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Truss models
When concrete is used to carry loads, the tensile regions are expected to crack, and, therefore, must be reinforced by materials of high tensile strength (steel, fibers) Truss models are widely used for the design of beams subjected to axial load, bending, shear and torsion. The most widely used truss models include: Bernoulli Compatibility Truss Model (axial load and bending) Equilibrium Plasticity Truss Model (shear and torsion) These truss models are generally applied in the so-called main regions, i.e. a portion of the structure, where the stresses and strains are distributed so regularly that they can be easily expressed mathematically The main regions are also referred to as B-regions, where B stands for Bernoulli or beam
Strut-and-tie models
In contrast to the B-regions (or main regions) introduced before, a local region is a portion of the structure, where there is a strong variation of stresses and strains These regions are also referred to as D-regions, where D stands for discontinuity, disturbance or detail Typical D-regions are: connections between a beam and a column end of a beam or a column corbels regions adjacent to a concentrated load recesses and holes
recess
hole
beam end
concentrated load
corbel
deep beam
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(a)
(b)
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(a)
2D and 3D Structural Elements A.Y. 2009/2010
(b)
(c)
Identification of D-region
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a) Replace the real structure by a fictitious structure, which is loaded in such a way that (a) it complies with Bernoullis hypothesis; and (b) it satisfies equilibrium with sectional forces: this structure consists entirely of B-regions, but violates boundary conditions. b) Introduce a self-equilibrating state of stress which, if superimposed on the fictitious structure, allows to satisfy the boundary conditions. c) Apply the principle of De Saint Venant: the influence of the selfequilibrating system becomes negligible at a certain distance from the equilibrating forces; this distance is roughly equal to the distance between the equilibrating forces. d) The D-regions (and B-regions) of the real structure are thus identified.
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In this case, the beam would be considered slender (L 4h) on the basis of the usual limits for beams; the point load, however, increases the extension of the D-regions.
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Generally, it is very time-consuming to model a whole structure by means of a truss; the first important thing to do is to understand whether there are more B-regions or D-regions. Most structures contain a substantial part of B-regions: beams and continuous frames slabs and shells For the above-mentioned cases a linear elastic analysis is sufficient, and allows to evaluate the generalized forces (N, M, V and T) at each section of the structure. If there are D-regions (e.g. the corners in a frame), the sectional forces can be used as boundary conditions for a detailed study of the disturbed portion of the structure. If the structure consists of a single D-region (e.g. a deep beam) then solving for the sectional forces is not necessary, and only the procedures outlined in the following should be applied.
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If a D-region is in the uncracked state, standard methods of analysis can be used (typically linear elastic finite elements analysis). If the tensile stresses in individual D-regions exceed the tensile strength of concrete, the inner forces can be determined as follows: 1. A strut-and-tie model is developed, by condensing the continuous stress fields (in compression and tension) into resultant straight lines. 2. The strut and tie forces are calculated, on the basis of the typical procedures used for trussworks. 3. The struts and ties are dimensioned, together with the nodes, in accordance to the materials properties, and with due consideration of crack width limitations. 4. Generally, the struts are represented by stress flows in the concrete, and the ties by the reinforcing bars.
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It is possible to visualize the stress flows in compression and tension, and to condense them into resultant straight lines (struts and ties).
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Note that the previous stress flow is a good representation of the behaviour of the deep beams at ultimate; therefore, this type of analysis is most suited for the ultimate conditions; its application to the serviceability limit states is more questionable...
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First, the outer equilibrium of the considered D-region has to be satisfied, by determining all the loads and reactions (support forces) acting on it. The stress diagram is then subdivided in such a way, that the loads on one side of the structure find their counterpart on the other. An important thing to consider is that, generally, the load paths tend to be of minimum length; therefore, they do not cross each other.
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If the D-region is adjacent to a B-region, the loads (stresses) on the Dregion can be evaluated on the basis of the design of the B-region, by assuming for example a linear distribution of stresses.
Model optimization
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Being based on the lower bound theorem of plasticity, the Load Path Method allows multiple solutions for one single problem. Once a model is chosen, an open question is whether the given problem has been solved in the most proper way It is useful to remember that the loads flow along the path characterized by the least forces and deformations; since the deformability of ties (usually represented by rebars) is by far larger than that of concrete struts, the model with the least and shortest ties is the best. This criterion can be expressed as follows:
iFiLimi = minimum
where Fi = force in tie i, Li = length of member i, and mi = mean strain of member i. This condition implies also that the stiffness of the chosen truss is the maximum possible.
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good choice
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bad choice
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The load transfer has to be ensured not only through a proper dimensioning of the struts and ties, but also by checking the load transfer between the different elements. A close relationship can be established between the detailing of the nodes, and the flow of forces through the members of the model (be they struts or ties). Therefore, it is mandatory to check whether the model assumed is still valid after detailing or needs correction.
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The Ts forces (ties) are essentially linear; on the contrary, Cc (and Tc, if they are taken into account) are 2-D or 3-D stress fields, spreading out across finite zones of concrete, from one node to the other. The spreading of the struts implies transverse tensile and compressive stresses, that must properly be accounted for.
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The struts in the model are resultants of the stress fields. Generally, the curvatures and deviations of the forces are concentrated at the nodes, connecting straight elements. It may be argued, however, that this idealization of the reality is too crude; the nodes can then be smeared over a larger portion of the structural element.
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To cover all cases of compression fields, three typical configurations are sufficient: a) the fan; b) the bottle; c) the prism.
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T = (b a)/b F
T = (1 0.7a/h) F
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It is well known that concrete strength is affected by the presence of multiaxial states of stress. The most authoritative source on this issue is the research carried out by Kupfer et al. (1969).
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Transverse compression is favourable, especially if it acts in both transverse directions, as it is the case in confined regions. A proper confinement degree can be attained by: having some bulk concrete surrounding the stressed region; providing transverse reinforcement (stirrups, spirals).
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At the beginning of the 80s, Vecchio and Collins (at the University of Toronto) developed a unique testing device (Panel Element Tester), to study the behavior of reinforced concrete under various loading conditions.
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Transverse tensile stresses and the ensuing cracks are detrimental. The compressive strength is greatly reduced, if the transverse tension causes cracks parallel to the principal compression stresses ( the compression prisms between the cracks are narrow and ragged). Cracks which are not parallel to the principal compressive stresses are particularly detrimental.
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For practical purposes, the following simplified values of design strength can be adopted (Schlaich et al., 1987): fcd* = 1.0fcd fcd* = 0.8fcd in case of undisturbed and uniaxial compressive stress if tensile strains in the cross direction or transverse tensile reinforcement may cause cracking parallel to the strut as above, in the case of skew cracking and rebars for skew cracks, with extraordinary crack width
The last case is to be expected, whenever the assumed strut-and-tie model deviates significantly from the flow of internal forces predicted by linear elasticity.
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The design strength of a concrete strut in a portion where transverse compressive stresses (or any tensile stresses) are expected, can be calculated through the following expressions.
Rd,max = fcd
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It is recomended that the design strength of concrete struts be reduced in the cracked compressed zones, and, when no accurate investigations are carried out, can be determined by means of the following equation.
Rd,max = fcd
( = 1 fck/250)
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The nodal zones connecting several struts are generally subjected to biaxial states of stress. A simple procedure, based on Mohrs circle, allowing to quantify the state of stress in the nodal zones was proposed by Marti (1985).
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The same construction can be applied to the points corresponding to the struts B and C. The final result is the dashed circle, that represents the state of stress in the nodal zone.
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If the struts are chosen so that the stresses in all struts have the same value, the principal stresses inside the triangular nodal zone are 1 = 2 = -, and the sides of the triangle are perpendicular to the struts. The following equation applies:
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Main assumptions: NO beam theory point load is distributed (NO concrete crushing) steel reinforcement is unbonded (end plates are provided) As is such, that the neutral axis depth is half the beam depth
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The maximum resistant bending moment at midspan is Mmax = fcbd2/4 = fyAsd/2 Since concrete stresses are everywhere below (or equal to) the compressive strength, and steel is at its yield point, this stress distribution gives a lower bound of the ultimate load.
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Now, if we enforce free body equilibrium conditions, we obtain: 1/2 Pu L/2 = fyAs d/2 Pu = 2fyAs d/L (or Pu = fcbd2/L)
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Consider now a failure mechanism, characterized by rotation about the middepth position (midspan and end sections): maximum displacement (at midspan): rotation of the two halves of the beam: outward displacement at beam ends: 2 /L 2 /L d/2
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The outward displacement at the ends of the beam, as well as the inward displacement at midspan, can be thought of as crushing of the compressed concrete (caused by the loading and end plates). The equation of virtual works becomes: Pu = (2 bd/2 d/L + bd/2 2d/L ) fc
Pu = fcbd2/2
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The outward displacement at the ends of the beam is now assumed to cause stretching (and yielding) of the reinforcing tie. The internal energy dissipation is now split into two parts. The equation of virtual works becomes: Pu = (2 As d/L ) fy + (bd/2 2d/L ) fc
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The static and the kinematic approach give the same value of the ultimate load; therefore, this is the exact value of the collapse load. The static approach, in this simple case is surely more handy and quick.
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Materials and loads: reinforcing steel (FeB44k): concrete (Rck 35): concentrated loads: distributed load: fyd = 430/1.15 = 374 MPa fcd = 0.83 35 0.85/1.6 = 15 MPa P = 250 kN q = 40 kN/m
Worked-out example 2
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Reaction forces and maximum bending moment: RA = RB = qL/2 + P = 40 5 + 250 = 450 kN Mmax = RA L/2 q L2/8 P (L/2 a) = 1000 kNm The compression zone required to resist the maximum bending moment is approximately 250 mm; the bottom reinforcement is assumed to be 75 mm above the bottom of the beam.
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Worked-out example 2
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Worked-out example 2
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The distributed load is concentrated at the upper nodes of the truss; the axial loads in the vertical ties are used to design the transverse reinforcement, which consists of vertical rebars (stirrups). In the support area, the actual position of the rebars determines the truss.
2D and 3D Structural Elements A.Y. 2009/2010
Worked-out example 2
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Design the stirrups in the first portion of the beam: As,tot = Nmax/fyd = 410000/374 = 1096 mm2 Choose 10 stirrups (two legs)
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spacing = 115 mm
Worked-out example 2
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Design the stirrups in the center portion of the beam: As,tot = Nmax/fyd = 96000/374 = 257 mm2 Choose 8 stirrups (two legs)
2D and 3D Structural Elements A.Y. 2009/2010
spacing = 310 mm
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The figure shows a possible arrangement of the reinforcement. Note the following: the presence of longitudinal bars in the web (cracking control); the reinforcement detailing in the support area (D-region).
Worked-out example 3 (Schlaich et al., 1987) Deep beam with point load and hole
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Required: strut-and-tie model forces in the struts and ties dimensioning of ties (reinforcement) stress check in struts and nodes reinforcement layout
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1. The reaction forces are determined, by means of simple equilibrium equations. 2. A FE analysis of the structure is carried out, assuming a linear elastic behaviour, in order to highlight the stress distribution. 3. The structure is subdivided into two parts, whose dimensions are determined on the basis of the values of the reaction forces; on these two parts, equilibrium in the vertical direction is enforced. 4. Across the subdivision line (characterized by V = 0) the interaction between the two parts is enforced, by enforcing the horizontal equilibrium. 5. The structure is then represented by a series of struts and ties; the axial forces of these elements is determined using simple equilibrium equations. 6. Once the axial force in each element of the model is calculated, the ties and struts can be dimensioned/checked.
External equilibrium
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The reaction forces are determined by two simple rotation equilibrium equations: RA = 3000 250 / 700 = 1071 kN RB = 3000 450 / 700 = 1929 kN
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undeformed shape
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The position and dimensions of the truss elements are determined, if the depth of the compression zone at the top and the portion occupied by the reinforcing bar on the bottom are known. Distance of T from the bottom = 500/2 = 250 mm Distance of C from the top
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= 350/2 = 175 mm
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The position and dimensions of the truss elements are determined, by taking into consideration the previous assumptions concerning T and C. Distance of N2 from the top right hole corner = 100 mm (for bond) The other elements are simply determined, by considering the intersections of the elements with the load paths from support A to the applied concentrated load.
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Checks at node B
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It is also very important to check the anchorage length, in order to allow a proper transfer of the bond forces from the bars to the concrete.
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