Refrigeration, Air Conditioning, and Electronics Cooling Water Systems

Chapter Four

References
NSTM Chapter 510, Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning for Surface Ships NSTM Chapter 516, Refrigeration Systems NSTM Chapter 532, Liquid Cooling Systems for Electronic Equipment Chapters 22 and 23, Volume 3, DD-963 Propulsion Plant Manual, S9234-AL-GTP-030 Chapters 22 and 23, Volume 3, FFG-7 Propulsion Plant Manual, S9234-BL-GTP-030 150-Ton Air Conditioning Plant Technical Manual for DD-963s, NAVSEA S9514-CF-MMA-010 1.5-Ton Ships Stores Refrigeration Plant Technical Manual for DD-963s, NAVSEA 0959-LP-0474010 Ships Stores Refrigeration Plant for AE-26/27 Class Ships, NAVSEA 0959-LP-022-5010 80-Ton Air Conditioning Plant (HFC-134a) Technical Manual for FFG-7s, NAVSEA S9514-DLMMO-A10 Volume 2, Parts 2 and 3, Ships Information Book for DD-985, 9DD0-64-SIB-030/DD-985 and S9DD0-64-SIB-040/DD-985 COMNAVSEASYSCOM WASHINGTON DC 201128Z OCT 94, Alarms for Electronic Cooling Water Loops No. 1 and 2 for DD-963 Class Management of Ozone Depleting Substances, Chapter 6, OPNAVINST 5090.1B of 1 November 1994, Environmental and Natural Resources Program Manual

Objectives
You should be able to satisfy the following objectives once youve waded through this tome on air conditioning and refrigeration: Understand the basic thermodynamic cycle for air conditioning and refrigeration (AC&R) systems. Describe major refrigeration system components paying particular attention to their purpose and function for proper and safe system operation. Familiarity with the following specific components and subsystems shall be gained: AC&R Thermostatic Expansion Valve (TXV) and Hand Expansion Valve (HXV). Compressor and its safety features. Capacity Control System and Loading and Unloading feature. Condenser, Water Regulating Valve (WRV), and Receiver. 4-1 June 1996

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Dehydrator and Heat Exchanger. King, or Liquid Line, Solenoid Valve and Thermostat. Evaporator Pressure Regulating Valve (EPRV).

Understand AC&R operational modes and typical problems associated with normal system operation: Pulldown. Normal, or Temperature Holding, Operation. Hot Gas Bypass. Purging. Effects of moisture in refrigerant piping. Miscibility of lubricating oil and refrigerant.

Describe air conditioning and chill water system components and their operational features, such as: Water Chiller. Low Temperature Switch. Chill Water Circulating Pump. Expansion Tank. Cooling Coils and Drip Pans. Thermostat and Solenoid Valve. Orifice.

Understand the purposes and functions of the electronics cooling system and its major components in support of combat systems operation. Understand the provisions of the Clean Air Act of 1990 and its impact on shipboard operation, maintenance, and training in support of AC&R systems. The Navys program to convert shipboard AC&R systems to replace Freon (R-12) with HFC-134a will be presented. The requirements for familiarity with the following shall be understood: EPA certification of all AC&R technicians. EPA record keeping and AC&R leak repair criteria. Navys program to manage Ozone Depleting Substances (ODSs).

Be familiar with the requirements to utilize Refrigerant Recovery Units (RRUs) and Purge and Pump Out (PPO) units.

You will also be introduced to some (real) basic troubleshooting for some typical (and recurring) problems with AC&R systems in the fleet. Try and develop an understanding of some of these deficiencies. Application of this knowledge will help to make your plants operate effectively and efficiently.

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Introduction
Recent Inspection Results
Recent INSURV inspections and SOSMRC underway training periods have shown material deficiencies in air conditioning and refrigeration (AC&R) systems indicating that these systems are not being maintained and operated in accordance with the requirements. One of the principle reasons for this is a lack of understanding of the fundamentals of refrigeration. Inspections show a recurring problem: inoperative and/or bypassed automatic control devices and switches. Sample inspection results are: The No. 1 and 2 refrigeration plant water regulating valves were inoperative and bypassed. The No. 1 refrigeration plant low pressure switch was inoperative. The No. 3 A/C plant water failure switch was inoperative. The A/C system was significantly degraded due to missing valves, inoperative thermostats, dirty vent ducting, and modified vent ducting. Five of eight A/C units were inoperative. The refrigeration system was contaminated with dirt. Thermostatic expansion valves were inoperative and hand expansion valves were being used. Water regulating valves were bypassed. Freeze box temperatures were out of specification. Both refrigeration compressors were receiving Freon in a liquid state due to failure of the thermostatic expansion valves. No. 1 and 2 refrigeration compressors safety switches improperly set. No. 1 A/C plant sea water strainer and condenser headers heavily fouled with marine growth. Zincs were significantly degraded. Chill water (CW) imbalance and insufficient CW to support 4 CIWS when only 2 A/C plants operating. All NTDS console electronics cooling water low flow switches inoperative. Halocarbon monitors inoperative.

Basic Principles of Refrigeration

The purpose of refrigeration is to cool spaces, objects, or materials and to maintain them at a temperature below the temperature of the surrounding atmosphere. In order to produce a refrigeration effect, it is merely necessary to expose the material to be cooled to a colder object or environment and allow heat to flow in its "natural" direction, that is, from the warmer material to the colder material. So, the heat we do not want will be removed, cooling the space or equipment. For example, a pan of hot water placed on a block of ice will be cooled by the flow of heat from the hot water to the ice. This refrigeration effect can be maintained as long as the temperature differential exists between the ice and the hot water, or until their temperatures have equalized. But no matter how much ice there is, the water cannot be cooled below 32F. The ice absorbs the latent heat of vaporization when it melts. Latent heat transfer is important to refrigeration because of the significant amount of heat required to transform liquid water to a vapor. Recall from thermodynamics that one pint of water (1 lb) absorbs 970 BTUs when it boils from water to steam at a constant 4-3 June 1996

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temperature and pressure. Under these saturation conditions where the temperature does not change, the heat transferred is called latent heat of vaporization. If that same pint of water stayed a liquid, you would have to raise its temperature by 970F to absorb the same 970 BTUs! Likewise, to transform 1 pint of liquid water (1 lb) to ice at 32F requires that 144 BTUs be removed from the liquid. This form of heat transferred is called the latent heat of fusion. (No relation to nuclear fusion!) In refrigeration, the key has always been finding a "refrigerant" that changes phase (boils) at a temperature cold enough to maintain the temperature of the space or equipment below a particular setting. For example, if you want to make ice and store it at 0F, you need a refrigerant that boils below 0F, so that the heat is removed or transferred from the warmer liquid water to the colder refrigerant. Once the 144 BTUs for every pound of water has been removed, ice is formed. At atmospheric pressure, water boils at 212F (not a good refrigerant), but R-12 boils at -21F and ammonia boils at -28F. When the temperature of the working fluid (the refrigerant) is below that of the body being cooled, heat flows from the body to the working fluid and, when the temperature of the working fluid is greater than that of the surrounding atmosphere, heat is given up to the atmosphere. In many refrigeration systems, this change of temperature of the working substance is effected by the expenditure of mechanical energy, i.e., by doing work upon the working fluid, commonly with a compressor. The capacity of any refrigerating system is the rate at which it will remove heat from the refrigerated space and is usually stated either in BTU/hour or in tons of refrigeration.

Basic Thermodynamic Definitions

Reviewing some of the basic thermodynamic concepts will assist in establishing a frame work in understanding and the discussing refrigeration both as a thermodynamic process and as a shipboard system. Heat and Temperature. Heat is the thermal energy a body contains. Temperature is the measure of the amount of heat, or thermal energy, of a body. Temperature is familiar to us all as degrees of Fahrenheit or Celsius. The quantity or amount of heat measured in terms of a standard unit is called a British Thermal Unit (BTU). British Thermal Unit (BTU). The amount of heat needed to raise one pound of water 1F at atmospheric pressure. Sensible Heat. Sensible heat is that heat given off or absorbed by a substance which does not cause the substance to change phase. Sensible heat changes are observed as changes in temperature and are measured by a thermometer. Latent Heat. Latent heat is given off or absorbed by a substance that is changing phase (e.g., liquid to gas or solid to liquid or vice versa). The temperature and pressure remain constant during the phase change until all the substance has been transformed. These temperature and pressure conditions are unique and are called saturation conditions. The latent heat of vaporization (LHV) is the heat required to transform a liquid to a gas at constant temperature and pressure (i.e., saturation). The latent heat of condensation (LHC) is equivalent in magnitude to the LHV for the substance, but now we are going in the opposite direction in transforming the gas to a liquid. When a liquid is transformed to a solid as in the ice-making process, the liquid gives off its latent heat of fusion (LHF) to form the solid. The LHF to transform a pint of water to 1 lb of ice at 32F is 144 BTUs. We would have to add 144 BTUs to every pound of ice to melt it. Specific Heat. Specific heat is the amount of heat required to raise one pound of a substance 1F at atmospheric pressure. (Notice the difference with the definition of the BTU: the BTU is the heat required to raise the temperature of water, whereas specific heat is for any substance.) Flow of heat. Heat flow may take place by radiation, convection and conduction. Heat always flows from the hotter substance to the colder one. Total heat is the combination of sensible and latent heat. Ton. The refrigeration ton is based on the cooling effect of one ton (2000 pounds at 144 BTU/lb) of ice at 32F melting in 24 hours. The refrigeration ton is the standard unit of measure used to designate the heat removal

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capacity of a refrigeration unit as measured in the space being refrigerated, i.e., freeze box heat transfer rate. One refrigeration ton removes 12,000 BTUs per hour, the same as a mid-sized portable room A/C unit. Pressure and Temperature. The boiling point of any liquid varies according to the pressure on the liquid: the higher the pressure, the higher the boiling point. We select refrigerants that boil at low pressures and low temperatures, so that, the latent heat of vaporization can be removed at low temperatures. For example, R-12 boils at -21F at atmospheric pressure. R-12 boils in the cooling coils in the freeze box as it absorbs latent heat. Compressing a gas raises its temperature. This is known as the heat of compression. Conversely, expanding a gas lowers its temperature. And, this is called the cold of expansion. These concepts are very important in the refrigeration cycle.

Types of Refrigerants
Refrigerants are a broad class of substances used to cool air, equipment, and spaces. They are classified by the American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) using a prefix (the letter "R" for refrigerant) and a numbering system. Some examples are: air (R-729), nitrogen (R-728), ammonia (R-717), and water (R-718). The largest and most common refrigerants used commercially (and in the Navy) are in the Freon family. These substances contain fluorine, chlorine, and hydrocarbons in their molecular structures, i.e., fluoro-chloro-hydrocarbons. Freon refrigerants have boiling points in the range of -41F to 74F. This temperature range gives them a wide variety of uses. The following table shows the primary members of the Freon family today with their uses in the US Navy: Freon Freon 12 Freon 114 Freon 113 Freon 11 Freon 22 Chemical Composition CF2Cl2 C2F4Cl2 C2F3Cl3 CFCl3 HCF2Cl ASHRAE Designator R-12 R-114 R-113 R-11 R-22 Use Aboard Ship Reciprocating AC&R Plants Centrifugal A/C Plants Grease Cleaning Solvent Older A/C Plants Sealed Package Units

Unfortunately, it has been found that Freons also belong to a group of substances which, when released to the atmosphere, react to reduce the ozone layer above the earth. The primary element in the Freon molecular structure which is the culprit is chlorine and this group is called chlorofluorocarbons, or CFCs. Since CFCs deplete the ozone layer, they are called ozone depleting substances (ODS). Halon 1211 and 1301 which are used in firefighting systems aboard ship are also CFCs and ODSs. R-22 is not a CFC. It is an HCFC. The hydrogen atom tends to prevent the chlorine atom from disassociating from the rest of the molecule and thus has minimal, if any, harmful effects on the ozone layer. It is not considered an ODS, but has an ozone depleting potential (ODP) of 0.05. (The reference for ODP is R-11 with a baseline value of 1.0.) There are some other refrigerants which are mixtures of two. R-502 is used in ice making machines and is a mixture of R-22 and R-115, or CFC-115.

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Thermodynamics of the Refrigeration Cycle

Figure 4-1 shows the temperature-entropy (T-S) and the pressure-enthalpy (P-h) diagrams for a simple closed-loop refrigeration cycle. As an introduction to the system, it will be helpful to trace the refrigerant through the entire cycle, noting especially the points at which the refrigerant changes from liquid to vapor and from vapor to liquid. Particular attention should also be paid in noting the accompanying flow of heat from the space to the refrigerant, how the refrigerants energy is changed, and where the heat removed from the cooled space goes.

Figure 4- 1: Refrigeration Cycle Recall from our Thermodynamics Course the dome-like curve represents saturated conditions for the refrigerant. On the left half of the dome, the refrigerant exists as a saturated liquid and on the right as saturated vapor. Both liquid and gaseous refrigerant coexist inside the dome in saturation. To the left of the dome, the refrigerant is a subcooled liquid and to the right of the dome, it is a superheated vapor. The numbers (1 through 4) represent significant points in the flow of refrigerant as it makes its circuit in the cycle. The refrigerant working fluid undergoes thermodynamic changes between these points. Tracing the system from point 1 to point 4, we find: Point 1-2 (Evaporation): Since this is inside the dome, constant pressure (21.5 psia) and temperature (-5F) are maintained, i.e., saturation. When heat is transferred at saturation, the result is a change in phase. Here the Freon evaporates, or boils, changing from a liquid to a gas. It absorbs its latent heat of vaporization (LHV) as the freeze or reefer box gives up heat to the Freon. Notice that this heat transfer process does not end at the dome but slightly up and to the right. This follows the constant pressure line into the superheated region of the refrigerants T-S (or P-h) diagram. Superheating the Freon guarantees all the refrigerant is converted into a vapor. This will prevent any possibility of liquid Freon flowing to the next portion of our cycle. Point 2-3 (Compression): Compressing the gaseous Freon from 21.5 to 141 psia (6.5 to 126 psig) produces a concomitant increase in thermal energy represented by a rise in the enthalpy and the temperature of the Freon from 5 to 125F. This is the heat of compression resulting from the added energy to the Freon vapor. Compression provides the thermal driving head to sustain the flow of Freon through the cycle. Point 3-4 (Condensation): In passing through the dome from the right side to the left, the refrigerant cools from 125 to 105F and changes phase from a superheated vapor to a slightly subcooled liquid. 4-6

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While at 105F it condenses to a liquid under saturation conditions at a constant pressure of 141 psia. The unwanted heat from cooling the freeze box and from the compression process is removed from the Freon and disposed. Point 4-1 (Expansion): The refrigerant is expanded by passing through an expansion valve where its pressure is reduced from 141 psia to 21.5 psia. In the process of expanding, the Freon cools from 105 to -5F (cold of expansion) and crosses into the dome where both saturated liquid and gaseous Freon can coexist. About 25% of the fluid vaporizes into a gas during the process. The Freon has now returned to start the cycle again.

Each of these points and the paths between them are important and correspond to major components in all refrigeration systems.

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Basic Refrigeration System

The basic refrigeration system is classified as a mechanical system of the vapor-compression type. It is a mechanical system because the energy input is in the form of mechanical energy, or work. The compression process adds work or energy by compressing the refrigerant as a vapor allowing the refrigerant to discharge heat at a relatively high temperature. A simplified refrigeration system is shown in Figure 4-2. All refrigeration systems are closed-loop and have the same basic components: evaporator (or chiller coils), compressor, condenser, and expansion valve. Each of these components correspond to the flow paths on Figure 4-1 from 1 to 2 for the evaporator, from 2 to 3 for the compressor, and so on. The basic refrigeration cycle has two pressure sides. The low pressure side extends from the orifice of the expansion valve up to and including the intake side of the compressor. The high pressure side extends from the discharge side of the compressor to the expansion valve.

Figure 4- 2: Basic Refrigeration System June 1996 4-8

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Expansion
Liquid Freon enters the expansion valve at high pressure. The refrigerant leaves the outlet of the expansion valve at a much lower pressure and enters the low pressure side of the system. Because the pressure release has decreased the refrigerants potential energy, the liquid refrigerant manifests this energy conversion by beginning to boil and to flash into vapor. The Freon is still saturated and at a very low temperature of -5F entering the evaporator, or chiller, coils. It is now a mixture of liquid and vapor refrigerant. This temperature gives us a thermal differential to cool, or keep cool, a freeze box which must be maintained at 0F. The refrigerant is now ready to absorb the unnecessary heat from the freeze box by entering the evaporator coils located in the space to be cooled (freeze box).

Evaporation
From the expansion valve, Freon as a saturated mixture of liquid and vapor passes into the cooling coil, or evaporator, located in the freeze box to be cooled. The cooling coil acts as a heat exchanger. The boiling point of the refrigerant under the low pressure in the evaporator is extremely low - much lower than the temperature of the spaces in which the cooling coils are installed. The temperature differential between the -5F refrigerant in the coils and the air in the freeze box slightly above 0F causes heat to be transferred from the freeze box to the refrigerant. It absorbs its latent heat of vaporization from the surroundings, thereby cooling the space. The refrigerant continues to absorb heat until all the liquid has boiled and vaporized. To ensure all the refrigerant changes phase to vapor, the Freon must be slightly superheated. As a rule, 6 to 10F of superheat is added to the Freon. The refrigerant leaves the evaporator as a low pressure superheated vapor, having cooled the freeze box by absorbing its unwanted heat. The remainder of the cycle is concerned with disposing of this heat and getting the refrigerant back into a liquid state so that it can again vaporize in the evaporator and thus again absorb heat from the freeze box.

Compression
The low pressure, superheated Freon vapor is discharged from the evaporator to the suction side of the compressor. The compressor is the mechanical unit which keeps the refrigerant circulating through the system by increasing the fluids pressure and thermal potential energies. In the compressor (either reciprocating or centrifugal), the refrigerant is compressed from a low pressure vapor to a high pressure vapor, and its temperature rises accordingly from the heat of compression. This increase in energy provides the driving force to allow the Freon to flow through the system.

Condensation
The refrigerant must be thermodynamically returned to its starting point as a high pressure (141 psia) and high temperature (105F) subcooled liquid from a higher temperature (125F) superheated vapor. There is a significant amount of heat to extract in transforming the Freon from a gas to a liquid in the form of latent heat of condensation (LHC). Since this extraneous heat must be disposed, a sea water heat exchanger is used to absorb the LHC and discharge it overboard. The heat removal from the refrigerant causes it to condense into a liquid at a constant pressure of 141 psia. The refrigerant, still at a high pressure, is now a subcooled liquid ready to commence the process again. From the condenser, the refrigerant flows into a receiver, which serves as a storage place for the liquid refrigerant and as a seal between the high and low pressure sides of the Freon loop. From the receiver, the refrigerant returns to the expansion valve and the cycle begins again. All refrigeration and air conditioning systems follow this simple process no matter what type of refrigerant is used. The operating parameters will change, but it still is the same basic cycle.

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Shipboard Refrigeration System and Components

A basic R-12 vapor compression refrigeration plant, similar to that used in many naval ship applications, is shown in Figure 4-3. This diagram shows the major components in a single refrigerant closed-loop system and will be used for the remaining discussion of refrigeration plant components. Figure 4-4 shows a schematic of a typical shipboard refrigeration system where two (2) refrigeration units (each consisting of a compressor, condenser, receiver, dehydrator, and solenoid valve) can supply three (3) refrigeration loads. These loads are the ships freeze and chill rooms, or boxes, used to store foods aboard ship. Freeze boxes are maintained at 0F, while chill boxes are maintained at 33F. Theres an exception to this rule for freeze boxes, thoughDDG-51 class ships have the setpoints for their freeze boxes at -10F instead of 0F. We are still going to use the 0F as the standard box, but remember that the refrigerant in a DDG-51 reefer plant flows at lower saturation conditions through its coils. The plants can be cross-connected so that one may supply Freon to all the boxes simultaneously.

Figure 4- 3: Basic Refrigeration Plant

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Figure 4- 4: Shipboard Refrigeration System The thermostatic expansion valve (TXV) shown in Figure 4-5 is probably the most important component in the entire system. Many problems or symptoms can be traced to an improperly set TXV. It should always be the first component checked during any troubleshooting. The valve is located at the inlet to the evaporator and has a thermal bulb which senses the temperature at the outlet of the evaporator. The TXV throttles, or meters, the amount of liquid R-12 entering the evaporator coil. It is designed to regulate the rate at which the refrigerant enters the cooling coil in proportion to the rate of evaporation of the liquid Freon in the coil. The flow rate of the Freon depends on the amount of heat being removed from the refrigerated space. The TXV prevents liquid R-12 from flooding back to the compressor. Pressure in the thermal bulb is transmitted through the capillary tubing to the diaphragm at the top of the valve. A spring is installed acting upward against the diaphragm tending to close the valve. This is called the superheat spring and determines the amount of superheat added to the Freon vapor exiting the evaporator coils. The TXV in Figure 4-5 also has an external equalizing connection. If our refrigeration systems were designed to only heat the Freon to saturation, then the TXV would only need two (2) inputs to operate the valve. Saturation conditions are unique in that, if the temperature is known, then the pressure is known. The converse holds true also. However, superheat is not a unique state in determining temperatures Figure 4- 5: Thermostatic Expansion and pressures of fluids. We are outside the dome. Therefore, since Valve (TXV) 4-11 June 1996

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our refrigeration systems are designed to ensure the Freon in the coils becomes slightly superheated, three inputs are needed to control the valve operation. The additional input comes from directly sensing the Freon line pressure from the evaporator coil outlet. An increase in evaporator coil outlet temperature will cause the pressure of the Freon in the capillary tube to increase causing the TXV to open. Spring pressure and evaporator pressure tends to close the TXV. Superheat at the outlet of the evaporator coil should usually be 6 to 10F above the boiling point of the refrigerant. The degree of superheat is controlled by the spring pressure. A temperature range of 6 to 10F of superheat is considered desirable because it increases the efficiency of the plant and it evaporates all of the liquid, thus preventing liquid carryover into the compressor. Some TXVs have internal pressure equalization. An external connection will be used where the refrigerant pressure loss through the evaporator coils is greater than 2.5 psig for mid-sized refrigeration systems and for frozen food applications with a 0.5 psig drop in pressure in the coils. (FFG-7s and larger fall within this criteria.) The TXV transforms the Freon into a mixture of liquid and vapor under saturation conditions at a low temperature and pressure (-5F at 21.5 psia). At this state any additional heat absorbed will further boil the Freon into 100% vapor. The Freon from the TXV flows to the evaporator coils located inside the space to be cooled, i.e., freeze and chill boxes. These coils are simply a large heat exchanger with the Freon contained in the tubes which line the periphery of the boxes. Heat is transferred from the warmer space to the Freon inside the coils increasing the refrigerants thermal energy sufficiently by a latent heat transfer (no temperature or pressure change) that all the Freon becomes saturated vapor. (The latent heat of vaporization for R-12 is 70.4 BTU/lb at -5F. Recall from Thermodynamics it requires 970 BTU/lb of latent heat to boil water at 212F.) The compressor (Figure 4-6) provides the motive force to circulate the refrigerant through the entire system. It compresses the low pressure, low temperature gas to a high pressure, high temperature gas, raising the boiling point of the refrigerant gas so it can be condensed. The reciprocating compressor is similar to an air compressor in that piston-cylinder configurations are the compression method. However, AC&R systems use only single stage compression units.

Figure 4- 6: Refrigeration Compressor

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Refrigeration compressors have a forced lubrication system as shown in Figure 4-7. Notice high pressure lube oil is supplied to a component called the capacity control valve (and system). The capacity control system serves a similar function as the loading/unloading feature on LP air compressors and is integrally connected to the pressure regulating valve. Figure 4-8 shows a cross section of the pressure regulating and capacity control valves which are mounted on the compressor crankcase wall. This arrangement allows for the unloaded starting of a compressor until lube oil pressure is established. Not all cylinders are unloaded in reciprocating compressors some refrigerant flow is required to minimize starting torque and to prevent overheating. (For example, the refrigeration compressors in DD-963s are reciprocating with three cylinders in a "W" Figure 4- 7: Forced Lubrication System arrangement. Only two of the three have unloading devices installed. The refrigeration compressors on the AE-27 have 6 cylinders with controlled, unloaded operation on 4.) When the compressor is started, the plunger is in the extreme right hand position such that no oil is supplied to the compressor unloader power elements. With this oil flow path, the unloading element ensures that the unloading sleeve around the cylinders hold the suction valves open with six lifting pins preventing them from seating (Figure 4-9). Once oil pressure reaches a minimum limit (above low lube oil shutdown pressure), oil is ported to the unloader power elements allowing the unloading sleeve to lower, seating the suction valves, and loading the pistons. The compressor then pressurizes the refrigerant for system operation.

Figure 4- 8

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The pressure regulating portion of the assembly allows for unloading the pistons when the refrigerating load is light or when less refrigerant is required. When compressor suction pressure is high indicating more refrigerant is needed, the cage valve opens allowing oil to drain to the crankcase. This causes the plunger to shift to the left causing oil to be ported to the unloading power elements. Oil to these elements will seat the suction valves loading down the pistons to pressurize Freon for the increased need. With a decreasing compressor suction pressure, the reverse occurs such that the pressure regulating cage valve moves to the right restricting oil flow through the plunger. The pressure imbalance between the oil and spring forces the plunger to the right until the first power element oil port is allowed to drain unloading the first cylinder. Continued decrease in suction pressure will sequentially cause the second piston to unload by draining the oil from the second unloader power element. These are Figure 4- 9: Unloader Power Element set so all cylinders are unloaded prior to operation of the low lube oil pressure switch which shuts the compressor down. Sequential unloading reduces the refrigerating capacity proportionally, as in the case of a plant in AE-27, one unloaded cylinder results in 83 1/3% capacity, two in 66 2/3% capacity, three down to 50%, and so on. The compressor has several safety devices to protect itself and the system from damage. The oil failure switch shuts the compressor down if there is insufficient oil pressure. It measures the differential pressure between the lube oil pump discharge pressure and the crankcase pressure. If the oil pressure drops below a safe minimum above crankcase pressure or fails to build up to a satisfactory minimum upon start up, the switch deactivates the relays in the motor controller to stop the compressor. These two values are not the same nor are they same from compressor to compressor. On a DD-963, these values are 15 psig for the safe minimum operating pressure and 20 psig for a minimum start up pressure, whereas, on an AE-27, the pressures are 12 and 18 psig, respectively. This oil safety feature for the refrigeration compressors on an FFG-7 occur at 10 and 16 psig, respectively. The oil failure switch also has an interlock with a 10-15-second time delay to allow oil pressure to build up when it is started. This switch is automatically reset after the compressor is shut down. The low suction pressure switch protects the compressor from operating needlessly under no refrigerant flow conditions. If the freeze box is at the desired temperature, the solenoid valve will close stopping refrigerant flow. Continued operation will simply cause the compressor to run for no apparent reason. The low suction pressure switch will shut down the compressor if the compressor suction line pressure falls below a minimum level. For AE-27, DD-963, and FFG-7 ships, this value is 5" Hg vacuum. Should suction pressure rise above this value, the compressor will automatically be restarted when the cut in value is reached. For all of our examples, the refrigeration compressors will restart when suction line pressure reaches 8 psig. The compressor will be shut down on high discharge pressure. For a DD-963, this switch shuts down the compressor when the pressure reaches 150 psig as it is increasing and will restart the compressor at 125 psig as the pressure falls. For a refrigeration compressor on both the AE-27 and the FFG-7 classes, the shutdown also occurs at 150 psig with a restart at 125 psig. All compressors have an internal relief valve which lifts at some high discharge pressure value relieving to the suction side of the compressor. For a DD-963, the relief valve setting is 300 psig and on an AE-27 the valve lifts at 350 psig.

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A water failure switch stops the compressor if sea water flow to the condenser is interrupted or if water pressure falls to a low limit. The operating band for a DD-963s compressor will open the contacts in the motor controller at 5 psig and automatically close the contacts at 15 psig restarting the compressor. The water failure switch on an AE-27s refrigeration compressor operates in the same fashion with settings of 5 psig and 15 psig. FFG-7s have the water failure shutdown feature occurring at 15 psig and restarting the compressor when water pressure returns to at least 30 psig.

The condenser is a two-pass heat exchanger which uses sea water as the cooling medium to remove the superheat and the latent heat of condensation from the refrigerant and return the Freon to a subcooled liquid (105F and 141 psia). The water may be supplied by its own pump or from the firemain. The compressor discharges the high temperature (125F), high pressure (141 psia) gas to the shell side of the condenser. Sea water flows through the inside of the tubes. The R-12 vapor is cooled and condensed to a high pressure, high temperature liquid. The refrigerant is subcooled slightly below its boiling point to ensure that it will not flash into vapor. A water regulating valve (WRV) (Figure 4-10) is located in the sea water outlet piping from the condenser and controls pressure in the high pressure side of the system by regulating the amount of cooling water supplied to the condenser. Its function is to maintain saturation conditions for the gaseous Freon to condense (about 141 psia and 105F). An actuating line connects the water regulating valve bellows assembly with the condenser shell pressure (saturation pressure that the Freon is condensing at). If the refrigerant condenser pressure increases, the valve opens to increase water flow, thereby providing more cooling. This increased cooling effect will reduce the condensing temperature of the Freon and, because the process occurs at saturation, the Freon pressure will decrease. Conversely, a decrease in condensing pressure will admit less water to the condenser, decreasing the Figure 4- 10: Water Regulating Valve cooling effect of the water and thereby increasing the temperature at which condensation of the Freon is occurring. Thus, the Freon pressure will concomitantly increase. On compressor shutdown, the refrigerant pressure decreases in the condenser shell to the saturated vapor conditions at ambient temperature. This decrease in pressure is sufficient to shut the water regulating valve stopping the flow of water. The receiver acts as a storage and surge tank for the liquid refrigerant which flows from the condenser. The receiver also serves as a seal between the vapor in the condenser and the flow of liquid refrigerant to the expansion valve. It has a level indicator which shows the amount of refrigerant in the system. There is a system relief valve on the receiver set at 225 psig for all installations to protect the receiver when the system is fully charged and secured. The relief discharges to the condenser and acts as an equalizing line. The dehydrator (Figure 4-11) contains a desiccant cartridge which adsorbs water in the system, similar to the Type II dehydrator in the dry air system. Without this feature, water in the refrigerant would freeze in the components in the low pressure side after passing through the TXV. The dehydrator has a moisture indicator on the end (left side of Figure 4-11) which will be blue for an acceptable moisture level in the Freon. It will change to pink when the desiccant requires replacing. It is virtually impossible to replace the desiccant cartridge in the dehydrator without releasing very small amounts of refrigerant into the atmosphere. The MRC is written as such that some minor amounts will be vented. The replacement could Figure 4- 11: Dehydrator 4-15 June 1996

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be accomplished without venting any refrigerant, but air would be introduced into the refrigerant which eventually would result in changes to the saturation conditions in the condenser due to the presence of the air. The air accumulates in the condenser as a noncondensible gas. The condenser would then need to be purged of this trapped air to return the plant to its proper operating parameters. If no replacement desiccant cartridges are available, the existing cartridge can be reactivated sufficiently for temporary use by heating it at 300F for 12 hours. This hot liquid refrigerant then passes through the shell side of a horizontal heat exchanger which has cold Freon vapor in the tubes. Here in the heat exchanger the liquid Freon is cooled and the vapor is warmed. Cooling the liquid reduces the presence of flash gas to the TXV and enables the Freon to absorb a greater amount of heat per pound of flow in the evaporator. Heating the gaseous Freon returning to the compressor evaporates any trace amounts of liquid prior to entering the compressor suction. Even small amounts of liquid in the compressor can dilute its lube oil and reduce the net refrigeration effect when the liquid expands to a gas during the compression process. Excessive amounts of Freon in a liquid form will damage the compressor. The liquid line solenoid valve starts and stops the flow of liquid refrigerant to the expansion valve. It is located in the liquid line before the thermostatic expansion valve (TXV). When the coil is energized, the magnetic field lifts the plunger, opening the valve. When deenergized, the plunger will close, stopping the flow of refrigerant. The thermostatic switch is designed to energize and deenergize the solenoid valve. Both are shown in Figure 4-12. It is located outside the refrigerated space. A thermal bulb (or helix unit) connected to the switch by a capillary tube is located in the air stream of the refrigerated space where it will come in contact with the average air temperature. As the space temperature rises, the pressure in the bulb will increase, closing the switch, and energizing the solenoid valve. The thermostat works in conjunction with the solenoid valve to control the temperature of the refrigerated space. In large systems, the valve may be called a king solenoid valve installed just after the receiver. An under voltage (UV) relay in the compressor motor controller will deenergize the solenoid valve if any of the following occur: "STOP" button pushed, loss of voltage, overload relay trips, low lube oil pressure (oil failure shutdown), high compressor discharge pressure shutdown, or sea water failure shutdown.

Figure 4- 12

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The liquid line strainer (Figure 4-13) protects the solenoid valve and thermostatic expansion valve from scale and foreign matter. It is located in the liquid line before the solenoid valve. A hand expansion valve (HXV) is available as a bypass valve for the TXV. Extreme care should be taken when operating this valve because of the danger of liquid flood back to the compressor. Every effort should be made to repair the TXV as soon as possible due to the higher probability of allowing insufficiently superheated or, even saturated, Freon from entering the compressor. Because the TXV is located usually in a ships passageway, it have ice accumulate on the valves exterior. This is normal in high Figure 4- 13: Strainer humidity environments because of the rapid pressure losses (i.e. energy changes) as the refrigerant passes through the TXV. However, no ice should accumulate on the exterior of the HXV when normally aligned. If the HXV is iced over, the valve is leaking by and too much refrigerant is flowing through the evaporator coils. The TXV will cycle too much to compensate for refrigerant flow it cannot control. The evaporator pressure regulating valve (EPRV), shown in Figure 4-14, is also called a suction pressure regulator and a backpressure regulator. Its purpose is to control evaporator coil pressure when one set of compressors is used to cool multiple boxes. Notice on Figure 4-4 the boxes at the discharges of each chill box. These are indicated as typical suction controls. This is the location for the EPRVs. They are only installed at the outlet of chill box evaporator coils, not freeze boxes. This valve regulates the suction pressure to the compressor by increasing back pressure in the evaporator. In doing this, the boiling point of the liquid R-12 inside the chill box evaporator is increased, which reduces the temperature difference between the Freon and the air in the chill box. This will reduce the amount of moisture removed from the produce stored in the chill boxes. Increasing the operating temperature of these boxes raises the dew point temperature and increases the relative humidity. By this process, our produce will not wilt as it would in temperatures with lower dew points. It also means that the evaporator heat Figure 4- 14: Evaporator Pressure Regulating Valve (EPRV) exchanger surfaces must be larger (less temperature difference means more area for heat transfer). The EPRVs also give us the flexibility to operate chill boxes as freeze boxes, if necessary, by operating the plant with the EPRV bypassed.

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Refrigeration Systems Operation

Pulldown
Pulldown is the process of bringing all three refrigerated spaces from ambient temperature to their operating temperatures for freezing and chilling foods. Both refrigeration units would be operated to reduce the chilled space temperatures to 0F and 33F, respectively. One unit would serve the freeze box and the second unit the two chill boxes. The systems would be operated in a split plant mode with the suction and liquid cross-connect valves closed between the two plants. The pulldown operation normally takes about two days of continuous operation to establish the normal refrigeration temperatures for each type of box. If frost builds up sufficiently during pulldown that defrosting is required, the operation should be shifted to single-plant cross-connected operation. A hot gas bypass should be conducted to defrost the coils. Following this, pulldown should be recommenced.

Normal Operation
This may also be called temperature holding operation to maintain the operating temperatures required for each box. After temperatures have stabilized during pulldown, the plant is shifted from split plant to single plant operation. One refrigeration unit serves both functions for maintaining the freeze and chill boxes at normal operating temperatures. The units should not be cross-connected to prevent refrigerant from one plant contaminating the other. A plants operational parameters as found in a technical manual are based on a worst case scenario - full load with a sea water inlet temperature of 85F. Operating the ship in warmer waters where sea water temperatures of 95F could be experienced will cause the refrigerant condensing temperature to rise between 5F and 10F above the 85F readings. The sea water regulating valve will open fully such that the velocity of the sea water through the condenser will be 6 feet per second (fps). Compressor discharge pressure may rise as much as 20 psi from about 125 psi to 145. A new system balance will be created where suction and evaporator temperatures and pressures will increase. This will cause the refrigeration plants ability to maintain 0F and 32F in the freeze and chill boxes, respectively, to decrease and the compressor will work harder. Similar effects will occur in the air conditioning plant where chill water temperatures out of the water chiller will increase.

Hot Gas Bypass Operation

Hot gas bypass is a manual defrosting process. Hot refrigerant gas from the compressor discharge is routed to the inlet of the evaporator coils of any affected space by bypassing the condenser. The hot gas will melt any accumulated ice which is then collected in drip pans and drained away. Only one condensing unit (or, refrigeration unit) is utilized for this technique, while all other units are secured. This is done to minimize the possibility of contaminating the refrigerant from one unit to another. Any frost that accumulates on piping and other components will reduce the thermal efficiency of the plant overall and the heat transfer characteristics of the coils in specific. Ice will form on those components in the low pressure side of the refrigeration system from the TXV and downstream through the evaporator coils. This is the region where the refrigerant undergoes an almost instantaneous pressure and temperature drop in flashing to a vapor at temperatures about 5 below 0F. Evaporator coils are usually made from copper (Cu). If ice starts to form on the coils in a freeze box, the ice acts as an insulator retarding or resisting heat transfer. You can see the differences between the heat transfer coefficients (k in BTU per hr per ft per F) of Cu and of ice. Cu has a heat transfer coefficient with a value of 232 BTUs per hr per ft per F, while ices is 1.26 BTUs per hr per ft per F. What does that mean? Well, in one sense June 1996 4-18

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it means that Cu transfers 184 times more heat than the same amount of ice in the same period of time. Or, ice transfers 184 times less. Take your pick. In either case, your freeze box will be less efficient if ice develops on its coils. The box temperature will rise and probably stabilize at some value greater than the design temperature of 0F. The refrigeration compressor will work harder and longer. Compressors are designed to unload if less refrigerant is needed or even shutdown if the compressors suction pressure falls off. With ice on the boxs coils, the box temperature will never get low enough to allow the system components to work together to unload and shutdown the compressor. The result is the compressor will operate continuously trying to get the temperature down to the 0F setpoint. Consider this: If 1/4 of ice develops on your coils, the coils will transfer over 90% less heat than if they are frost-free. Ice formation on evaporator coils is a normal occurrence since all air contains some moisture. As the air in the freeze boxes is cooled, the water moisture in the air condenses and freezes on the coils. Each time the boxes are entered the old air is replaced with new moisture-containing air. Moisture can also enter the freeze box through leaking door seals. It is good practice to defrost the freeze box evaporator coils whenever the average ice thickness reaches 3/16 inch. If a box is operated near 32F, a minimal amount of ice will form, if any. Every time the compressor is secured or each time the king solenoid valve secures refrigerant to that box, the ice will melt away. Therefore, ice accumulation on the coils in a chill box should not be a problem unless the box is being used as a freeze box. Heres another exceptionDDG-51s again!!! Here, instead of having a manual defrosting system, the hot gas process in DDG-51s is automatic. In the ships stores handling area is located the Defrost Panel where electric heaters can be controlled to energize and defrost the coils anywhere between 1 and 12 times per day. Normal set-up is for automatic defrosting once per day. The automatic feature causes the king solenoid valve to be shut and the circulation fans to be secured before the heaters are energized. The defrosting process is automatically stopped when the Defrost Termination Thermostat (DTT) senses an evaporator temperature of 40F. When the 40-shutdown temperature is achieved, the reverse process occurs to return the system to normal temperature holding operations - heaters deenergized, fans started, and king solenoid valve opens. The defrost system in DDG51 ships includes two safety shutdown features: (1) defrost timer fails safe after 16 minutes and (2) storeroom temperature reaches 40F.

Purging
Whenever a refrigeration system is opened for maintenance (like replacing the dehydrator or cleaning the strainer) or repairs, the potential exists that air will be introduced into the refrigerant piping. Maintenance procedures are written to minimize air introduction to refrigerant piping. As long as no vacuum exists in the system or section of the system to be worked on, then no air will enter the refrigerant portion of the system. Additionally, following the procedures in NSTM Chapter 516 by establishing a refrigerant pressure between 1 and 2 psig (note gage pressure) before breaking piping fasteners will ensure that air is kept out. Lastly, maintenance personnel should ensure that procedures returning the system to operation to prevent air from entering the repaired piping sections are followed. Cleaning, flushing and evacuating piping should be strictly adhered to. The presence of air is not good, not only because all air contains moisture, but air will degrade the optimum conditions of the plant. Air (and other noncondensible gases) will collect in the plants condenser. It cannot pass through the condenser to the receiver because of the existence of liquid refrigerant which acts as a seal and also because the conditions for refrigerant to condense are not low enough in temperature for the air to condense to a liquid state at 125 psi. The presence of air in the condenser will increase the pressure on the shellside of the condenser. With this increase in pressure, the temperature will increase also since saturation conditions for the condensing refrigerant must be maintained. The sea water regulating valve will respond to return the condenser to the saturation temperature and pressure by throttling open to allow more sea water flow to remove the excess heat from the condenser. However, so much air may be entrained in the condenser that the water regulating valve may not be able to return and maintain the normal condenser operational parameters. Purging, or venting the condenser shell to 4-19 June 1996

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the atmosphere, is a PMS action which is an authorized release of refrigerant. A NAVSSES thumbrule is when the actual temperature in the condenser is about 6F (degrees of air) greater than the saturation temperature corresponding to the compressor discharge then its time to purge, or vent, the condenser shell. The purge procedures vary by plant and should be checked in the particular technical manual. For example, the refrigeration system in a DD-963 has a criterion for a temperature difference of 5F, while an AE-27 class ship has a criterion of 10 psi for comparing the saturation conditions. The air conditioning plants in DD-963 class ships use a 3F differential to in order to use the Purge and Pump Out (PPO) Unit, which will be discussed later. Purging of the condenser will release some refrigerant though should be minimized as much as possible since not only are Freons hazardous to the atmosphere, but also all refrigerants are heavier than air and their release to the atmosphere can become hazardous in a compartment by creating locally high concentrations. Purging additionally may not remove all noncondensible gases. After purging, the continued existence of a temperature difference will probably indicate a fouled sea water side and the need to clean the condenser and its tubes.

Moisture
At 80F, R-12 Freon can hold 98 ppm of water. If the temperature of the R-12 were to fall to 0F, it can now only hold 8.3 ppm. Where does this water come from and where does it go? The air we breathe is never without moisture. Without it, we would find it very uncomfortable. But, moisture trapped in air is not good for machinery. Our refrigeration systems are designed to operate in contact with some (very little) air. Thats the reason that designers have put dehydrators in the liquid refrigerant line upstream of the TXV. But, if moisture-laden air gets into our refrigeration systems, it can create havoc to the foods we are trying to keep cold and the machinery and equipment trying to do that! As discussed above, we run the risk of air intrusion into our refrigerant lines whenever they are opened for maintenance or repairs. And, with air comes moisture. So, whenever systems require purging for excessive air build up in the condenser, good engineering practice dictates that the dehydrator should also be checked and may require replacing. Where do those 90 ppm of water go during a drop in refrigerant temperature to 0F? In air conditioning systems where we maintain chill water at 44F, this excess moisture becomes free water in the vicinity and downstream of the systems TXV. Recall that as refrigerant passes through the TXV the pressure and temperature drop so dramatically that some of the refrigerant flashes to vapor because we are so close to the refrigerants dome. During this temperature drop the excess moisture is freed from the refrigerant and condenses as it passes through the TXV. It will accumulate in low areas downstream of the TXV in the water chiller. If the temperature of the refrigerant hovers around or even drops below 32F, the trapped water will freeze in the refrigerant piping blocking its flow. It may cause an intermittent freezing/thawing cycle of the chiller causing erratic compressor operation. If refrigeration systems free up excess moisture through the TXV, ice will definitely form since the refrigerant temperature is at about -5F. The TXV will become blocked with ice restricting or even stopping refrigerant flow completely. The heat transfer characteristics and rate of cooling the freeze box will be adversely affected. The TXV will not operate properly or may operate erratically (sticking). According to NSTM Chapter 516, moisture is the most common form of refrigeration system contamination. This manifests itself as: A shortage in refrigerant, Compressor short-cycling on low suction pressure, High freeze box and chill box temperatures, Bubbling in the liquid line sight glass, Hissing sounds in refrigerant piping, and General unsatisfactory plant performance. June 1996 4-20

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Water has another debilitating effect. Water and refrigerants (at least, the Freons) dont mix! What I really mean is they do and, when they do, we get the formation of two acids: hydrochloric acid (HCl) and hydrofluoric acid (HF). Both are highly corrosive to metal components and will cause copper to be plated out in the high temperature regions at the discharge from the compressor, especially at the discharge valve plate. This is observable as a decided discoloration or dark sludge forming inside the refrigerant piping. This dark sludge is also called copper plating. In fact, the more water present, the more rapid the rate of copper plating.

Lubricating Oil
Copper plating can also manifest itself in high metal content in the compressors lubricating oil which will be detected during spectrographic analysis of the oil. Freon refrigerants are highly miscible with lube oil. In other words they mix quite well. Actually, whenever a refrigeration compressor is operating, there will always be some oil vapor present in the Freon and other refrigerants as it is circulated throughout the system. This has its good side because small amounts of oil are necessary to lubricate valves and other components in the refrigerant piping system. However, this mix-ability depends on oil temperature and refrigerant pressure. High refrigerant pressure and low oil temperature will permit more absorption of refrigerant in the oil than a refrigerant at a lower pressure and an oil at a higher temperature. When the compressor is stopped, the lubricating oil temperature will decrease and the refrigerant back pressure in the low side of the system (including the crankcase) gradually increases. Thus, these conditions permit the refrigerant vapor to be absorbed in the crankcase by the oil. When the compressor is started again, the refrigerant-oil mixture will heat up such that the refrigerant will tend to boil causing the oil to foam. This is normal on start up and should eventually disappear since the refrigerant is returned to a vapor state. If oil foaming is excessive, it indicates that there is excessive oil dilution with refrigerant. The compressor could be damaged because of the loss of lubricating properties of the oil. The excessive foaming can be caused by possible refrigerant floodback, overcharge in refrigerant, or leaky valves. To eliminate or reduce the miscibility problem, therefore, some units, especially air conditioning units, will have an oil heating system installed and operating when the compressors are shut down keeping the oil temperature at about 140-145F. The compressors oil may become emulsified with excessive amounts of water and acid. If the discoloration discussed above is found on components in high temperature regions of the refrigerant piping, then excessive moisture is indicated. If the oil crankcase and oil passages contain a dark sludge, then moisture is again indicative. High metal content is determined during spectrographic analysis of the oil. This comes from high acid concentration which is caused by excessive moisture in the refrigerant. NSTM Chapter 516 states that, if the water content of refrigeration compressor oil is less than 100 ppm water, then the refrigerant in the system is dry. Should it be discovered that the systems oil requires changing for water content, the dehydrator should also be replaced.

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Self-Contained Refrigeration and Freezing Units

Self-contained equipment are sealed refrigerating or freezing systems within a cabinet or housing to perform a specific function or service. These are sometimes referred to as package units. The following are examples of self-contained equipment in use on Navy ships: reach-in refrigerators frozen food cabinets drinking coolers ice making machines air conditioning units soft ice cream freezers canned juice dispensers dehumidifiers soft drink vending machines refrigerated salad and dessert counters milk and beverage dispensers

These units are similar to their counterparts used ashore with the exception of certain added requirements such as the requirement to withstand pitch, roll, vibration, shock, and to operate continuously in high ambient temperatures. Most self-contained equipment use R-12, though some ice makers and ice cream machines use R-22. R502 is also used which is simply a mixture of R-22 and CFC-115. Newer scuttlebutts are being manufactured with HFC-134a, but there has been no wholesale conversion of these small refrigeration units to environmentally-safer alternatives. R-22 is not an ozone-depleting substance (ODS). It is an HCFC with a composition of CHClF2 and has an ozone-depleting potential (ODP) of 0.05. There is substitute for R-22 yet, but it shall be phased out by 2020. NAVSUP has the responsibility in the Navy to identify shipboard replacement models for the above list of package units. All in all it may be more cost effective to simply replace defective units than to repair them. It should also be remembered that Type I dehydrators used in low pressure air systems contain R-12 as the refrigerant.

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Air Conditioning
Introduction
Air conditioning plants are installed in Naval ships to cool certain spaces where operation of equipment, personnel efficiency, health, or safety, would be adversely affected by high temperatures or high humidity. Typical spaces include ammunition storage and handling rooms, electronic equipment and control spaces, hospital areas, and living, messing, and office spaces. In air conditioning plants, fresh water in a closed loop replaces the freeze box as the medium to be cooled in a refrigeration system. It is now called chilled water. It flows in a closed loop circuit to transfer its cooling effect to the equipment and spaces requiring air conditioning. Chill water is not only used to cool spaces and people, but it is also used to transfer its cooling effect to the electronics cooling water systems. Since air conditioning is a refrigeration process, we shall examine the differences between the two systems.

Air Conditioning Definitions

A review of air conditioning terminology is in order. Humidity. The moisture content of the atmosphere is called humidity. Both insufficient and excessive moisture in the air can cause discomfort and lowered efficiency. When air contains the maximum amount of water possible, it is saturated, and the temperature is the same as the dew point. When temperature of saturated air is reduced below its saturation temperature (or, below its dew point), water vapor will condense into water. Examples of this process include dew that forms in the early morning, the fog that forms when a cold air mass lowers the local air temperature, and the sweat that forms on cold water pipes. Recall from the Compressed Air chapter that, since compressed air is saturated, the addition of moisture separators (inter- and aftercoolers) to a compressor causes water vapor to condense due to the cooling effect of the sea water. This cooling lowers the dew point of the compressed air. Relative Humidity. When air is saturated with water, it is at the dew point and the relative humidity is 100%. When it is half saturated, it contains half as much water as it is capable of holding and the relative humidity is 50%. Relative humidity is defined as the ratio of the weight of moisture in the air to the weight of moisture that would be in the air at the dew point at the same temperature. Relative humidity affects comfort since it controls the evaporation rate at these conditions. At 100% relative humidity there is no evaporation. If you can see your perspiration then it is not evaporating - thats sensible heat transfer. If your perspiration evaporates, it pulls with it the latent heat of vaporization and you feel more comfortable. With conditions of high relative humidity that occurs on the East Coast during the summer, relief is difficult to find (if you do not have an air conditioned home). It is even possible to improve comfort by raising the temperature, if it reduces the relative humidity. Foggy Windshields. One of the easiest ways to understand dew point and relative humidity is the example of a foggy automobile windshield. You enter your car on a cool, humid summer morning. The windshield is clear. As you breathe moist air into the cars interior, the relative humidity increases. The warm, moist air hits the cold windshield and fogs the inside of the glass. This happens because the temperature of the glass is below the dewpoint, causing water to precipitate out of the air. Either of two actions will correct the problem: Turn on the defroster: Heating the windshield removes the cold surface which has caused the condensation. Turn on the air conditioner: Cooling the air in the air conditioner removes moisture - thats why air conditioners always drip water. By removing moisture from the air, there is not enough water to condense onto the still cold windshield. In effect, you have lowered the dew point of the air in the car below the temperature of the windshield. 4-23 June 1996

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Temperature. Two temperature measurements are normally used with air conditioning. These are the dry-bulb and wet-bulb temperatures. Dry-bulb temperature is measured with an ordinary thermometer and represents the sensible heat in the air. The wet-bulb thermometer has a woven cloth sleeve wetted with water placed over the bulb. High velocity air causes the water to evaporate, depending on the relative humidity of the air. At 100% relative humidity, there is no evaporation. The wet-bulb, dry-bulb temperatures, and the dew point are all the same. Wet and dry bulb temperature readings are used to find the amount of water in the air, and therefore, the percent humidity using a psychrometric chart, which is shown in Figure 4-15. Sensation of Comfort. Temperature, relative humidity, and air motion are the principal factors in comfort. The impact of air motion can be drawn from the effect wind chill factors can produce in hot, humid environments. The extremes of wind chill can also have very uncomfortable personal results in cold weather. The net effect of these three factors is called the effective temperature. Figure 4-16 displays a comfort index chart. For health and comfort reasons, the best comfort zone is realized when relative humidity is 40-50% in cold weather and 5060% in warm weather. An overall range of 30-70% is generally considered comfortable.

Figure 4- 15: Comfort Index Chart

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Figure 4- 16: Psychrometric Chart

Shipboard Air Conditioning System and Components

Air conditioning equipment on board Naval ships are of the mechanical type using reciprocating or centrifugal compressors. Air conditioning systems are cross-connected in the chilled water piping, but not in the refrigerant piping. Plants using reciprocating compressors are installed with a capacity up to 80 tons at not less than 35F suction temperatures and use R-12 as the refrigerant. Where higher loads are involved, centrifugal compressors are used starting at about 100-ton capacity. These plants generally use centrifugal compressors with R-114, though some older plants may use R-11. R-12 is being phased out by a suitable non-ozone-depleting refrigerant called HFC-134a. Its physical properties will be discussed later, but, since it is being used aboard ships today, HFC-134as functional applicability in air conditioning systems should be examined. Figure 4-17 represents the thermodynamic cycle associated with an HFC-134a air conditioning plant in a FFG-7 class ship. Recall that the choice of refrigerant is based on a boiling point lower than the temperature we need to cool the space or equipment. So, the characteristics of the R-12 refrigeration cycle in Figure 4-1 would be totally inappropriate for chilling water for air conditioning and electronics cooling. The temperature is too low at -5F for use in air conditioning units. By changing the operating characteristics of the plant and, possibly, choosing a different refrigerant, we now have a system providing the refrigerant parameters shown on the T-s and P-h diagrams of Figure 4-17. Similar parameters would be encountered if R-12s or R-114s were plotted instead. The system components would require modification to accept a different refrigerant for the same job.

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Figure 4- 17: Air Conditioning Cycle with HFC-134a Figure 4-18 shows a simple air conditioning system arrangement. Most shipboard air conditioning plants are of the indirect type. That is, the refrigerant is circulated to a heat exchanger or water chiller that cools fresh water. The water chiller acts as the load for the refrigerant and replaces the evaporator coils in a refrigeration system. Water is cooled to a design temperature of 44F by the primary refrigerant through a water chiller located within the refrigeration machinery room. The cooled water is then circulated in parallel flow paths to cooling coils in remote areas of the ship for air conditioning and electronics cooling services. The water in passing through the cooling coil picks up heat from the space and returns it to the chiller for cooling. Water leaving the chiller is maintained at a constant temperature by controls that actuate the refrigeration machinery. For safety, a control is included to prevent freezing of the water chiller. The temperature of the conditioned space is regulated by a thermostatically-operated on-off solenoid valve controlling the flow of chilled water through cooling coils. The quantity of chilled water flowing through the cooling coil is throttled by an orifice. Never remove this orifice with the intent that more cooling can be obtained. The opposite effect can occur with the added detrimental effect on adjacent coils, which would receive reduced chill water flow.

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Figure 4- 18: Basic Air Conditioning System Figures 4-19 and 4-20 show schematics of the chill water (CW) distribution systems for DD-963 and FFG-7 class ships, respectively. All ships have multiple air conditioning plants with their respective interfaces supplying CW to supply loops or risers to the ships CW loads (i.e., cooling coils and electronics cooling water heat exchangers). The CW distribution system is divided into zones which allows the plants to be cross connected for high CW usage. An FFG-7s air conditioning system has three (3) zones: Zone No. 1 is forward of frame 150 and is normally supplied by No. 1 A/C unit located in the A/C Machinery Room (3-84-0-E). Zone No. 2 encompasses the middle portion of the ship between frames 150 and 212. Chill water for Zone 2 is normally supplied by the No. 2 A/C unit in AMR 2 (5-212-0-E). Similarly, No. 3 A/C unit, which is also located in AMR 2, provides chill water to the after part of the ship from frame 212. A DD-963s air conditioning system is also divided into three zones supplied by three A/C units. Two of the plants are located in AMR 1 (5-220-0-E) with the third unit in No. 2 Pump Room (3-398-0-Q). Each plant has a 150-ton cooling capacity.

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Figure 4- 19: DD-963 Chill Water Distribution System After the chill water has absorbed the heat from the cooling coils and heat exchangers, this warmer water returns to the on-line air conditioning plant(s) to be re-cooled by the refrigerant in the water chiller(s). An air conditioning plant is a self-contained unit such that all components associated with the refrigerant thermodynamic cycle are essentially mounted on the same bedplate.

Figure 4- 20: FFG-7 Chill Water Distribution System

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Systems with Reciprocating Compressors

All air conditioning compressors serve the same functions as those in refrigeration plants. They provide the motive force to circulate the refrigerant in the closed loop system by increasing the refrigerants energy potential due to its pressure. Lets examine the FFG-7s system with a reciprocating compressor first, followed by a review of the centrifugal compressor on the DD-963 class ship. The FFG-7 compressor is shown in Figure 4-21. It is motordriven and has 12 cylinders arranged in a W pattern which compresses the refrigerant R-12 vapor in a single stage due to the reciprocating action of the pistons as the crankshaft rotates. The reciprocating compressors provide enough energy for 80 tons of cooling capacity each.

Figure 4- 21: FFG-7 Reciprocating A/C Compressor As with refrigeration compressors, A/C compressors have capacity control systems integral to the units to allow the compressors to respond to load changes. This also provides for reduced power consumption and eliminates cyclic operation of the compressors as the load varies. Thus, we can expect a longer operational life. The capacity control system for a FFG-7 R-12 reciprocating compressor is shown in Figure 4-22. This system uses lubricating oil as the control fluid and operates similarly to the capacity control system for a reciprocating refrigeration compressor as discussed on Pages 4-12 through 4-14. Its design allows for unloaded start up of the compressor. An increase in load requirements results in an increase in crankcase oil pressure. Based on the setting of the capacity control valve, the increased oil pressure flows through the valve via an orifice to the hydraulic relay assembly. The spring setting in the hydraulic relay allows oil to be ported to one or more unloader power elements. The rise in oil pressure to the unloader power element causes the piston in the element to compress the spring pivoting the lifting fork to seat the suction valves on the cylinder being loaded by lowering the unloader sleeve. This affords the compressor the ability to sequentially load (and unload) designated cylinders in 4-29

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pairs, or steps, in response to the needs of the system. The table below shows the loading sequence for the various capacity control settings for the air conditioning units on FFG-7s. These values are the same for both types of refrigerants in use onboard FFG-7s, R-12 and HFC-134a. The suction valve lifting arrangement is the same as shown in Figure 4-9.

Figure 4- 22: FFG-7 A/C Capacity Control System (R-12)

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Capacity Control Setting Full Step I Step II Step III Step IV

Unloaded Cylinders 0 2 4 6 8

Loaded Cylinders 12 10 8 6 4

Capacity (%) 100 83 1/3 66 2/3 50 33 1/3

The capacity control system for an FFG-7 compressor which uses HFC-134a for its refrigerant is shown in Figure 4-23. With the change to HFC-134a, the capacity controls operate in the same fashion, however, externally-mounted solenoid valves now control the porting of oil to the unloader power elements for the controlled cylinders. The original (R-12 refrigerant) components of capacity control valve, strainer, and hydraulic relay are no longer used to control oil flow to the power elements and are sealed off and isolated. In the new arrangement, a capacity control thermostat senses the temperature of the chill water at the CW outlet from the water chiller. This signal is sent to the unloader controller which electrically controls the operation of the unloader solenoid valves. Energizing the solenoids based on a falling CW outlet temperature will cause control oil to be dumped from the unloader power element back to the crankcase raising the lifting fork and unseating the cylinders suction valves. Thus, the compressor unloads. With an increase in CW temperature, the capacity control thermostat sends the rising temperature signal to the unloader controller de-energizing the required solenoids to increase oil pressure to the unloading element. The increased oil pressure will adjust the unloader lifting fork to lower the unloader sleeve. The suction valves will re-seat allowing the cylinder to load.

Figure 4- 23: Capacity Control System for an HFC-134a A/C Unit

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Reciprocating air conditioning compressors have safety features to protect themselves and their systems from damage. They are similar to those on refrigeration compressors and are described below: The oil failure switch stops the compressor when oil pressure is insufficient. The switch disconnects contacts in the motor controller if the oil pressure drops below a safe minimum of 12 psig above crankcase pressure or if oil pressure fails to develop on start up to a safe minimum of 18 psig. This switch is interlocked to a time delay relay in the controller to allow oil pressure to develop for a short period (10-15 seconds) on start up below the 18-psig minimum. Should the compressor be stopped by the action of this switch, it must be manually restarted once the low oil pressure condition has been corrected. The low suction pressure switch operates in the same fashion as on a refrigeration compressor. In this case, the compressor cut out point occurs when refrigerant suction pressure falls to 20 psig and will restart automatically when the pressure returns to 40 psig. A high discharge pressure switch shuts down the compressor when the compressor discharge rises above 150 psig. As the outlet pressure drops to 125 psig, the contacts in the switch will close restarting the compressor. An internal relief valve will cause high compressor discharge pressure to relieve to the suction side if this differential pressure exceeds 225 psi. Two switches will stop the compressor if either sea water is lost to the condenser or fresh water is lost to the water chiller. The sea water failure switch secures the compressor if sea water pressure falls to 5 psig and restarts the compressor when the pressure rises to 15 psig. The fresh water failure switch accomplishes the same for the compressor at chill water pressures of 30 and 45 psig, respectively. Lubricating oil pressure control is vital for proper compressor operation and for satisfactory operation of the unloading feature of the capacity control system. An oil pressure regulator, or relief valve, is installed on the side of the crankcase near the shaft seal housing to maintain oil pressure between 45 and 55 psig above oil suction pressure. The chill water system is designed to be operated with a temperature of 44F. To prevent freezing, a chill water low limit thermostat is installed to secure the refrigerant compressor if the chill water temperature in the water chiller falls to 36F. As the temperature rises to 40F, the compressor will restart. As part of the oil temperature control system, the compressor has two electric heaters installed to heat the oil in the crankcase when the compressor is not running. A crankcase temperature safety switch deenergizes the heaters at 140F and will secure the compressor if it is running. Compressor oil temperature should be maintained between 100F and 120F. A lubricating oil cooler is installed as the second half of the oil temperature control system which uses chill water from the water chiller outlet to cool the oil. To control the temperature of the oil going to the compressor, an oil cooler water regulating valve is located at the outlet to the chiller and is actuated by a temperature sensing bulb in the oil outlet piping of the oil cooler.

Following the compression process, the refrigerant flows to the condenser where the heat absorbed from the chill water and the heat of compression is removed from the refrigerant and transferred to the sea water coolant. It is then discharged overboard. The remainder of the refrigerant loop in an air conditioning plant with a reciprocating compressor like the FFG-7s contains the same components as the refrigeration system we discussed in the first part of this chapter. A receiver will be installed downstream from the condenser. It serves the same functions as the one discussed on Page 4-18 for refrigeration systems. It has a relief valve set at 225 psig to equalize the pressure with the condenser. The receiver also acts as the point to collect refrigerant during pump down operations or when charging the system. Next in line comes the liquid line solenoid valve followed by the heat exchanger and drier (or, dehydrator). A solenoid valve is installed upstream of the thermal expansion valve (TXV) and is controlled by June 1996 4-32

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the chill water thermostat. The chill water thermostat monitors chill water outlet temperature from the chiller to control the solenoid valve in the liquid refrigerant line to the TXV. The TXV performs the same functions as in refrigeration systems to throttle refrigerant flow to the chiller by measuring and maintaining the 8-10F of superheat at the chiller outlet. This arrangement and operation is exactly the same as the refrigeration system. The warm refrigerant vapor then flows back to the reciprocating compressor suction valves, completing the circuit.

Systems with Centrifugal Compressors

DD-963 class ships utilize R-114 as the refrigerant for their air conditioning systems in plants designed with a 150-ton capacity. These plants have centrifugal compressors providing the pressure potential energy to circulate the refrigerant to cool the chill water. CG-47, DDG-51, and DDG-993 classes all have similar systems as the SPRUANCE class except their capacities are 200-ton. Additionally, LSD-44 and -45 have four 125-ton R-114 centrifugal compressors, while LSD-46 and on have 1 250-ton unit and 2 125-ton units. Figure 4-24 shows the arrangement of a DD963s air conditioning unit. These centrifugal compressors are powered by a 194-HP motor operating at 3600 RPM. The speed of the motor is stepped up through a reduction gear with a 3.38:1 ratio such that the compressor runs at over 12,000 RPM. The other classes have the similar arrangements, for example, the 200-ton compressors Figure 4- 24: DD-963 Centrifugal Air Conditioning Plant operate at about 9800 RPM via a 2.7:1 gear ratio. The SPRUANCE class destroyers have three (3) air conditioning plants which use centrifugal compressors and R-114 as the refrigerant. There are four plants for each of the other twin-screw gas turbine ship classes. Notice that all parts which comprise the air conditioning system are compactly co-located in the same unit. The flow of refrigerant is shown in Figure 4-25 for the same DD-963 air conditioning plant.

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Figure 4- 25: DD-963 Centrifugal Compressor Refrigerant Flow The capacity control system performs the same functions (to maintain desired CW temperature and to prevent motor overloading) as other compressors, but, now with a centrifugal compressor, a different system is required to vary refrigerant load without changing compressor speed or cycling the compressor. Note the prerotation vanes at the compressor suction in Figure 4-25. Control of these vanes provides capacity control for the centrifugal compressor. A schematic of the capacity control system is shown in Figure 4-26. They serve three functions: Maintain desired chill water temperature. Limit motor loading to a preset maximum current. Restrict refrigerant backflow by closing on shutdown.

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The incorporation of the prerotation vanes increases compressor efficiency at start up by reducing the time required for temperature pulldown and minimizing oil foaming in the compressor oil reservoir. The position of the vanes is controlled by a pneumatic vane operator which receives a control air signal from the pilot positioner. The positioner acts as an amplifier to move the vane operator proportionally to the air pilot signal received. The air signal to the pilot positioner can be controlled by one of three pneumatic devices: a current Figure 4- 26: Capacity Control System for DD-963 A/C Unit limiter transducer, a chill water thermostat, or a manual loading valve. Under normal operating conditions, the chill water thermostat is used. The current limiter transducer senses the load on the motor and prevents overloading by moving the vanes to the closed position. A 240-amp (341 amps for 200-ton plants) full-load limit is set to prevent overload by closing the prerotation vanes. This situation can occur under three conditions: on start up, when high CW temperatures prevail, or when the cooling load exceeds the capacity of the unit. Based on the desired load setting, the current limiter monitors the current driving the compressor motor. When this setting is exceeded, the current limiter will override the normal response of the vane operator to limit the air signal sent by the CW thermostat or the manual loading valve. It will then reduce the air signal to the vane operator to partially close the prerotation vanes until the motor loading condition reduces. Use of the current limiter transducer results in the shortest temperature pulldown time from warm conditions since the prerotation vanes are permitted to open quickly after the motor is started. This prevents the oil reservoir pressure from decreasing rapidly, thus minimizing the possibility of oil foaming. This feature, however, is only effective when the manual loading valve is maintained in the open position. This allows the pilot signal pressure to pilot positioner to be established by the chill water thermostat. The motor current limiter includes a load limiting controller and a transducer. The controller is an electronic device that converts the AC motor current inversely proportional to a DC output voltage. This DC signal is sent to the transducer to control the primary air signal to the vane operator. As long as the motor is operating below the controller current setpoint, the DC output voltage is 16 volts. Thus, the transducer will pass the maximum amount of air to operate the vanes. If the current to the motor exceeds the setpoint, the signal from the load limiting controller decreases toward 0 volts DC. This reduces the air signal from the transducer limiting air to the vane operator. When the compressor motor is stopped, the transducers air signal to the vane operator will be zero to close the vanes. The vanes will also close if a loss of electrical power occurs. A chill water thermostat (or, a T-8000 chill water thermostat) senses the CW temperature at the outlet to the water chiller and controls the air signal sent to the pilot positioner to maintain the CW temperature by moving the vanes. An 8 psig pilot air signal corresponds to 44F chill water temperature. When the temperature of the chill water decreases, the thermostat decreases the air pilot signal to the pilot positioner which proportionately closes the blades via the vane operator. The opposite will occur as the chill water temperature returns to 44F. When maintenance is required, a manual loading valve is used. It is normally fully open (clockwise) in its non-operative position. Manual adjustment of the prerotation vanes is needed during initial start up until the automatic controls are adjusted. The manual loading valve can also be used temporarily if the automatic controls are inoperative or out of adjustment. Any use of the manual loading valve requires close attention to avoid motor overload conditions and to maintain correct CW temperature. Counterclockwise movement of the valve will 4-35 June 1996

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increase the amount of air bled off from pilot signal circuit causing the vanes to close. Automatic controls permitting, clockwise movement of the manual loading valve will cause the vanes to open, increasing compressor capacity. Since the manual loading valve is in series with the chill water thermostat, the manual valve can always be used to reposition the prerotation vanes toward a closed position. However, it can open the vanes only as far as the thermostat and current limiter settings permit. Any of these devices can override the others to decrease the air signal to the pilot positioner which will reduce the capacity of the compressor. Note the "hot gas switch" in the pilot air signal line on the right side of Figure 4-26. This is a pressure switch which senses pilot air pressure and will open the hot gas bypass solenoid valve under low load signals. This releases sufficient high temperature and high pressure refrigerant vapor from the condenser (compressor discharge) back to the water chiller to simulate an increase in water chiller loading. This device maintains a minimum suction head to the compressor during low load conditions to prevent cycling or surging of the compressor. The hot gas bypass solenoid provides a minimum refrigerant flow through the compressor even when the prerotation vanes are closed. This feature will maintain stable compressor operation.

Centrifugal Compressor Oil System

A lube oil system is a lube oil system is a lube oil system! No big deal! Well, not exactly. The lubricating oil system for centrifugal air conditioning compressors like those in DD-963s is shown in Figure 4-27. Oil must be supplied to the compressor impeller bearing, but also to the bearings on the high speed shaft that drives it, the low speed shaft and the reduction gear. This system has four (4) pumps. Two oil pumps are attached, one to each shaft. The third is an auxiliary oil pump (AOP) and the last is a jet oil pump (Figure 428). The attached oil pumps are centrifugal and provide oil to the high and low speed portions of the compressor while the compressor is operating at speed. The low speed pump discharges to the high speed suction. The high speed pumps discharge is then passed through dual oil filters and the oil cooler to supply lubricating oil throughout the system. Part of its discharge makes up the supply for an internal jet pump which works similar to an eductor. (Bernoulli triumphs in other areas than just getting rid of bilge water!) This jet pump draws a suction from the oil reservoir, or sump, and is the supply oil to the low speed (main) oil pump. The AOP is a rotary, positive displacement pump and Figure 4- 27: Centrifugal Compressor Oil System lubricates the compressor on start up while the attached pumps come up to speed and on shutdown while the compressor coasts to a stop. It is external to the compressor and is electrically-operated. When its controller is selected for "AUTO", the AOP will operate automatically during start up and shutdown. It may be operated manually by choosing "MANUAL" on the selector switch. When the "START" button is pressed with the AOP in automatic, the AOP will start to build up oil pressure in the system for a 25-second period. If lubrication is adequate, the compressor motor will start.

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The AOP will continue to supply oil on start up for 60 seconds after the compressor starts. It will start up on shutdown and remain on line for a 45-second period while the compressor coasts down. Three 450-watt electric heaters are installed in the oil sump to ensure the oil is kept warm during periods of shutdown by maintaining the oil at 145F. This temperature is sufficient to ensure the oil does not absorb any refrigerant and, therefore, reduces oil foaming. During prolonged shutdown periods, the oil in the sump tends to absorb oil, depending on the oils temperature and the pressure of the refrigerant that may be present. As the oil temperature is lowered, the amount of refrigerant the oil can absorb will increase. If the refrigerant content in the oil becomes excessive, foaming of the oil may become violent as the oil pressure in the sump is reduced on start up. The Figure 4- 28: Oil Jet Pump refrigerant vapor may carry away oil droplets into the compressor suction. Since the oil pumps are centrifugal, the vapor entrained in the oil can cause oil pressure fluctuations due to vapor binding and can reduce lubrication of mechanical components. Therefore, one of these heaters is continuously energized while the compressor is idle. The other two are controlled thermostatically to maintain the 145F oil temperature requirement. Under normal start up procedures, the electric heating system must be operated for 12 hours prior to system light off. However, the air conditioning compressor may be started within 1 hour of oil replacement without energizing the oil heating system. As long as a unit will be shutdown for 1 hour or less prior to being restarted, the heaters may be disconnected electrically. Like all other compressors and rotating machinery, safety devices cannot be ignored: The chill water flow switch senses the differential pressure between the chill water flowing into and out of the water chiller. The switch closes when the chill water pressure differential increases above 7 psid. If the pressure differential drops below 4 psi, the switch will open stopping the compressor. An alarm will sound. When the differential pressure of 7 psid is restored, the switch will close. The "COMPRESSOR RESET" button must be pressed to reactivate the relays in the motor controller. Once all other operational checks have been satisfactorily completed, the compressor may be restarted. The oil pressure failure switch senses the differential oil pressure at the pump discharge against the crankcase pressure. The switch will close when the pressure is above 32 psid and will secure the compressor if the pressure differential drops to 27 psi. Its operation is similar to the oil failure switch on other types of compressors, however, on restoration of oil pressure, the compressor does not automatically restart the compressor. It must be reset and restarted manually. A high refrigerant pressure switch will secure the compressor if the compressor discharge pressure rises above 50 psig. If the pressure drops to 40 psig, the switchs contacts will close the relays in the controller, but the compressor must be manually reset and started. On DD-963 centrifugal compressors, a hot gas bypass switch automatically routes high temperature and pressure vapor from the compressor discharge to the water chiller under light loading conditions. This artificially stabilizes compressor operation. This was discussed above as part of the capacity control system. If the pilot air signal falls to 6.5 psig, the hot gas bypass switch will open the solenoid valve to send the hot vapor back to the chiller. When system demand returns and the air pressure rises to 8.5 psig, the switch closes the valve securing the bypass operation. 4-37 June 1996

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The sea water flow switch will secure the compressor if sea water through the condenser falls below 5 psig. The switch will re-energize when the pressure rises to 14 psig. But, again like those switches above, the compressor must be reset and restarted manually. Should the temperature of the chill water fall sufficiently below the 44F design setting, it could freeze. The low water temperature switch will stop the compressor when the chill water temperature discharging from the chiller falls to 40F. The compressor can be manually reset and started when the temperature returns to 44F. A high oil temperature switch monitors the compressor lubricating oil discharge temperature. If the temperature rises to 175F, the switch will stop the compressor or prevent it from being started. Once the oil temperature falls to 165F, the compressor can be reset and started. The oil heater thermostat switch was discussed above and controls the operation of three electric heaters installed in the compressors oil sump. When the system is secured, one of the heaters is used to ensure the oil temperature is maintained at 145F. If the temperature falls below 145F, the switch energizes the two supplemental heaters. The switch automatically de-energizes all three heaters if a 155F temperature is reached. The switch will also secure the heaters electrically once the compressor is started. The compressor will be stopped if the refrigerant temperature in the chiller falls below 32F by the low refrigerant temperature switch. Once the refrigerants temperature increases to 38F, the switch closes relays to allow the compressor to be started after being reset. The compressor is protected from high refrigerant discharge temperature by the high discharge temperature switch which will secure the compressor if the temperature increases above 235F. When the refrigerant temperature falls to 225F, the switchs contacts are energized allowing the compressor to be reset and restarted.

Systems utilizing centrifugal compressors (i.e., R-114 systems over 150 tons in capacity...DD-963, CG-47, DDG-51, DDG-993, LSD-44) do not have a receiver between the condenser and the rest of the high pressure components. They dont need one! These systems have Purge and Pump Out (PPO) units which will be discussed below for refrigerant charging and evacuation processes, but they inherently produce no pulsations like reciprocating compressors. Following the phase change from a hot vapor to a subcooled liquid in the condenser, the refrigerant flows directly to the water chiller. The chiller is a shell and tube heat exchanger. The warmer chill water flows through the tubes as the refrigerant enters through two passages at diagonally opposite ends of the water chiller. Like all heat transfer processes, the chill water gives up its heat, cooling it down to 44F, and boiling the refrigerant in the shell side of the chiller. The liquid refrigerant flows from each end of the chiller through a passage and then merges in the bottom. It rises upward through a distributor plate across the tube bundle containing the chill water. (See Figure 4-25.) It absorbs its latent heat of vaporization from the chill water becoming vapor and is carried upward by the compressor suction.

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Purge and Pump Out (PPO) Unit

Figure 4-29 shows the Purge and Pump Out (PPO) Unit installed on air conditioning units aboard DD963 class ships. Similar units are also aboard CG-47, DDG-51 and DDG-993 classes and LSD-44 and on. PPO units serve three functions: To separate and remove noncondensible gases from the main system, To remove refrigerant vapor from the main system prior to opening for maintenance and repairs, and To assist in transferring refrigerant between the main system and remote receivers.

Figure 4- 29: DD-963 Purge and Pump Out (PPO) Unit Purging is required when the temperature difference between the saturation temperature associated with the compressor discharge pressure and the condenser refrigerant thermometer exceeds 3F. This condition indicates the presence of excessive noncondensible gases in the condenser which can modify the characteristics of the condensing action of the gaseous refrigerant. During purging operations, the plants main compressor must be running to establish system head which sends liquid refrigerant from the condenser into the PPO unit. The liquid refrigerant flows through the finned tubes of the purger, where it will absorb the heat from the "foul", noncondensible gases collecting at the top of the purger during the condensing process. Once refrigerant flow is established through the purger, the PPO compressor is started. It is a two-cylinder, reciprocating compressor driven by a 2-HP motor and draws a suction of the "foul" gases at the top of the plants main condenser through the PPO dehydrator and concentrator. This dehydrator is similar to those in refrigeration systems (see Figure 4-11) and is used to remove moisture from the refrigerant. The concentrator and purger are identical tube-and-shell heat exchangers with a spirally-wound fin surrounding the single-pass tube. The condensed liquid refrigerant that forms in the purger shell collects at the bottom and flows through a liquid strainer up to the tube-side of the concentrator. Here it absorbs heat from the "foul" gas in the shell side which condenses to separate the 4-39

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noncondensibles from the refrigerant. The liquid refrigerant that forms flows through the capillary tubes to join with the liquid refrigerant from the tube-side of the concentrator to return to the main plants water chiller. The noncondensible gases at the top of the concentrator are removed by the suction from the PPO compressor to be returned to the shell-side of the purger heat exchanger. Venting the noncondensible gases from the top of the purger is an automatic function performed by a solenoid-operated purge control valve. The solenoid valve is electrically connected to a high pressure switch located in PPO compressor discharge line. As compressor discharge pressure develops to exceed 60 psig, the solenoid valve opens and simultaneously stops the PPO compressor. As the pressure in the discharge line reduces to 30 psig, the solenoid valve will close automatically restarting the PPO compressor. Once the 3F (or less) temperature differential for saturation conditions in the main condenser is reached, the purging operation may be secured.

Refrigerant Recovery Units (RRUs)

Since Freons are being eliminated, Defense Logistics Agency (DLA), along with NAVSUP, has established defense reserves of Freon based on the mission criticality of the equipment and systems to carry DOD through the transition period during conversion to non-ODSs. Refrigerant recovery units (RRUs) have been issued to all ships (with a few exceptions) to utilize during maintenance to evacuate and recover refrigerants which are ozone depleting substances. These may also be used to reclaim and turn the refrigerants in to the Supply System. Navy standard issue RRUs are the ST-100A and ST-1000 for shipboard use. They are semi-portable and are capable of recovering all Freons except R-114. All ships have them with the exception of MCMs and ships with plants using R-114 as the refrigerant. These vessels (CG-47, DD-963, DDG-993, DDG-51, and LSD-44) have R-114 air conditioning plants which have Purge and Pump Out (PPO) units for the same purpose. SIMAs and Naval shipyards have RRUs available for loan and are portably transported through the use of a trailer. These units are capable of recovering all Navy refrigerants: R-11, R-12, R-22, R-114, and HFC-134a.

Freon Leak Detection

General Specifications for Ships (GENSPECS) requires halocarbon monitors permanently be installed to continuously monitor and detect refrigerant leakage in spaces containing air conditioning and refrigeration equipment. Installation of halocarbon monitoring systems aboard ships started in 1989. Stringency of the requirements were relaxed somewhat and now monitors are required to be installed in compartments with refrigerant-charged equipment, except for the following (SEA-56Y1 memorandum of 21 August 1991 and COMNAVSEASYSCOM 011128Z FEB 95 refer): Main and auxiliary machinery rooms as originally designed. Compartments with ventilation rate of change of 2 minutes or less for the lowest fan speed and served by either W or circle W DC vent systems. One third of the exhaust quantity must be from terminals located 9 inches above the deck and near the plant machinery. Compartments with self-contained units containing less than 20 pounds of refrigerant, such as ice-makers, water coolers and most galley equipment. This convoluted criteria for permanent monitor installations has led NAVSEA to clarify the requirements by ship type. Therefore, FFG-7 class ships are only required to have the monitor installed in the AC Machinery Room. DD-963 and DDG-993 classes required a monitor to be installed in Refrigeration Machinery Room. Installations in CG-47s and DDG-51s are adequate and no changes are necessary. A review of remaining surface ships is underway and is expected to be promulgated by March 1995. For those ships which have a resultant reduction in monitors installed, NAVSEA will Alterations Equivalent to Repair (AERs) to remove and dispose of the excess monitors. June 1996 4-40

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The Foxboro Corporation is the primary supplier of permanently installed halocarbon monitors in ships. Their Foxboro-Miran models 984/101-GA2S have been installed in all ships. Yet, to date, many units have become inoperable within about 6 months of installation. Supply support for the Foxboro monitors has been a particular problem. Additionally, with the conversion to HFC-134a, those monitors currently installed are not capable of sensing the new refrigerant. Foxboro will be developing the Miran 984/101-GA2T to monitor HFC134a leakage to replace their earlier model. These new models will be installed as part of the conversion alteration, which will be discussed later.

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Chill Water Loop

Chill water (CW) cooled to an operating temperature between 40F and 44F is piped in a closed-loop system throughout the ship for air conditioning and for electronics cooling to combat systems equipment and spaces. On DD-963 class ships there are three zones for chill water distribution as shown in Figure 4-19. Each zone can be fed from its own air conditioning unit in a split plant arrangement or can be cross-connected with any of the other two units. Normally vital CW loads are supplied via the starboard main and non-vital via the port main. There are three (3) chill water pumps in DD-963s which provide the energy to circulate the chill water through the loops to the loads in the zone(s) being supplied. Each pump is driven by a 40-HP motor to supply 540 GPM of chill water at 75 psig shut off head pressure. The chill water pump is of the centrifugal-type that takes a suction on the water chiller and circulates the chilled water through the entire system. The pump runs continuously when the plant is in operation. Since the chill water system is a closed system, an expansion tank is installed to allow for expansion, leakage, surge during high usage, and evaporation of the chilled water. The tank is filled with fresh water by means of a hose connection from the fresh water system. On DD-963s, CG-47s, DDG-51s and DDG-993s, the expansion tanks have a 60-gallon capacity, while in FFG-7 class, they contain 20 gallons. FFG-7 and DD-963 class ships have three expansion tanks, one tank for each air conditioning unit, while the others have four. The fill hose is temporary and should never be left installed as it is possible to contaminate the potable water system with chill water. The expansion tank acts as an inventory point and is kept charged with 35-psig air pressure. This provides the required suction pressure for proper pump operation. Cooling coils are located in vent ducting and are of the finned-type. Chill water passes through the tubes of the coil, while air passes over the finned coil tubes. The chill water passing through absorbs the heat from the air passing over the coil, thus cooling the space. It is very important to keep the coils clean and free of dust. A 0.004 inch layer of dust can reduce cooling efficiency by 30%. Drip pans are installed to collect condensation from the air cooling action. This condensation is drained off to the ships drain system. The drain lines sometimes have loop seals to ensure proper drainage of the drip tray. The loops seal separates two different pressure regions: atmospheric at the end of the drain line with a slight vacuum in the drip pan created by the velocity of the air flowing through the coils. Thermostats are located in the space being cooled which control the solenoid valves to start and stop the flow of chill water to the coils based on space temperature. The solenoid valve is electromagnetically operated by the thermostat, controlling the flow of chill water to the coil. It does not regulate or throttle the flow. The valve is either fully open or fully closed. An orifice is usually installed in the chill water line downstream of the cooling coil. The orifice is sized to allow for the correct flow of water to the coil. Imbalances in the air conditioning system will result if these orifices are removed or become eroded over time. Filters are installed to keep cooling coils free of dirt and dust. As with a dirty cooling coil, a dirty or clogged vent filter will reduce air flow and therefore reduce cooling.

Electronics Cooling Water Systems

Electronics systems generate sufficient heat that they require their own cooling water systems to remove this unwanted heat to prevent component burn out. Electronics cooling is supplied by two subsystems of cooling water: primary and secondary. The primary system is either a closed loop system of chill water or cooling provided by the open loop of sea water from the firemain or its own sea water suction. Heat is removed by either of these as it is transferred from the secondary loop which removes the unwanted heat from the electronic component. Cooling water for the secondary loop is always supplied by distilled water in a closed loop subsystem. This fresh June 1996 4-42

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water is demineralized for strict compliance with conductivity requirements which is discussed in detail in the Chemistry portion of SOSMRC. NSTM 532 describes in general shipboard electronics cooling water systems. All cooling systems have two loops to ensure supporting water to combat systems suites. One loop is for normal operation and the other acts as a standby during maintenance or for high heat removal situations.

Types of Electronics Cooling Water Systems

Electronics cooling water systems are divided into three types categorized on the combination of water for the primary loop (sea and/or chill) and the water combination for the normal and standby heat exchangers between primary and secondary loops. (Remember, secondary loop water removes the heat directly from the electronics components.) Type I systems deliver demineralized water (DW) in the secondary loop at temperatures of 100F and above. Both normal and standby heat exchangers utilize sea water-to-demineralized water (SW-DW) heat exchangers. Type II systems provide DW between 80F and 99F for secondary loop heat removal. The normal heat exchanger is SW-DW, while the standby one utilizes a combination of chill water-to-demineralized water (CWDW). A Type III system is designed with CW-DW heat exchangers for both normal and standby system alignment delivering DW to electronics components at 80F and below.

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DD-963 Shipboard Electronic Cooling Water System

The DD-963 class has two electronics cooling water subsystems. One system is for electronics equipment in the sonar suite (Loop 1) and superstructure (Loop 2) of the ship shown in Figure 4-30. It has two loops both of which are of the Type III variety. Both normal and standby heat exchangers use CW in the primary loop and DW in the secondary loop. The primary CW loop is a closed-loop system which returns the warm CW back to the air conditioning unit supplying it. DW is supplied through DW circulating pumps and two demineralizers. Two pumps are normally operated with the third in standby. This equipment is located in the Electronics Cooling Water Room (01-206-01-Q). Each loop supplies DW at 75F and has a 20-gallon expansion tank to allow for high usage and to maintain a positive head through the chillers to the CW pumps. Each tank is charged with low pressure air to 15 psig and is equipped with a 26-psig relief valve. The second subsystem supports cooling the sonar power supplies in the Sonar Equipment Rooms. This configuration is a single loop of the Type I variety using a SW-DW heat exchanger and is shown in Figure 4-31. The secondary closed loop consists of two DW circulating pumps and one demineralizer. This equipment is located in No. 2 Sonar Equipment Room (2-28-01-Q). One pump supplying DW circulation with the other in

Figure 4- 30: DD-963 Sonar and Superstructure Cooling System June 1996 4-44

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standby is the normal line up. The primary loop is open returning the warm sea water overboard. Both subsystems secondary loops must have demineralized water of high quality, i.e., low conductivity. Conductivity is monitored locally at the DW Control Panels.

Figure 4- 31: DD-963 Sonar Power Supply Cooling System Five fault switches in each of the two loops for the sonar (Loop 1) and superstructure (Loop 2) equipment monitor the following parameters: DW Water Low Level (10% of total or below sight glass). DW High Temperature (80F). DW High Conductivity (2 micromhos). DW Low Temperature (65F). Low DW temperature causes condensation which can damage electronic equipment. DW Low Flow (100 GPM for Loop 1 or 65 GPM for Loop 2).

Any of these alarm conditions electrically actuates a summary signal at a module in an IC/SM Alarm Panel in CIC (2-139-0-C) and in CCS (2-227-0-C). Ships personnel must monitor all DW parameters in the pump room if this summary alarm is actuated in attempting to clear the alarm condition. The summary alarm must be cleared in CCS first before attempting to clear CICs alarm since this is supervisory alarm.

Responsibility for Operation and Maintenance

COMNAVSURFLANT has explicitly defined responsibilities for operation and maintenance of a LANTFLT ships electronic cooling water system. CSIP Advisory No. 55 (CNSL 040449Z APR 90) states that the operation and preventive maintenance of both primary and secondary loops are the responsibility of combat systems or electronics ratings. All gages in the electronics cooling water system are critical gages. Engineering 4-45 June 1996

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department personnel shall assist in corrective maintenance and in ensuring topside personnel are trained properly. Commanding Officers are allowed to deviate from this requirement as the command situation dictates. However, any such deviation must be documented by the Commanding Officer.

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The Clean Air Act of 1990

Effects of the Act
The Clean Air Act was passed in 1990 and amended in 1992 in response to the Montreal Convention and the growing concerns on the hazardous effects the atmospheric release certain chemicals have had in reducing the ozone layer of the earth. This deleterious effect increases the amount of ultraviolet radiation reaching the earths surface. It has been found that chlorine (Cl) is a major contributor to this dangerous phenomenon. Chlorine was declared an ozone depleting substance (ODS) and is a major constituent in the chemical structure of all the Freon refrigerants in use commercially and in the Navys refrigeration and air conditioning plants. As much as 15% of ozone depleting substances come from Freons in A/C&R plants. The Freons fall into a category of chemical compounds known as CFCs, or chlorofluorocarbons. The Clean Air Act of 1990 banned atmospheric release of CFCs as of 1 July 1992. Their manufacture will cease after 31 December 1995. Unfortunately, the Navy also uses CFCs widely in firefighting systems in the forms of Halon 1211 and 1301. To minimize the potential release of Freons, all ships (with some exceptions) have been fitted out with Refrigerant Recovery Units (RRUs) to reclaim Freon when maintenance is required. The Navys policy is to cease procurement of new Freon by recovering and re-using existing stocks. DLA and NAVSUP has been tasked with the responsibility to maintain reserves of Freon (and Halons) for mission critical requirements until suitable substitutes are found for all the Navys ODSs. The RRU is a vacuum pump and receiver, similar in operation to the Purge and Pump Out (PPO) Units installed in centrifugal R-114 A/C plants (DD-963 and other twin screw gas turbine ships). Recovered Freons are pumped into orange cylinders which have yellow stripes around the top. These are then turned into the supply system for reclamation. There are provisions in the Clean Air Act for personal liability and levying fines for violations. The Act allows fines of up to $25,000 per incident per day for intentional releases of ODSs into the atmosphere. Also, approved but not in use yet are rewards which may be given by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to informants. These can be as high as $10,000 based on the magnitude of the violation.

Replacement Refrigerants
NAVSEA is working with commercial vendors to develop new refrigerants which are not CFCs. The Navy primarily uses R-12 and R-114 for AC&R units. Both industry and the Navy are searching for suitable replacements for Freons. Refrigeration is taken for granted to such a degree that you have to think just how pervasive and wide spread the Clean Air Act will affect all of us. A/C units in the home and office, your refrigerator at home, water fountains (scuttlebutts), soda machines, and the A/C in your car are just a few. The Freon R-12 has probably the biggest impact and is the first refrigerant the Navy and private industry have tackled to find an acceptable alternative. Dow Chemical has developed HFC-134a as a replacement for R-12 and the Navy has selected it as the refrigerant of choice to convert all R-12 AC&R plants onboard ships. It was successfully tested aboard USS DEWERT (FFG-45) and USS MOUNT HOOD (AE-29) as a replacement for R-12 and, now, these two ships are completely free of R-12. HFC-134a is a hydrofluorocarbon, HFC, (not a chlorofluorocarbon). This refrigerant is already being marketed in commercial refrigerators and as the refrigerant in use in the air conditioning systems of 1995 new car models on the market. The major car manufacturers will be coming out with conversion kits for pre-1995 cars, but local dealers have not been able to provide distribution or cost data for these conversions. It is estimated that an air conditioning conversion from Freon to HFC-134a may cost about $800 per unit. The replacement of a complete air conditioning system with a Freon-free refrigerant like HFC-134a will cost more than $1000. Even the cost of continuing to use R-12 instead of converting will rise from about $1.50 per pound to $1.00 an ounce. 4-47 June 1996

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HFC-134a has similar physical and heat transfer properties as the Freon R-12, yet it has an ozone depleting potential (ODP) of zero since it does not contain chlorine. It has a composition of CH 2FCF3 with a molecular weight of 102 grams per mole as compared to R-12s weight of 120.9 grams per mole. It boils at -15F and requires 93.4 BTU/lb of latent heat to vaporize. R-12, on the other hand, has a boiling point of -21.6F and its latent heat of vaporization is 71 BTU/lb. HFC-134a requires a compression ratio of 4.7, while R-12 needs 4.1. HFC-134a has low toxicity. At ambient temperature and pressure it is nonflammable. However, in the presence of 60% air content, it becomes combustible at pressures greater than 5.5 psig and temperatures above 350F. Yet, as long as it is at ambient temperatures with pressures less than 15 psig, any concentration of HFC134a is safe in air. HFC-134a is still heavier than air and has the potential to kill by displacing air. Like Freon, it decomposes at high temperatures from flames or electric heaters. It becomes toxic under these conditions and produces irritating compounds like hydrogen fluoride (HF) gas. These may manifest themselves as pungent odors that irritate the nose and throat. A replacement for R-114 has recently been identified. HFC-236fa appears to present the best suitability and is very similar in chemical and physical characteristics. York is in the process of developing a conversion kit for the centrifugal air conditioning compressors and systems. It is anticipated that a target of FY-98 has been established to commence R-114 conversion to HFC-236fa in CG-47 class ships with a completion about FY-08. Other Freons used in the Navy will be phased out with decommissionings as is the case with R-11 or will be replaced with commercially available equipment as with sealed package units. For example, R-113 is used as a solvent and, currently, two possible alternatives are being tested: HCFC-225 and HCFC-141b.

Equipment and System Modifications

HFC-134a testing has identified specific changes to modify R-12 refrigeration plants. These are necessitated because HFC-134a has slightly different physical and heat transfer characteristics. The following modifications are required to accept HFC-134a aboard ship:

Replace the TXV. Add a crankcase oil cooler and control devices. Change lubrication oil to polyolester (POE). A molecular-sieve dehydrator (vice alumina) must be used. Larger fans must be added and some valves replaced. Some compressors may need to be replaced or to have their speeds changed.

Air conditioning plants require similar changes as refrigeration plants and are summarized below:

Change the lubrication oil to POE. Add a lube oil cooler and control devices. Add crankcase heaters. Modify capacity controls and oil filter. Install vibration eliminators.

The conversion to synthetic POE oils requires different JOAP/NOAP testing criteria than the currently utilized VV-L-825 oils in R-12 plants. Synthetic POE (Castrol SW68) has a higher initial acidity than VV-L-825 oils. POE oils are hygroscopic in nature. (Hygroscopic substances tend to absorb or attract water from air.) [See NSWC SSES PHILA 091940Z JUN 94] NSWC SSES PHILA 171600Z NOV 93 announced that current refrigerant leak detectors are not compatible with HFC-134a. The Yokogawa Model H10N has been identified as a suitable portable, hand-held

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monitoring device for not only HFC-134a, but additionally detects R-12 and R-22. The Yokogawa detector is authorized for earliest replacement. Its stock number is 4940-01-368-6535 and its APL is under development. Efforts at upgrading permanently-installed halocarbon monitors aboard ship were discussed on Page 4-41 as promulgated in COMNAVSEASYSCOM 011128Z FEB 95.

HFC-134a Conversion Plan

Carderock Division NSWC SSES Philadelphia is the lead activity in scheduling and performing a ships conversion from R-12 AC&R systems to HFC-134a. These conversions are being done as alteration installation teams (AITs). All conversions are performed coincident with a ships depot-level availabilities, usually during SRAs. No ships which are scheduled for decommissioning shall be converted. There are 495 refrigeration plants on surface ships to be converted. About one week is required to convert each refrigeration plant. The current R-12-to-HFC-134a conversion plan for refrigeration systems is divided into four groups: Group I are minor changes on surface ships. Group II consists of surface ships with major modifications to the compressor and condenser. Submarine conversion beginning in FY-97 consists of Group III. The scheduling of MSC ships is still under negotiation as part of Group IV. 328 R-12 air conditioning units on surface ships require conversion to HFC-134a. Each A/C unit conversion consists of primarily mechanical modifications and will take between one and three weeks. The surface ship conversion plan is broken down into four parts as follows: LSD-41s and some FFG-7s. AEs, AOE-1s, CVN-65, and LSD-36s. AO-177s, ARS-50s, and LPDs. Group of special requirements including MCMs and MHCs.

AC&R Technician Training

The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has been tasked with coordinating compliance with the Clean Air Act. One of these requirements is that, as of 14 November 1994, all personnel who perform maintenance on AC&R equipment must be EPA-certified. Two CNET messages discussed the Navys plan to train the Navys AC&R maintenance personnel to meet compliance with the EPAs certification requirements. (See CNET 271400Z APR 94 and CNET 021402Z MAY 94) These established a two-day certification course with testing at 10 sites throughout CONUS using CNETs video teleconferencing system. The sites were Dam Neck, Norfolk, Newport, Charleston, Mayport, Ingleside, San Diego, Treasure Island, Bangor, and Great Lakes. Priority was given to operational units to certify their AC&R personnel currently onboard at these sites. CNET then added a technician CERTEST Program to allow shipboard training and testing of AC&R personnel to meet EPA certification. It was authorized for all who desired to be certified, but mandatory for previously trained AC&R technicians but not EPA-certified. CERTESTing was ceased by CNET 2112300Z NOV 94, but is still available on a case basis from CNET. In fact, all SURFPAC ships, MCMRON 3, CV-62, CV-64, and AS-33 have exemptions. CERTESTs are provided on encrypted discs which generate and grade the examinations. Multiple tests may be taken without request. A ship must establish security for these CERTESTs similar to enlisted rating examinations. Strict "to-the-letter" compliance is required. A maximum of three examination proctors can be 4-49 June 1996

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assigned with data base access. Requests for the CERTEST package should be submitted to the TYCOM via the ships ISIC. CNET will provide a VTT training file on disc upon request. There are three levels or types of certification based on the amount and pressure of the refrigerant charge:

Type 1 - For servicing high pressure systems with less than 5 lbs of refrigerant charge as measured at the evaporator or water chiller. Small package units fall in this category. Type 2 - For servicing high pressure systems with greater than 5 lbs of charge. Shipboard AC&R systems using R-12, R-114, and HFC-134a refrigerants require Type 2 technician certification. Type 3 - For servicing low pressure (R-11) air conditioning systems.

All graduates of the Navys AC&R schools must be EPA-certified. Those students attending AC&R school having trouble becoming certified receive remedial instruction until they achieve EPA-certification. They are not allowed to execute their orders to their ultimate duty station and nor are they awarded the NEC. AC&R school graduates with NEC 4291 for surface AC&R technicians are awarded universal EPA-certification to work on all three types of equipments. Submariners with NEC 424X are certified to work on Type 1 and 2 equipment.

Management of ODSs
The CNO has promulgated the Navys Environmental and Natural Resources Program Manual (OPNAVINST 5090.1B of 1 November 1994). Chapter 6 establishes the Navys management policy to control ozone depleting substances (ODSs) until the Navy is CFC-free. It superseded OPNAVINST 5090.2A of 14 July 1994 and reiterates all previously provided information on CFCs and requires specific actions for all command levels in the Navy. For Commanding Officers afloat it requires: Reporting ODSs procured outside the Navy Stock System annually to NAVSUP. Implementing ODS procurement guidance. Ensuring ODSs are on the "authorized HM use list". Establishing procedures to reduce ODS emissions. Providing resources to train personnel. Submitting waiver requests to CNO (N-4) via the chain of command.

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ODS Advisories
In order to support the CNOs policy on ODS management and for consistent promulgation of issues and procedures, COMNAVSEASYSCOM (SEA-03V2) has commenced an advisory system which are coordinated with Echelon II commands and approved by CNO (N-45). Here is a list of active ODS Advisories thus far:

Advisory No.
95-01 96-01A 96-02

Date
2 Oct 95 6 May 96 8 Feb 96 ODS Supply Support

Subject
Mission Critical Applications of Class I ODSs

Refrigerant Leak Repair and Record Keeping

ODS Advisory 96-02 is not applicable to ships, only to shore facilities. However, with the release of CNO 051558Z JUN 96, N-45 has directed NAVSEA develop procedures for ships consistent with EPA requirements to minimize leaks, expedite repairs to systems in excess of leak criteria, and develop a record management system to document repairs and inadvertent discharges. Even though the CNO has declared Naval vessels to fall within the exempting conditions for military uniqueness, we will continue to manage our systems and control refrigerants to the spirit of 40 CFR Part 82. The message says two other important things: (1) Even if your ships AC&R systems have been converted to a non-ODS refrigerant, like HFC-134a, you are required to comply with the same procedures as ships with ODS refrigerants. (2) If your ship is approached by federal, state, or local governmental officials to inspect your equipment or records, they are to be denied access. A routine message report must be sent to CNO (N-45) informing the chain of command of the request. You can expect some record keeping and leak repair procedures to be promulgated similar to the guidelines listed in the paragraphs below: Naval personnel receiving EPA-certified training must have proof of technician certification. This shall take the form of certificates entered into the individuals training folder. Technicians shall carry wallet-sized cards of certification. Page 13 entries shall suffice for enlisted AC&R technicians completing EPA-certification. Specific records shall be maintained when service is performed on AC&R systems which contain greater than 50 lbs of refrigerant. IMA and shipyard personnel shall provide the ships Engineer Officer with proof of their certification prior to performing any maintenance. Maintenance documentation shall include the date and type of service and the amount of refrigerant added or removed from the system. Technicians servicing their own commands systems shall record date and type of service, the amount of refrigerant added or removed, and the quantity of refrigerant drawn from supply. These maintenance records shall be reviewed and inspected monthly by a designated engineering department officer. All of these records shall be retained for a minimum of three (3) years. All attempts to eliminate refrigerant leaks on systems containing greater than 50 lbs of refrigerant within 30 days of discovery is mandatory. For A/C systems, repairs must be made when the annual leakage rate exceeds 15% of the total system charge. Leaks in refrigeration systems must be repaired when the annual rate is greater than 35% of the total charge. If the leaks cannot be corrected within 30 days, the command must develop a plan to retrofit or retire the affected system within one year. The leakage rate is based on an annual criteria, not on the amount which leaks in one year. If a 100lb A/C system leaks 1.5 lbs of the refrigerant in 1 month, this equates to an 18% annual rate. It, therefore, must be repaired in 30 days according to this leak repair policy.

Some examples of refrigerant charges in A/C systems are: 4-51 June 1996

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A CG-47 200-ton A/C plant has a charge of 775 lbs of refrigerant. Each of the four DDG-51 plants is charged with 560 lbs of refrigerant. There are 950 lbs of refrigerant in one of the 300-ton A/C plants in LHD-1 class ships.

In comparison, a DD-963s refrigeration system has a capacity of 1.5 tons. It has a refrigerant charge of

Navy Points of Contact

To assist senior level managers, some points of contact are provided below. Overall CFC Program Management: CNO (N-45), Ms Catherine Cyr, DSN 332-5335. Technical Issues: NAVSEA (SEA-03V24), Mr. Joe Thill, DSN 332-0928 (X242). HFC-134a MACHALT Installation Scheduling: NSWC SSES Phila (Code 1651), Mr. Vincent Cancila, DSN 443-1417. HFC-134a Technical Issues: NSWC SSES Phila (Code 9213), Mr. Mike McGovern or Mr. V. DiFillipo, DSN 443-7211. HFC-134a Leak Detectors: NSWC SSES Phila (Code 9533), Mr. J. Winard, DSN 443-8783. Training: CNET (Code 3213), LT K. Searles, DSN 922-3084. Course Quota Control: CNSL (N-434A1), LT Martin, DSN 564-5319 and CNSP (N-821A), OSC(SW) Allvord, DSN 577-3120. General CFC and Halon Information: Navy Clearinghouse, Mr. Peter Mullenhard, (703) 769-1889 and FAX (703) 769-1885.

Troubleshooting
The most common AC&R problems with remedies are described below.

High compartment temperature

Ice buildup around the evaporator coils will reduce heat transfer from the space to the Freon. Defrosting (hot gas bypass) may be necessary when the compressors are lightly loaded and the box temperatures are rising. The checklist in Appendix K to NAVSUP Publication 486 contains an area for inspection that no ice is allowed to accumulate more than 1/4 in thickness on the interior surfaces of the freeze box or on coils. There needs to be adequate movement of air past the cold coils throughout the space. If boxes are piled in front of the coils, you may get food spoilage in a distant corner. Supply Department personnel should maintain proper food stowage to optimize air circulation in the boxes. Any one of four inoperative automatic controls can stop Freon flow in a refrigeration system: thermostat, liquid line or king solenoid valve, TXV, and evaporator pressure regulator valve.

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High compressor discharge pressure (short-cycling on the high pressure switch)

Air in the system can raise system pressure. Check for leaks. Insufficient sea water flow raises the temperature in the condenser, which raises the pressure because of saturation conditions. Check the water regulating valve (WRV) setting and check the sea strainer for clogging. Dirty condenser tubes reduce heat transfer and raise temperature and pressure in the condenser. Clean the condenser tubes. An overcharge of Freon in the system will increase system pressure.

Low compressor discharge pressure

Excessive cooling water flow will lower temperature and therefore pressure in the condenser. Check the WRV. Liquid refrigerant flooding back to the compressor will reduce discharge pressure (it could also damage the compressor). Liquid floodback is caused by either a faulty TXV or a leaking hand expansion valve (HXV). If your TXV is bypassed and the HXV is being used, then operators must closely monitor the system to ensure there is no floodback. The amount of superheat (which controls floodback) is an adjustment that must be set on the TXV. Worn compressor valves and piston rings will also reduce output. This may also result in refrigerant contamination of lubricating oil.

High compressor suction pressure

Too much refrigerant being passed by the TXV will raise suction pressure. The solution is again, checking the TXV setpoint. Low compressor suction pressure (short-cycling on the low pressure switch) Low refrigerant charge will cause low suction pressure. A restricted flow of Freon will also cause low suction pressure. Restrictions can be caused by incorrectly set TXVs, malfunctioning solenoid valves and clogged Freon filters.

Dehydration
Wilted lettuce is caused by dehydration. Dehydration is caused by low dew points. Low dew points are caused by using Freon which is too cold. Using Freon which is too cold for the particular application will maintain box temperatures satisfactorily, but will lower humidity. The most common cause of this condition is an incorrectly adjusted evaporator pressure regulator valve (EPRV). By increasing the pressure of the Freon, the boiling point is raised, which in turn raises the dew point in the space.

Food storage
Ice accumulation will retard the heat transfer characteristics of the coils in the freeze box resulting in higher than normal freeze box temperatures (i.e., greater than 0F). This will cause the refrigeration compressor to operate harder and longer to try and reduce the temperature to where it is supposed to be. 4-53 June 1996

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Hot gas defrosting will eliminate ice, but any rapid return of the ice may be symptomatic of other causes like too frequent box entry raising air humidity or leaking door seals allowing humid air entry even with the door closed. Overstuffing, or overstocking freeze and chill boxes with food will inhibit air flow within the box reducing the capability to keep the box temperature at set point. NAVSUP Publication 486, Volume I, entitled Food Service Management, and NAVMED P-5010-1 stipulate that no less than 4 inches shall be allowed between food stacks and the bulkheads or evaporator coils. NAVMED P-5010-1 also states that there shall a minimum vertical distance of 6 inches between the top of food stacks and the ventilation ducting. NAVSUP Publication 421, Food Service Operations, requires a 2-inch separation or space between the box deck and the bottom of the stack in which is installed floor grating. All of these measures are used to guarantee minimum required air flow for proper heat transfer to occur. Checklists for inspection of food service and storage areas are contained in Appendix K to NAVSUP Publication 486. Foods in chill boxes can be made to deteriorate (ripen) more slowly by using ethylene absorber blankets. Attaching these 10-lb blankets to ventilation ducts in the chill boxes will remove the ethylene gas that fresh fruits and vegetables (FFV) emit as they ripen and decay. These blankets are available through the stock system (NSN 6850-01-303-1336) at a cost of between $70 and $123 per bag. Use of these bags can prolong FFV life by a factor of two or three times. Some submarines have experienced significant increases in lettuce life expectancy by as much as 70 days!

High temperatures in electronics spaces and systems

Insufficient CW or DW flow will reduce the amount of heat removed from the electronics systems being served. Cavitating CW or DW circulating pumps will reduce heat removal capacity. This can be the result of an insufficient positive suction head upstream from the pumps. The expansion tanks may not have enough water charge in the system. The air charge in the tanks may be low. Open vent lines on the expansion tanks will eliminate whatever head is required to maintain pump head and also introduce air.

Troubleshooting summary
Obviously, there are many more possible problems and their associated troubleshooting steps that could be listed here. A complete review of system troubleshooting shows that many problems can be solved with the following five actions: 1. Check the TXV superheat setting. This is the single most common solution to a wide variety of AC&R problems. The TXV controls the amount of superheat out of the evaporator or water chiller and, thus, eliminates the possibility of liquid floodback to the compressor. Check for ice buildup and defrost the coils, if necessary. Check the WRV setting. The water regulating valve controls the temperature of condensation and, therefore, the pressure in the condenser. Check refrigerant level in the system...too much or too little will cause problems. Check filters and strainers for clogging.

2. 3. 4. 5.

Final Exam
Satisfactory completion of the following will put you in good stead with your A Gang:

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1.) Probably the most important component of any AC&R system is the thermostatic expansion valve, or TXV. Explain its operation. 2.) Describe the two modes of operation of refrigeration systems - pulldown and normal, or temperature holding. 3.) Explain the operation of the water regulating valve (WRV)? 4.) Refrigeration systems are designed to operate with sea water supplied ranging in temperature from 28F to 85F. How will your refrigeration system react if your sea water injection temperature is greater than 85F but less than or equal to 95F? What would happen if the sea water temperature rose above 95F? 5.) What is a hot gas bypass? R-114 centrifugal A/C compressors have a hot gas switch in their capacity control systems. Does it perform the same function? What is different? 6.) Ice accumulates on the evaporator coils inside your freeze box. Why? What some operational factors that too much ice will affect? How do you get rid of it? Why is ice bad? How much can you allow to accumulate before you should be concerned? If ice accumulates in your chill boxes, should you be concerned? 7.) Whenever maintenance is performed on your AC&R systems where the system integrity is broken, air will enter the refrigerant loop. Is this satisfactory? What about too much air? What happens to your system operation if too much air enters your refrigerant loop? How do you get rid of the air? Are there any thumbrules or operating criteria to check? 8.) If you get air in your refrigeration system, you will get moisture along with it. Fact. Is moisture in the refrigerant harmful? Are there any components installed to minimize the effects of moisture entrained in your refrigerant? Explain the consequences of too much moisture? How do you know if you have too much moisture? 9.) AC&R compressor lube oil and refrigerants mix quite well. In fact, we want some oil vapor/droplets to be carried throughout our refrigerant loop to help lubricate valves and other moving components. Too much of a good thing can be bad. What are the effects of too much oil in your refrigerant? 10.) What do the NAVMED and NAVSUP manuals say about how food should be stowed in freeze and chill boxes? 11.) A/C and refrigeration system are very similar; in fact, their refrigerant loops are the same - almost. A/C systems have a component called a low temperature cut-out switch or thermostat. What is its function? Why do we need it? 12.) Who are the only people authorized to perform maintenance on your AC&R systems? 13.) Your A/C system has an expansion tank installed in the chill water (CW) loop. Why? What function and purpose does it perform? What would happen to the CW circulating pump if the expansion tank were not charged with LP air to about 35-45 psig? What would happen to the cooling effect of the CW if this occurred?

Commanding Officer Interest Items

Refrigerants
Freons and the new HFC-134a displace oxygen, so they can (and have been) deadly. Being 4 to 6 times heavier than air, they will concentrate in the bilge. In high concentrations, the vapors themselves have an anesthetic effect, causing lack of coordination, shortness of breath, and irregular heart beat. 4-55 June 1996

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Freons and HFC-134a will freeze the skin, or eyes, or any other part of the body that they come into contact with, so personnel protective equipment is necessary when handling them. Open flames will decompose both the Freons and HFC-134a to a toxic gas (like phosgene). All bottles used to store refrigerants should be stored in racks with proper fitting metal collars (as all compressed bottles should be stowed). Manila line used to secure bottles or having a single metal bar securing more than one bottle is not authorized.

Refrigerated and air conditioned spaces

Ripe fruit will generate carbon dioxide, which is colorless and odorless. Concentrations of 6-8% CO2 will cause heart palpitations. Entering a space daily should be sufficient to clear it of CO2. Spaces maintained in the extremes of temperature (too hot or too cold) can have adverse impacts on crew morale and well-being. These conditions can also impact watchstanding responsiveness. Air conditioning boundaries should be maintained at all times. Propping doors open will overwork compressors making routine maintenance more frequent. This also increases likelihood of corrective maintenance. All thats being done is trying to air condition the atmosphere that wasnt designed to be supported by your equipment!

HFC-134a Conversion and ODS management

All your AC&R technicians should be certified through the new EPA guidelines. If your systems have not been converted yet, every attempt should be made to be ready for its installation when it comes. Training, coordination with NSWC SSES Philadelphia and FTSC, ILS support for modified systems, HFC-134a leak detector, etc. Are your Engineer Officer and Supply Officer in compliance with OPNAVINST 5090.2B and other guidance (like ODS Advisories) to manage ODSs? What procedures have your Engineer Officer and A Division Officer implemented to document all maintenance actions on AC&R systems? What about repairing leaks? What training has the Engineer Officer incorporated for these new requirements? Is there a well-defined line of responsibility for maintenance of these systems?

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Remember the old SOSMRC adage...

Keep it clean. Keep it cool. Keep it forever!

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