however, one is forced to select paths that are likely to cause reflections, one should attempt to select antenna heights and a wave propagation path such that reflected waves are, as far as is possible, attenuated by obstructions that are situated along the path of reflection. The risk of interference is as a result considerably reduced through planned attenuation. A B Figure 12: Obstacle attenuation in a reflected wave. In addition to the reflection problems caused when radio waves propagate across large bodies of water, these regions also cause other transmission difficulties due to the propagation-impairing atmospheric conditions that often prevail in these areas. These factors sufficiently motivate the use of space-diversity when constructing such paths, even in the event that one feels fairly certain that the effects of reflections have been reduced through planned obstacle attenuation.16 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 12/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 300. PATH AND FREQUENCY PLANNINGPath and site surveys Site and path surveys are often necessary in conjunction with the planning of proposed radio-links. This process may be subdivided into two activities. The first of which is the actual inspection of the path itself and the nature and positions of any obstacles along the path, the study of the reflective attributes of the path, the actual positions of obstacles that are expected to attenuate reflections, etc. The second relates to the inspection of the station site, including activities such as the physical inspection of the antenna masts, their height, their structural properties and their ability to carry the required antenna equipment, whether or not sufficient space has been allotted for the mounting of antennas, the availability of secure and sufficient electrical power, etc. The checklist below includes a number of the essential points that should be investigated. Find/verify: Geographical position of the

site. Antenna carrier height above ground level. Antenna carrier type, strength and torsional strength. Ground level above mean sea level. Possibility to mount antennas at necessary heights. Obstacles in path directions, height and width. Potential reflecting surfaces. Radio environment, other radio equipment in the vicinity or potential sources of signal interference. Distance between indoor and outdoor equipment. Floor/wall space for mounting indoor equipment. Power. Battery backup. Possibility of mounting antenna feeder or multi-cable between the indoor and outdoor equipment, considering space, wall entrance, bend radius, etc. New sites - proximity to roads and power transformer stations. Ericsson Radio Systems AB 1712/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 301. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNINGFrequency planningGeneral The objective of frequency planning is to assign frequencies to a network using as few frequencies as is possible and in such a manner, that the quality and availability of the radio-links path is minimally affected by interference. It is not economically feasible to achieve completely interference-free networks through the use of frequency planning techniques. Frequency planning is often performed based on the acceptance of a given and calculated level of interference that results in acceptable threshold degradation, at the radio-link receiver, of approximately no more than 3 dB. This requires that the fade margin be 3 dB higher than the demands made due to wave propagation and hardware. Equipment data describes maximum interference levels that can be tolerated by the particular radio-link equipment before the 3 dB threshold degradation level is exceeded. The data describes the allowable level of the interfering signal, I, in relation to the radio signal, C, for a given frequency separation. The 3 dB threshold degradation approach is, however, not recommended in a computer environment in which more sophisticated methodology is strongly recommended. At the end, the final limitations are provided by the quality and availability objectives. Both near and far interference contributions are considered when performing frequency planning. The following are the basic considerations involved in the assignment of radio frequencies: Prevention of mutual interference such as the interference between the radio frequency channels in the actual path, interference to/from other radio paths, interference to/from satellite communication system, etc. Frequency economy of the available radio frequency spectrum. Proper selection of frequency band that conforms to the required transmission capacity. Frequency band suitable to both path characteristics (path length, site location, terrain topography) and atmospheric effects18 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 12/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 302. PATH AND FREQUENCY PLANNINGFar interference By far interference is meant unwanted disturbances between a transmitter and a receiver that are not co-located (i.e., located in very close proximity to one anther), see Figure 13. The distance between the disturbing transmitter and the disturbed receiver may vary between a few kilometers, or perhaps a few hundred meters, up to many tens of kilometers. The most serious interference caused by interfering transmitters occurs when they transmit at the same frequency at which the disturbed receiver is tuned to. This type of interference is referred to as co- channel interference. A common requirement on signal-to-interference ratio in the case of co-channel interference is C/I= 20 dB. In some cases, serious disturbances may arise even though the interfering signal lies in an adjacent and separate channel than

the channel containing the desired signal, so-called adjacent-channel interference. C/I = 15 dB is a common require for the avoidance of adjacent-channel interference. These requirements are equipment dependent and vary for the adjacent-channel case as a function of frequency separation between the disturbing and the disturbed signal. The bandwidth of the interfering signal in relation to the bandwidth of the disturbed receiver also affects the demand placed on the C/I ratio. Planning a network that is free from the effects of far interference requires knowledge of the geographic locations at which the sites are located, the layout and dimensioning of the radio-link paths (including both the paths and the transmitting and receiving sites and their respective equipment), equipment data, existing network frequency assignment and a model allowing the study of wave propagation between the disturbed receiver and the interfering transmitter. Far interference is often the primary factor that limits the number of paths that can be set up within a given geographical area. It also affects the possibility of realizing a variety of network solutions, for example, the number of possible paths within a node located in a star network. High quality antennas, which are often analogous with large antennas, are advantageous in the achievement of ones planning objectives. Ericsson Radio Systems AB 1912/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 303. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING Tx=f2 Rx=f1 Tx=f1 Rx=f2 Tx=f1 Rx=f2 Tx=f2 Rx=f1 Figure 13: Far interference.Near interference Near interference refers to receiver disturbances that are generated by transmitters that are grouped at one and the same site. Disturbances may be caused both by in-house and foreign equipment, either individually or as a result of their interaction. Disturbances may appear in the form of intermodulation effects, i.e., the mixture of two or more transmitter frequencies that may arise close to a particular receiver frequency, see Figure 14.20 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 12/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 304. PATH AND FREQUENCY PLANNING f1 f2 2f2-f1 3f2-2f1 frx ftx Figure 14: Near interference. Disturbances arising from intermodulation effects in cases where waveguide-bound frequency bands are used (i.e., 6 GHz) are negligible. Of course wave-guide-bound systems may contribute to intermodulation effects in systems working at lower frequency bands and therefore using coaxial cables as antenna feeders. It should be noted that this effect is due to the fact waveguides are more frequency discriminating (hi-pass filter characteristic) then antenna feeder cables. Degraded performance can also be the result of transmitter frequencies that lie too close to a receivers frequency thereby directly degrading reception quality. An additional cause of degraded reception quality is blocking. Blocking can arise even if the disturbing transmitter frequency lies well separated from the receiver frequency if the emitted field-strength by the transmitter is sufficiently strong. Examples of situations in which blocking can arise is when the radiolinks are co-located with high- power transmitters such as radar stations and radio broadcasting stations. Ericsson Radio Systems AB 2112/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 305. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING Another important characteristic, that should be considered when calculating the effect of near interference, is the coupling loss between two antennas located at the same site, see Figure 15. This identifies that portion of the radiated power, from one of the antennas, that leaks over to the other antenna. P1 A P2 P2 = P A 1 A = Coupling loss Figure 15:

Coupling loss between two antennas. The following isolation values may be used when performing rough estimates: approximately 40 dB between two antennas made up of dipoles approximately 80 dB between two parabolic antennas These values are in reality, naturally dependent on the distance and angles between the two antennas. The selection of proper duplex-bands for transmitter and receiver equipment, during the frequency-allocation process, is essential if one is to control the risk of disturbances that arise as a result of insufficient transmitter-receiver frequency separation. Allocating all the transmitters to one of the duple-bands and all the receivers to the other always attains maximum site frequency economy for a specific radio-frequency channel arrangement. This often results in also satisfying the requirement of maintaining the necessary frequency separation between transmitter and receiver frequencies. Making use of one of the ITUs standardized radio-frequency channel arrangement generally facilitates the planning process. These standards are internationally and widely accepted by numerous government frequency regulating bodies.22 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 12/038 02LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 306. PATH AND FREQUENCY PLANNINGFrequency economy Some general pointers that should be followed in the frequency planning process: Reuse frequencies, i.e., repeat the use of frequencies as often as is possible. Use antennas having high front-toback ratios and large side-lobe suppression. These result in both good frequency economy and, in the final analysis, good overall network economy. High performance antennas may be a suitable alternative. Do not use higher radio-link output power than necessary. If the choice is between higher transmitter output power and larger antennas, choose (if possible) a larger antenna. Power will be concentrated along the intended path, i.e., towards the receiver.References Rec. ITU-R P.453-6 Rec. ITU-R P.530-7 Rec. ITUR P.837-1 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 2312/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 307. RADIO-RELAY TRANSMISSION DISCUSSION The primary objective of this chapter is to encourage a discussion on specific and general subjects of interest in transmission network planning, for instance, practices versus theory, current trends in todays world market that affect radio-relay transmission, personal experience and future prospects for radio-relay technology. TABLE OF CONTENTSIntroduction....................................................................................................... ................................................ 1World market trends...................................................................................................................................... .... 1New technology.............................................................................................................................. ................... 1Future outlook ................................................................................................................................................ ... 2References ................................................................................................................................................ ......... 3Question form........................................................................................................................................ ............ 4 i 308. RADIO-RELAY TRANSMISSION - DISCUSSIONIntroduction Commercially operated radio-relay transmission facilities have been in existence for some 60 years. Radio-relay technology has seen vast development during that period of time, progressing

from the stages of the earlier, now antiquated, analog systems to systems based on modern digital technology. Modern transmission technologies, such as optical- fiber transmission, were introduced during the last two-three decades. Despite the limited transmission capacity of radio-relay systems, in comparison to optical fiber, radio-relay transmission still seems to be the best alternative for many applications. Future trends and the prospect of new applications seem to confirm the continued suitability of utilizing radio-relay in future networks.World market trends Radio-relay transmission will undoubtedly play a major role in the social-technical structure of the future - a structure upon which the envisioned global information society is to rest. Nowadays, about ten major companies are competing in the area of radio-relay transmission and for the past 20 years, an almost constant amount of radio-relay equipment has been manufactured per year on a worldwide basis (about 50,000 transmitters and receivers). Furthermore, radiorelay equipment is constantly getting better, smaller and less expensive. Present world market trends in this area seem to indicate that the coming years will see an increase in both the need for, and the production of, radio-relay transmitter and receiver equipment. This equipment will be utilized in responding to the demands for: high-capacity shorthaul urban systems small and medium-capacity rural and urban access systems highcapacity long-haul systems applicable to the regional networks of developing and geographically inaccessible countriesNew technology In addition, worldwide business transformations that have been implemented during recent years, aimed at creating greater deregulation and reduced centralization, have also acted as catalysts in the creation of new business opportunities and markets. Ericsson Radio Systems AB 113/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 309. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQENCY PLANNING The traditionally long-haul high-capacity systems installed in extremely large countries such as China, Russia, India and Brazil will certainly be extended to greater transmission capacities. The majority of systems based on older radio technologies and cable connections will certainly be replaced by newer technologies, in many cases new radiorelay systems will appear as the best and most cost-effective alternative. In addition, as installed radio-relay systems around the world grow older and approach obsolescence, they will require continuous maintenance and upgrading programs to maintain sufficient efficiency, flexibility and productivity. Short-haul systems will undoubtedly be highly integrated with compact cost-effective equipment operating at higher frequency bands. These systems will be characterized by their short installation time, their ease of maintenance and will be used in the following applications: the interconnection of longhaul routes with urban exchange stations the interconnection of cellular base stations with one another and with the Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) Radio in the Local Loop (RLL) for the final subscriberFuture outlook New radio-relay technologies that are suited to the new market demands will most certainly appear and advances will very likely appear in the following areas: Frequency bands below 20 GHz will become more crowded and consequently a shift will take place towards higher frequencies more sophisticated modulation methods will improve frequency utilization higher transmission capacities will, in many situations, complement optical-fiber cable transmission systems greater digitalization of the signal processing stages plus built-in intelligence increased equipment integration will produce more compact and more cost-

effective equipment adaptive equalization and automatic output power regulation2 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 13/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 310. RADIO-RELAY TRANSMISSION - DISCUSSION Since the establishment of the first commercial link between Calais and Dover some 60 years ago, the importance of radio-relay transmission has steadily increased - resulting in more reliable and costeffective transmission systems. It is not at all unlikely that radio-relay transmission will emerge as being the best transmission alternative for many future applications yet to come.References Radio-Relay Systems, Huurdeman, A. A., Artech House, 1995. Radio-System Design for Telecommunications (1-100 GHz), Freeman, R. L., 1987. Ericsson Radio Systems AB 313/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 311. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQENCY PLANNINGQuestion form If you have any question or subject of general interest for discussion, please fill in this form and forward it to the course instructors. Issues concerning path and frequency planning, methods, trends or country specific matters such as access to frequencies/ frequency bands, error performance and availability, interference aspects, hardware requirements, climate effects on radio-relay transmission, etc. are welcome. We believe the form will facilitate structuring your questions and subjects and improve the outcome of our discussion._______________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ _4 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 13/038 02-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 312. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK PLANNING - APPLICATION This chapter provides an extensive exercise in the subject of radio-transmission network and frequency planning. TABLE OF CONTENTSIntroduction....................................................................................................... ................................................ 1Assign values for the planning parameters and establish a network.................................................................. 1 Assign channel table............................................................................................................................ 1 Assign Radio Systems ......................................................................................................................... 2 Assign quality and availability targets................................................................................................. 3 Assign default parameter values.......................................................................................................... 3 Establish sites

...................................................................................................................................... 6 Establish paths..................................................................................................................................... 6Planning procedures .......................................................................................................................................... 7 Path planning guidelines ..................................................................................................................... 7 Frequency assignment guidelines ........................................................................................................ 8 Final path calculation .......................................................................................................................... 8 i 313. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK PLANNING - APPLICATIONIntroduction The purpose of this exercise is to provide an introduction to radio transmission network and frequency planning. Instructions and advisory guidelines will facilitate the initialisation and the final analysis of a radio transmission network comprising 20 sites. One of the sites will be considered as the joint-point site for all connections. The following will be considered: Assign values for the planning parameters Establish a network Perform planning proceduresAssign values for the planning parameters and establish a networkAssign channel table Select Define - Channel table. Create a new channel table according to Table 1, and give it the name RTNFP practice. Use channels B1, B2, C1, D1, D4 and D9. The channel configuration is illustrated in Figure 1. Upper Band Lower Band Frequency Frequency Channel spacing MHz MHz 3.5 MHZ 7 MHz 14 MHz 28 MHz 14921.00 14501.00 14924.50 14504.50 D1 14928.00 14508.00 D2 C1 14931.50 14511.50 D3 14935.00 14515.00 D4 C2 B1 A1 14938.50 14518.50 D5 14942.00 14522.00 D6 C4 14945.50 14525.50 D7 14949.00 14529.00 D8 C5 B2 14952.50 14532.50 D9 Table 1. Channel table. Ericsson Radio Systems AB 114/038 14-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 314. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQENCY PLANNING B1 B2 C1 D1 D4 D9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 Channel D1 D4 D9 C1 B1 B2 3.5 MHz Figure 1. ML channels RTNFP training network.Assign Radio Systems Select Define - Radio System. Define 4 different radio systems. Radio System 1: Copy ECAP 2x2. Select the copy and rename it as ML 15 E 2x2 HP. Select the following components: Radio: ML 15 E 2x2 HP Antenna type: ML 15 0.6 HP Channel table: RTNFP practice Configuration: Not doubled MTTR: 8 hours Radio System 2: Copy ECAP 4x2. Select the copy and rename it as ML 15 E 4x2 HP. Select the following components: Radio: ML 15 E 4x2/8 HP Antenna type: ML 15 0.6 HP Channel table: RTNFP practice2 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 14/038 14-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 315. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK PLANNING - APPLICATION Configuration: Not doubled MTTR: 8 hours Radio System 3: Copy E-CAP 8x2. Select the copy and rename it as ML 15 E 8x2 HP. Select the following components: Radio: ML 15 E 8x2/2x8 HP Antenna type: ML 15 0.6 HP Channel table: RTNFP practice Configuration: Not doubled MTTR: 8 hours Radio System 4: Copy E-CAP 8x2. Select the copy and rename it as ML 15 E 8x2 HP1,2. Select the following components: Radio: ML 15 E 8x2/2x8 HP Antenna type: ML 15 1.2 HP Channel table: RTNFP practice Configuration: Not doubled MTTR: 8 hoursAssign quality and availability targets Select Define - Quality and Availability targets. Press the New button and

assign the name G821 to the existing table.Assign default parameter values Select Define - Default parameters. Create a new default table with the name RTNFP practice. Ericsson Radio Systems AB 314/038 14-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 316. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQENCY PLANNING Equipment default Path Radio System: ML 15 E 2x2 HP Antenna height: 36 m Polarisation: Vertical Algorithms Obstacle attenuation: Smooth-spherical-earth method (Cheriex). Multipath fading, flat: ITU-R Rec. P.530-7 Multipath fading, frequency selective: ITU-R Rec. F.1093 Parameters Earth-radius factor (k): k-value statistics use k-distribution related to the actual pL factor, see Chapter 15 [4. Refractive gradient and 1. Earth radius factor as a function of the refraction gradient]. k at normal atmosphere will automatically be set from k-value statistics. Gas attenuation: Temperature, 30C. Relative humidity, the most unfavourable parameter value, see Chapter 15, [2. Relative humidity as a function of temperature]. Rain fading: Use the 0.01 % value, see Chapter 15 [7. Rain climate zones and 8. Rain intensity distribution]. SESR fraction, 0 %. Flat multipath fading: pLfactor, most unfavourable parameter value, see Chapter 15 [3. Refractive factor (pL factor)]. Terrain class, Inland links. Terrain type, Plains. Coastal fraction, 0 %.4 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 14/038 14-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 317. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK PLANNING - APPLICATION Interference, Far interference Use C/I matrix: Yes Adjacent channel attenuation: 20 dB Interference radius: 200 km Result presentation: Exclude interferes when threshold level/interference level is > 40 dB. Highlight interfered paths when threshold degradation is > 3.0 dB. Presentation Quality template: Final.rrt. Report title: e.g. name and date. Time unit: Second Do not forget to SAVE the default parameters! Ericsson Radio Systems AB 514/038 14-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 318. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQENCY PLANNINGEstablish sites Open the project RTNFP practice and select RTNFP practice as default parameters (save). Open the version RTNFP practice version 1 and assign new sites according to Table 2. Label the sites 1, 2, 3,.....20. Site La Lo Z 1 24 19 19.5 75 37 56.2 50 2 24 15 50.3 75 42 14.1 50 3 24 16 48.5 75 41 14.8 50 4 24 17 17.7 75 41 59.9 50 5 24 18 11.3 75 40 37.3 35 6 24 17 19.7 75 39 27.4 50 7 24 18 43.5 75 39 38.4 46 8 24 18 03.7 75 42 00.0 50 9 24 17 42.2 75 43 17.3 50 10 24 18 45.6 75 41 15.5 50 11 24 18 37.1 75 43 22.7 50 12 24 19 44.8 75 42 00.4 47 13 24 18 17.0 75 37 31.5 54 14 24 14 31.9 75 44 12.5 50 15 24 21 39.9 75 41 06.5 50 16 24 31 30.4 75 44 25.3 74 17 24 24 53.0 75 44 30.1 65 18 24 27 15.4 75 41 44.7 65 19 24 29 21.5 75 45 08.8 65 20 24 30 21.2 75 46 13.9 65 Table 2. Sites The entire network is displayed at the end of this chapter.Establish paths All paths are MINI-LINK 15-E, 0.6m HP antennas (except path 15 to 19 in which 1.2m HP antennas are used). For each path, select Q&A target, Rec. G.821, medium grade, class 3. Check if the default radio system is valid. The radio system may have to be changed according to Table 3. Make each path active.6 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 14/038 14-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 319. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK PLANNING - APPLICATION Path Site Antenna Site Antenna Capacity no height no height Mb/s 1 to 7 1 36 7 41 2x2 2 to 4 2 27 4 26 2x2 2 to 14 2 35 14 32 2x2 3 to 4 3 24 4 27 2x2 4 to 6 4 26 6 36 4x2 5 to 7 5 36 7 40 8x2 5 to 10 5 36 10 40 8x2 5 to 12 5 36 12 38 8x2 6 to 7 6 32 7 40 8x2 7 to 13 7 41 13 37 2x2 8 to 10 8 19 10 36 2x2 9 to 11 9 26 11 28 2x2 10 to 15 10 40 15 28 8x2 11 to 12 11

30 12 30 2x2 12 to 17 12 30 17 30 8x2 15 to 19 19 33 15 28 8x2 (*) 16 to 20 16 26 20 26 2x2 17 to 19 17 35 19 33 8x2 18 to 19 18 35 19 33 2x2 19 to 20 19 33 20 22 2x2 Table 3. Path and antenna heights. (*) Use radio system number 4.Planning proceduresPath planning guidelines Make a preliminary path calculation for each path in the network. Use as low output power as possible. It is possible to vary the output power in the rage of 5 - 25 dBm. Considerthe receiver threshold degradation caused by interference. A normal reference valuefor the threshold degradation is 3 dB, which means that the fade margin has to be 3 dB greater when compared to interference-free conditions. Check that the quality and availability targets are fulfilled. Apply the ITU-R Hypothetical Reference Connection (HRX) in a proper way to your training network by defining Hypothetical Reference Digital Sections (HRDS) that consist of a proper number of paths. Ericsson Radio Systems AB 714/038 14-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 320. RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQENCY PLANNING Consider site number 5, as the joint-point site for all connections (for instance, the location of an exchange). In this training, it is possible to make use of maximum two Hypothetical Reference Digital Sections (HRDS).Frequency assignment guidelines Start in the middle of the network, for example with site 5. Assign for the entire network, high or low duplex to each end of the paths. Try to avoid transmitter frequencies and receiver frequencies in the same duplex half at one and same site. Re-use frequencies and polarisation as often as possible. That is, if one channel is assigned to a site, always try to assign the same channel for the other paths on the same site and also for the neighbouring sites. In the occurrence of unacceptable threshold degradation (unacceptable C/Ivalues), first change the polarisation. If that does not help, then try an adjacent channel. Do not exceed the threshold degradation used in the path planning.Final path calculation When frequencies are assigned to the network, make a final path calculation. For each path, use the actual threshold degradation achieved in the interference calculations. The degradation will automatically be transferred from the far interference calculations to the path calculations.8 Ericsson Radio Systems AB 14/038 14-LZU 102 152, Rev A, November 1999 321. 1. Earth-radius factor as a function of the refraction gradient 322. 2.10 2.00 Refraction gradients are obtained Refraction gradients are obtained from ITU-RITU-RP.453-6 from Rec. Rec. P.453-6. 1.90 1.80Earth-radius factor (k) 1.70 1.60 1.50 1.40 1.30 1.20 1.10 1.00 -80 -70 -60 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 Refraction gradient (dN/dh), N-units/km 323. 2. Surface water vapor density Rec. ITU.R P.836-1 324. FIGURE 1 Annual surface water vapour density (g/m 3)Latitude (degrees) Longitude (degrees) 0836-01sc 325. FIGURE 2 December, January, February: surface water vapour density (g/m 3)Latitude (degrees) Longitude (degrees) 0836-02sc 326. FIGURE 3 March, April, May: surface water vapour density (g/m3)Latitude (degrees) Longitude (degrees) 0836-03sc 327. FIGURE 4 June, July, August: surface water vapour density (g/m3)Latitude (degrees) Longitude (degrees) 0836-04sc 328. FIGURE 5 September, October, November: surface water vapour density (g/m 3)Latitude (degrees) Longitude (degrees) 0836-05sc 329. 3. Relative humidity as a function of temperature

330. 100 Water vapor density are obtained Water vapor density is obtained 90 from from Rec. ITU-R P.836-1. ITU-R Rec. P.836-1 80 70Relative humidity, % 3 60 20 g/m 3 50 15 g/m 3 10 g/m 40 3 5 g/m 30 3 2 g/m 20 3 1 g/m 10 3 0.5 g/m 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 Temperatur, C 331. 4. Refractive factor (pL factor) Rec. ITU.R P.453 332. FIGURE 7Percentage of time gradient 100 (N-units/km): February FIGURE 8 Percentage of time gradient 100 (N-units/km): May 0453-7-8 333. FIGURE 9 Percentage of time gradient 100 N-units/km: August FIGURE 10Percentage of time gradient 100 N-units/km: November 453-9-10 334. 5. Refractive gradient Rec. ITU.R P.453 335. 0453-3-4 336. 0453-5-6 337. 6. Rain frequency-dependent coefficients Rec. ITU.R P.838 338. TABLE 1 Regression coefficients for estimating specific attenuation in equation (1)Frequency kH kV H V (GHz) 1 0.0000387 0.0000352 0.912 0.880 2 0.000154 0.000138 0.963 0.923 4 0.000650 0.000591 1.121 1.075 6 0.00175 0.00155 1.308 1.265 7 0.00301 0.00265 1.332 1.312 8 0.00454 0.00395 1.327 1.310 10 0.0101 0.00887 1.276 1.264 12 0.0188 0.0168 1.217 1.200 15 0.0367 0.0335 1.154 1.128 20 0.0751 0.0691 1.099 1.065 25 0.124 0.113 1.061 1.030 30 0.187 0.167 1.021 1.000 35 0.263 0.233 0.979 0.963 40 0.350 0.310 0.939 0.929 45 0.442 0.393 0.903 0.897 50 0.536 0.479 0.873 0.868 60 0.707 0.642 0.826 0.824 70 0.851 0.784 0.793 0.793 80 0.975 0.906 0.769 0.769 90 1.06 0.999 0.753 0.754 100 1.12 1.06 0.743 0.744 120 1.18 1.13 0.731 0.732 150 1.31 1.27 0.710 0.711 200 1.45 1.42 0.689 0.690 300 1.36 1.35 0.688 0.689 400 1.32 1.31 0.683 0.684 339. 7. Rain climate zones Rec. ITU.R P.837 340. RAIN ZONESPercentageof time (%) A B C D E F G H J K L M N P Q 1.0 <0.1 0.5 0.7 2.1 0.6 1.7 3 2 8 1.5 2 4 5 12 24 0.3 0.8 2.0 2.8 4.5 2.4 4.5 7 4 13 4.2 7 11 15 34 49 0.1 2 3 5 8 6 8 12 10 20 12 15 22 35 65 72 0.03 5 6 9 13 12 15 20 18 28 23 33 40 65 105 96 0.01 8 12 15 19 22 28 30 32 35 42 60 63 95 145 115 0.003 14 21 26 29 41 54 45 55 45 70 105 95 140 200 142 0.001 22 32 42 42 70 78 65 83 55 100 150 120 180 250 170 341. 8. Rain intensity distribution Rec. ITU.R P.837-1 342. D01-sc 343. D02-sc 344. D03-sc 345. 9. Annual and worst-month statistics Rec. ITU.R P.841 346. and Q1 values for various propagation effects and locationsP Rain effect Rain effect Multipath Trans-horizon Trans-horizon terrestrial slant path land seaGlobal 0.13; 2.85 0.13; 2.85 0.13; 2.85 0.13; 2.85 0.13; 2.85CANADA 0.08; 4.3Prairie&NorthCANADA 0.10; 2.7Coast&G.LakeCANADA 0.13; 3.0Cent.&Mount.USA 0.15; 2.7VirginiaJAPAN 0.20; 3.0TokyoJAPAN 0.15; 4.0YamaguchiJAPAN 0.15; 2.7KashimaCONGO 0.25; 1.5EUROPE 0.13; 3.0 0.16; 3.1 0.13; 4.0 0.18; 3.3 0.11; 5.0North WestEUROPE 0.14; 2.6 0.16; 3.1MediterraneanEUROPE 0.15; 3.0 0.16; 3.8 0.12; 5.0NordicEUROPE 0.15; 3.0 0.16; 3.8AlpineEUROPE 0.18; 2.6PolandEUROPE 0.14; 3.6RussiaINDONESIA 0.22; 1.7 347. LZB 111 0162RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNINGRADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING

LZB 111 0162RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNINGRADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING LZB 111 0162RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNINGRADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING LZB 111 0162RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNINGRADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING LBZ 111 0162RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNINGRADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING LZB 111 0162RADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNINGRADIO TRANSMISSION NETWORK AND FREQUENCY PLANNING