RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

Personal Wellbeing: Refers to an individuals happiness and satisfaction with life. It consists of an individuals fulfilment in terms of satisfying their potential and ensuring their lives are meaningful. Factors that can impact on wellbeing: - Physical; Physical health, fitness, appearance - Socioemotional; Feelings, emotions, relationships, support systems - Spiritual; Religion, beliefs, values and standards - Economic; Income, economic resources, global economy, socioeconomic status - Political; Laws, policies, political beliefs, political climate Needs: Are those things that are necessary for survival and overall wellbeing. E.g. shelter, food, water Wants: Are things that we might like to have but that arent necessary for existence. They are often called acquired needs. E.g. A phone

Needs can be classified as: Primary: Most important needs. Refers to the need of food, liquid and oxygen. Secondary: Refers to wants that are placed on needs. E.g. I am thirsty, I need lemonade. The primary need for liquid is necessary, lemonade isnt the necessary liquid needed to fulfil the need. Secondary needs make life easier- e.g. love, safety, etc.

Needs can also be: PHYSICAL: Related to our body e.g. Sleep, food, water, exercise etc SOCIAL: Being with other people, having friends etc Belonging is an important social need. EMOTIONAL: Feeling security, love & support. CULTURAL: Understanding who you are, where you come from. SPIRITUAL: Believing in something in order to live a fulfilling life.

Lower order needs are those satisfied internally, as higher order needs are those satisfied internally.

Maslows Hierarchy of Needs

Physiological needs: The primary needs of food, liquid and oxygen for maintenance of the human body. According to Maslow, these biological needs are essential and need to be fulfilled before less crucial needs are satisfied. Safety needs: The needs that ensure an individual is secure in their surroundings. Includes security and protection. Needs for belonging: The needs that ensure an individual obtains love, affection and a sense of acceptance. Includes affection, belonging, acceptance and friendship. Needs for esteem: The needs that relate to self-worth and self-respect. These needs stem from a human desire to feel confident and valuable within themselves and their surroundings. Includes selfrespect and status. Needs for self-actualisation: The needs that can be identified when essential needs have been fulfilled. They stem from what a person is lacking and focuses on the capabilities of an individual Satisfying needs and wants: Gender: Males and females fulfil needs in different ways. E.g. males may find it more difficult to satisfy their emotional needs than females. Education: Individuals can obtain knowledge that enables them to be financially independent, making it easier to fulfil specific needs and wants Economic status: Individuals may be limited (through their financial status) to fulfil their basic needs and wants. Culture: An individuals values and beliefs will affect their development of needs and wants. Geographic Location: Someone living in an isolated area, or living with a disability, may have limited access and opportunity to fulfil their needs and wants.

Resources: Those things we use to achieve our goals. They are things we can use to meet needs and want in order to enhance our wellbeing. Classification of resources: Economic and non-economic resources: Economic resources are those that can be measured monetarily. They include natural and man-made resources that have monetary value attached to them. E.g. land, gold, vehicles Non-economic resources are those that cannot be accurately measured by money and have little relationship to finance. E.g. friends or family Nature of resources: Resources are not found in nature, they are created; Natural resources become so through human interaction and creation. Finite resources are those that can be limited. Finite resources are not renewable. E.g. coal, water, etc. Infinite resources are those that are renewable. Infinite and renewable resources are those that can be reused, rejuvenated, regrown or replaced. E.g. oxygen, energy (sun, solar power). Human and non-human resources: Human resources refer to the skills and abilities that individuals possess. E.g. knowledge, energy, skills, etc. Non-human resources are those that are not life. E.g. table, chairs, books, etc. Formal and informal resources:

Formal resources are resources that are provided to enhance wellbeing. E.g. a specialist in their field such as a psychologist. Informal resources refer to the resources available within an individuals microsystem. E.g. advice from friends.

Interchangeability and sustainability of resources Interchangeability Refers to the exchange of resources for goods and/or services. Strategies for interchangeability: - Local: A local farmer providing vegetables to another farmer in exchange for chicken eggs - National: QLD gives NSW a tonne of bananas for a tonne of mangoes. - International: Australia gives live animal stock to Indonesia for money.

Sustainability Refers to the effective and efficient use of resources to ensure they are available for future use. Strategies: - Local: Recycling of rubbish - National: Melting down recycled cans to form ingots - International: Reducing the use of coal energy and using solar wind, nuclear energy and hydroelectricity.

Values Values are those things that are important to us. They are the principles an individual and group considers important. People follow specific values because they believe them to be desirable and beneficial to their own standard and quality of life. They are variable. E.g. loyalty to friends or honesty in relationships.

Standards: Standards are the measurement of how well we achieve our goals. They are socially constructed reference points that individuals and groups judge, and are judged by. People are measured by the standard they live and dont live up to. Standards include laws and policies that must be followed such as the AntiDiscrimination Act. E.g. declaration of materials via customs when leaving and returning Australia.

Goals Goals are those things we want to achieve. Short-term goals are those expected to be accomplished in a small period of time, particularly days and weeks. E.g. completing your homework each night. Long-term goals are those that are expected to be accomplished in a longer amount of time. E.g. gaining a HSC. Long-term goals rely on short-term and intermediate goals. They require careful planning and monitoring. Intermediate goals fall in between short and long-term goals. E.g. improving your assessment ranks from one task to the next.

Individual and group goals Individual Individual goals are personal goals, they recquire focus and dedication, as the motivation must come from within. E.g. getting over 80% in an English exam.

Group Group goals are those set out and achieved by a group of individuals who have the desire for a similar outcome. They usually consist of a number of individual goals. E.g. to complete a group project on values and standards (group goal), individuals may have their own tasks (individual goals). These goals may also be a source of conflict.

Communication Verbal: Involves the use of written and spoken words. Can be split into oral and written communication. Oral is voice-based communication (phone, face to face) and is based on vocal elements such as pitch, volume speed and clarity. Written is text base communication (email, messaging) and depends on various textual elements such as writing style, vocabulary, grammar and language.

Non-verbal: Involves the use of body language (gestures, postures, facial expressions)

Aggressive communication: When one fails to recognise the views of feelings of others. It is one sided. It is based on manipulation.

Assertive communication: The ideal form of interaction. Assertive communication is based on natural expression. Focuses on clear and straightforward communication.

Passive communication: Based on avoiding confrontation. Focuses on minimal communication with the purpose of staying away from arguments and disagreements.

Characteristics of effective communication When speaking: - Maintain eye contact - Use suitable body language - Appropriate use of silence - Use comfortable silence - Ensure understanding - Summarise major point/s When listening: - Encouragement - Asking fitting questions

Characteristics of ineffective communication When speaking: - Avoiding eye contact - Inappropriate/unrelated body language - No silence or pauses - Not summarising major point/s When listening: - Lack of encouragement - Asking irrelevant questions

Barriers to communication Age: Young people and elderly may have difficulty communication due to age. Disability: May have difficulty expressing themselves through language and/or may not be able to access/use communication technology. Socioeconomic status: Individuals with a low socioeconomic status may also have limited access to communication technologies. Language: Language should be appropriate to the audience (complexity of words and phrases. If inappropriate language is used, audience may not understand the message being conveyed. Assumptions: It wont be affective to assume that the audience knows the same information as you or has the same level of understanding about certain topics. Noisy transmission: There may be noise that disrupts the messages being communicated. Through oral communication, there may be physical noise that inhibits listening, or even with phone lines and internet connections which drop out and/or distort (alien) messages. Distrusted source/errors: There may be errors or incorrect information being communicated depending on the source.

Managing barriers to communication: essential Cs of effective communication and active listening ESSENTIAL CS: Completeness Conciseness Clear Concrete Courteous Correctness

Information should contain enough facts and figures to express accurate meaning. Information should be succinct and to the point, to avoid overloading the receiver. Information should be simple to understand. Information should be grounded in facts and not based on assumptions. It is important to be considerate of the topic and the receiver/s. Information should be confirmed and verified.

Five key elements of active listening: Pay attention Recognise the message, even if you disagree. Show you are Use non-verbal communication to convey your understanding. E.g. nod, listening smile. Provide feedback Personally reflect on the messages being conveyed to ensure your understanding. If feasible, ask suitable questions to illuminate specific points. Defer judgement Dont interrupt the speaker whether it is to ask questions, to comment or to argue against them. Respond Show consideration of the speakers messages and be respectful in your appropriately response. Levels of communication: Intrapersonal communication Relates to the internal communication that a person possesses. The individual is the sender and receiver E.g. daydreaming, talking to yourself and writing to yourself.

Interpersonal communication Relates to external communication between individuals. The sender and receiver of information are separate people. E.g. talking face to face speaking on the phone and sending emails.

Public/mass communication Relates to the messages that re produced and transmitted to large groups of individuals. This form of communication is usually transmitted through the mass media, including mediums such as TV, radio and newspapers.

The four principals of intrapersonal communication: 1. It is inescapable 3. It is complicated 2. It is irreversible 4. It is contextual Communication is influenced by the following: Disclosure Trust Bonding Relates to the revealing of information. E.g. how much information the sender is disclosing to the receiver. Relates to the reliance a sender places on a receiver, in terms of character. Relates to the relationship between the sender and receiver, i.e. the emotional affiliation that exists

Building and maintaining relationships through communication Communication skills that helps build caring and positive relationships: Skill Description How it improves communication Involves non-verbal communication Allows you to get your message across. skills such as maintain eye contact, Improves communication and enhances showing interest in what is being said relationship because both parties feel Active listening and displaying positive body language. like theyre being heard Keeping it fair and arguing your point. Is Less disputes (physical and verbal when you argue a belief without letting abuse) emotions getting out of hand. Allows both parties to control emotions Arguing constructively and consider both sides of argument without blame Can be performed by remaining alert A good communicator can anticipate and calm, controlling your emotions prevent conflict where possible and behaviours and being aware of and When conflict is handled appropriately Conflict resolution respectful for differences. it provides the opportunity for growth and enhanced communication Being empathetic Being empathetic means that a person Empathy is reflected in communication is able to respect the rights, feelings, through verbal and non-verbal means beliefs and opinions of another person. Allows people to become more caring

Interviews as a research method Structured interviews As the name suggests, have a framework that is determined before you begin. Questions have been set out in advanced and not vary from one respondent to another. Features: - Formal feel - Structured and ordered questions - Location and time are planned - Prior research has been performed - Responses can be restricted

Unstructured interviews Are extremely flexible, often with room for further discussion. However, it can be difficult to compare information from one source to another. Features: - Informal feel - Questions are less structured and can be impulsively created in response to previous answers - The interview has more flexibility in shaping and changing the interview - Can be time consuming or travel off-topic due to lack of structure

Advantages and disadvantages of interviews Advantages - In depth info can be attained - Direct answers from the source - Reliable source - Can collect both quantitative and qualitative data - Flexible to suit direction of interview

Disadvantages - Can be time consuming, compared to other methods of research - Can become stressful for both parties - May become subjective or bias - Difficult to compare result/responses - Recquires a thorough recording method - Needs a suitable location as it is face to face

Constructing, conducting and recording responses Constructing Conducting Effective planning and preparation for an Consider who will be interviewed. interview is essential. Then introduce yourself to the Consider what it is that you hope to interviewee and explain the achieve. Plan the interview; it should have purpose of the interview. a logical flow. Effective ways to conduct an Developing interview questions: interview: - Ensure your questions arent - Ask one question at a time ambiguous - Be as objective as possible - Ensure they have a purpose - Be wary of non-verbal - Avoid assumptions communication - Be concise - Control the interview - Only include relevant questions

Recording Ways: - Written: Take notes as the interviewee responds. - Audio: Use a tape recorder to record verbal responses that you can develop into a transcript. - Video: Use a video camera to record verbal and non-verbal responses.

Decision making as a process Stages/steps: Analysing the problem Recognise the problem and analyse what it involves. The most significant step is defining the reasons why a decision is required. Identify the ways the problem can be solved. Assess the consequences of each of the proposed solutions. Select the most appropriate solution and implement it. Carefully assess the positive and negative outcomes of each alternative Assess if the problem has been solved, identify the positive and negative aspects of the outcome. Assess whether any new problems were created.

Investigating the alternatives and assessing their consequences Choosing and implementing an alternative Evaluating the outcome

Simple and complex problems Simple Are those that can be easily solved without the need for extensive decision making. Such problems are uncomplicated, have few alternatives and minimal consequences. E.g. what to eat for lunch or dinner

Complex Are those that recquire critical thinking and evaluating. Complex problems recquire careful thinking and analysis and investigation into a decision. They can be addressed by using the stages/steps of decision-making. E.g. Buying a car or house

Decision making styles Impulsive Based on spontaneous decision making, decisions are with minimal thought or analysis. Intuitive Based on instinctive decision making, decisions are made based on the character of a person, i.e. their gut feeling about a situation Hesitant Based on cautious decision-making, decision makers are unsure when selecting an alternate Confident Based on positive and certain decision making, decision-makers are convinced of their decision and solve their problem self-assuredly. Rational Based on sensible and reasonable decision-making, decision-makers confront their problem realistically and choose logical solutions.

Factors influencing decision-making Depends on the resources available to the decision-maker. Alternative will differ depending on the available resources. The more complex a problem the more analysis and investigation is required before coming to a solution. The values and attitudes of a person will affect their decision-making and their decision-making style. Past experiences can also affect decision making as individuals can compare precious alternatives and their outcomes. E.g. a family may want to revisit a past destination. An individuals attitude to change can affect decision-making. Someone open to change may be more willing to investigate a range of alternatives compared to someone hesitant of change.

Access to resources Complexity of the problem

Past experiences and personal values

Attitudes to change

Responsibility for decisions Individual Responsibility Group Responsibility When a person makes their own When a group makes decisions decisions together. E.g. What to wear to school E.g. School teachers having a strike on Thursday

Community Responsibility When a community makes their own decisions. E.g. through community groups

Management processes (in achieving goals) Management involves: Planning Organising Implementing Evaluating Involves deciding what outcome is to be achieved and setting specific goals to achieve that outcome. (E.g. the goal/question) Involves putting into place those things that are recquired for the plan to be implemented. (E.g. how to analyse the data) Involves actions. This is the doing stage. (E.g. carry out research methodsinterviews, etc.) Throughout the plan, constant evaluation takes place. This involves assessing the implementation and whether or not the goal was achieved. (E.g. Did I answer the research question?)

Another management model involves: Plan Do Check Act Research the topic, form an action plan and form steps Putting the plan into action. (Access resources, prepare material, etc.) Evaluates that the action plan is working. (E.g. analyse the effectiveness of the utilised resources) When we are satisfied with the action plan we can act to achieve goals. (E.g. Ensure recommendations are applied if necessary.)

Total Quality Management (TQM)

Is both a system and a philosophy. It seeks continuous improvement in the quality of all processes and outputs of an organisation. It is focused on the culture, attitude and organisation of tasks to achieve effective outcomes. Adheres to the following pattern: Total- Participants (i.e. an entire company) Quality- Determination of value, without faults and flaws Management- Systems of management (such as planning organising, controlling and assessing) Characteristics of the TQM model include (QPDOOI): - Quality is the main focus - Participant are dedicated to success - Decisions are based on facts - Ongoing evaluation is performed - Ongoing recommendations are made - Improvement is the main objective

Applying management skills in different contexts Peers Open and honest communication. Respect and value of others beliefs and opinions. E.g. getting your friends from point A to point B next Friday night Family Equal distribution of decision making influence, value of family members beliefs and opinions. E.g. to design a housework roster that considers individual needs and wants School The collaboration of teachers, students, parents and management working together for common goals. E.g. to ensure assessment tasks and home work are completed on time

Work Community

Clearly defined leadership and decision-making roles. E.g. to ensure I reach my workplace targets Value of community members, acceptance of diversity, the operation of democratic systems. E.g. to put in place a community cultural centre

GROUPS AND INDIVIDUALS

FACTORS THAT CONTRIBUTE TO AN INDIVIDUALS DEVELOPMENT Factor Self-esteem Meaning Can be described as how an individual feels about him/herself in terms of self value. Refers to how likely we are to deal ready to take on challenges. Positive impact High self-esteem Increased sense of personal worth or value Know what you are good at and what you can do More likely to take on new challenges Provides a sense of belonging and security Provides an environment that encourages challenge Negative impact Low self-esteem Devalues self and doubts abilities May lack the confidence to try new things May become withdrawn Without peer acceptance the individual may feel lost. Some individuals may take on high risk behaviours in order to be accepted. If food and nutrition needs are not satisfied, there is a failure to thrive May feel a need to live up to expectations May develop attributes that do not promote self-esteem or selfconfidence such as Dads big nose Some social and cultural practices may no longer be seen as relevant

Self-confidence

Peer acceptance

Relates to the willingness to be included and the inclusion and acceptance of others in activities and life experiences. Focuses on the quality of acceptance, not the quantity of inclusion.

Satisfaction of needs

Contributes to an individuals development. Relates to the fulfilment of needs, as covered in Maslows Hierarchy of Needs. Are those aspects that are passed on from one generation to another via the genes.

Heredity

Adequate food, good nutrition provides building blocks for optimum physical development May develop attributes that increase peer acceptance, self esteem and self confidence. E.g. may be a good athlete.

Sociocultural influences

Group belonging

Relates to the influences on individual development associated with society and culture. Social- where we live, what we do and how we interact with others. Culturalthose customs, traditions or aspects of everyday life that we associate with. Refers to the happiness and security an individual feels by being a part of a group.

Transfer of culture from one generation to another, developing a sense of identity, belonging and pride Provides stimulation, provides security and gives status and identity Some environments stimulate and foster individual development

Environment

Refers to the external pressures that influence individual development. E.g. a child growing up in a home that doesnt provide reading material, because the family doesnt value books or reading.

If the individual is removed from the group, they will have to function on their own Some environments can stunt or deprive individuals of what they need to develop

Group formations Reasons for group formation Psychologist Bruce Tuckman described group development through a series of development stages: STAGE 1- FORMING: When individuals join together and form a group. Relationships are developed and responsibilities and tasks are defined. STAGE 4- PERFORMING Group members will work together towards their goals. Dynamics may change, conflict (S2). Locality/geography Gender Shared interest/common goal Security STAGE 2- STORMING Members share their opinions and ideas. Conflict arises and is managed.

STAGE 3- NORMING Standard practises and expectations are developed.

Sexuality Specific need Social interaction Culture

Why groups form Individuals may join groups based on their proximity to group members and group activities, e.g. local youth groups. Individuals may join groups where members are of the same gender as specific to the activity of the group, e.g. womens dance groups. Individuals may join groups with shared interest or common goals, e.g. sports teams or environmental awareness groups. Individuals may join groups that provide safety for those who require it, e.g. Neighbourhood Watch. They may also join groups to support their own safety and security. Individuals may join groups who share the same sexual preference, e.g. Gay and Lesbian Rights Groups. Individuals may join groups based on a particular need, i.e. someone who needs to increase their fitness levels may join an exercise group. Individuals may join groups that help develop social skills and promote relationships, e.g. YMCA or church groups. Individuals may join groups based on their culture and heritage, i.e. Maori groups.

Types of groups Primary and secondary Primary groups are where members have strong, lasting relationships with one another. E.g. family. Secondary groups are those where interaction is less personal and individual involvement in the group is variable. Rather than categorised that emotion, secondary groups are often goal oriented. E.g. family acquaintances.

Temporary and permanent Temporary groups are those that are formed for a specific or limited amount of time. E.g. they form and dissolve as goals are achieved. Permanent groups are those that are formed for an extended period of time. E.g. family.

Formal and informal Formal groups are those that are created to perform certain tasks and assign specific roles to members. E.g. school board. Informal groups are those that occur naturally in response to various situations (social contact or shared interests). E.g. choosing a soccer team in the playground

Characteristics of group members Roles: Those actions or activities we are recquired to do as part of our position in a particular group or organisation. Task-oriented roles Are roles based on achieving the task. Task-oriented members are generally knowledgeable, have common sense, be organised and motivate others. Socio emotional Are based on open and honest communication to ensure efficiency and group cohesion. These members are generally good communicators and are Destructive Those members that are based on destroying group cohesion. They cause negative effects by using behaviours such as avoidance, interrupting,

10

E.g. experts, brainstormers, chairperson, evaluator, etc.

good at solving problems. E.g. peacemakers, encouragers, mediators, etc.

laughing, coughing, making faces, etc. E.g. distractor, victim, blocker, dominator, etc.

Norms, conformity and cohesiveness within and among groups Norm A standard behaviour that is recquired, desired or expected. (Acceptable behaviour that is judged) Conform To act in accordance with prevailing standards, attitudes or practices of a society or a group. (To be/act as others do) Cohesive The force of bringing group members closer together. (Working well together) LEADERSHIP

AKA: Standard, benchmark and criteria AKA: Comply, harmonise and integrate AKA: Strong, relentless, and sturdy.

Assumed

Negotiated

Individual takes on the role without any discussion. E.g. Coach decides on team captains. Advantages: Person selected may have perfect leadership skills, quick and easy Disadvantages: Unfair/bias, not democratic, other people may not have an equal selection When their role is discussed upon. E.g. In elections, public voters elect politicians as leaders. Advantages: Discussed and agreed upon, democratic, everybodys happy Disadvantages: Not all members will agree, needs organisation

Leadership styles Task-oriented Are those who are focused on the task, and are motivated on finishing the job quickly. Autocratic - Task-oriented - Dictate - They are authoritarian - They make decisions for the group - E.g. sports coach instructing individuals to practise individual skills

People-oriented Are those who are focused on building effective relationships within a group. They think about the satisfaction of others. Laissez-faire - People- oriented - Relaxed and laid back - Group controls the decisions being made - Limited role in developing group identity and notions of belonging - Limited influence on group members - E.g. sports coach allowing highly skilled team members to develop tactics to use in their game

Collaborative - Task + people oriented - Shared style - Work together with others - Values teamwork and effort - Equal - E.g. sports coach brainstorming ideas for skill training

Transformational Those who are highly inspiring and motivational. They provide individual consideration, intellectual stimulation and possess charisma.

Cultural Those who represent the values and standards of specific cultures in their leadership approach. Valued for their ability about change in their community.

Influences on leadership styles Nature of the group The characteristics of groups differ greatly depending on the required tasks and goals of the group. For this reason, the nature of the group largely influences the type of leadership style that is most effective. For example, a group of friends working with disadvantaged children will benefit from collaborative leadership as they will be able to effectively communicate with one other, bounce ideas off one another,

11

Type of task

Nature of the decisions

Gender expectations

Experience of the leader

Culture

yet ultimately look to a leader for advice and support. The type of task also influences the type of leadership that is most effective. For example, tasks that are well prepared and planned would benefit from an autocratic leader who can lead members to complete the tasks according to the plans already in place. Less prepared tasks would benefit from a collaborative leader as strategies can be developed through open communication and group effort. Depending upon the time frame for decisions, different leadership styles are more appropriate. For quick and on-thespot decisions, autocratic leadership is most effective as the leader can make a decision without group involvement on behalf of absent group members. If a decision is less urgent, collaborative leadership can be used to consult members and co Males and females perceive leaders in different ways, and in turn leaders may need to adapt to the expectations placed upon them. For example, a female group member may identify with a female leader and perceive them as strong, influential and capable, where as they may perceive a male leader as dominant and overriding. Conversely, a male group member may perceive a female leader as introverted and passive where as they may perceive a male leader as persuasive and outgoing. A female leader with the gender expectations of being introverted and passive will need to concentrate on being open, unreserved and proactive in their leadership style. Conversely, a male leader with the gender expectations of being dominant and overriding will need to focus on being less commanding and superseding in order to be an effective leader.me to a group agreement. Leaders with previous experience are more likely to effectively lead a group than those with limited to no leadership familiarity. They are also more likely to identify the type of group and task and utilise the most appropriate leadership style than someone with inadequate or small amounts of experience. Every group, whether culturally based or not, has a culture specific to itself. Values and standards are developed within a group influenced by group members personalities, traits, cultural backgrounds, traditions and beliefs. A groups culture is affected by the operations and functioning of the group through its existence. A leader must adopt an effective style that will respect and uphold the cultural traits of the group.

Effectiveness and flexibility of leadership The effectiveness of leadership styles depends on the above-mentioned influences. To be as effective as possible, the internal and external factors affecting leadership must be identified and understood. An effective leader will be flexible in their leadership styles. They will adapt and amalgamate various characteristics of the different leadership styles to use a style most effective to each individual group they lead. Leadership and management roles Leadership and management are interrelated concepts. Whilst leadership refers to the ability to guide, direct and influence people, and management relates to handling and controlling specific tasks, it is uncommon to have leadership without management, and there are various characteristics that overlap between the two concepts.

12

The distinctions between leadership and management Specific to Leadership Specific to Management Managers administer Managers maintain Managers control Managers imitate Managers have a short-term view Managers ask how and when Managers accept the status quo Specific to Leadership Leaders innovate Leaders develop Leaders inspire Leaders originate Leaders have a long-term view Leaders ask what and why Leaders challenge the status quo

Communication networks Wheel Has one person as its focus. All group members send information to this one person. Autocratic leadership.

Chain

Represents a two-way communication network whereby communication flows between each end. Group communication is blocked; middle members can talk to two different sides, however the top and bottom members of the network cannot directly communicate. E.g. small magazine company. Represents a two-way communication amongst those next to each other. Complete group communication is still blocked.

Circle

Channel

Represents unlimited and equal communication between group members. Ensures group members have equivalent power in all decision making situations.

Organisational grapevine

Refers to the type of informal communication networks functioning within groups. AKA unorganised communication, free communication.

Power within groups The term power is used to describe an individual or groups ability to do something. 5 main power bases Coercive Pressures and intimidates. Punish when instructions arent followed or tasks arent completed. Are generally disliked. E.g. salary cut. Referent Try and build effective relationships and connects with the group. They want to be liked and earn respect by members. Expert The power an individual has due to their knowledge and capabilities. Influences the group by passing on knowledge. Rewards Applies their power by rewarding and gratifying members. E.g. pay increase or a

13

Legitimate

promotion. Power that comes with being in the position. E.g. school captain has powers associated with being in an esteemed position.

Group decision-making processes Refers to the process of coming to an agreement or compromise Consensus within a group. This type of decision-making process ensures a decision is supported by an entire group, i.e. if there are opposing individuals; a decision is changed or altered to represent the group as a whole. Dictatorship Refers to one individual who makes a decision affecting an entire group. These individuals can be nominated by their group as the decision- maker, may do so based on their knowledge and expertise or may take it upon themselves to make a decision. Refers to a group of individuals who cast a vote or make an individual choice regarding a decision. The decision is then made based on the majority of people in favour of a specific course of action.

Voting

Observation as a research method Participant Participation observation: researcher takes part in group and observes from within Advantage: more knowledge and better disclosure from members Disadvantage: being bias, not acting normally, influencing group decision and it is time consuming Nonparticipant Non-participant observation: involves researcher observing the group without participating Advantage: researcher is more objective, and it is easier to record Disadvantages: group members actions influenced by knowing they are watched, the researcher may not interact well enough, requires time and patience. Observing can reveal a lot about group dynamics or sociometry.

Sociometric study and models A Sociogram is a useful tool for recording interactions between individuals within a group. E.g. peer group, workplace, and family. Managing conflict Examining conflict: Conflict is a normal part I life it will occur within an individual and between individuals in groups. Causes of conflict Incompatible goals Individual differences/personality: Limited resources: This is a short or long term goal indecision e.g. save money for a new car. A loud individual may cause a shy person to feel threatened. A young single income family may experience conflict when deciding on resource allocation. A partner who suits and watches television in preference to communicating may feel isolated and experience conflict.

Ineffective communication:

14

Varying values: Multiple-role expectations:

Teenagers who value friends may experience conflict when grounded. A working mother may experience conflict in juggling many roles and responsibilities at both work and home.

Mapping conflict to determine the real issue and remove distractions: If individuals are able to reflect on situations or gain the assistance of others to explore the reason of conflict, they may be able to avoid future conflict. Forces of conflict: Constructive: Allows parties to have their say equally May lead to a positive resolution Produces something useful Conflict is seen as an opportunity for better things to come. Can allow greater success of task, greater group cohesion, which can develop improved self-esteem and sense of belonging. Disruptive: Interrupts peoples concentration and focus on a task or goal. Can temporarily have a negative effect on relationships and groups ability to work together. Can lead to increased levels of frustration among group members, which decreases their level of tolerance, and consequently leads to a lack of cohesion. Destructive Causes individuals to stop working together. Communication becomes limited; there is loss of respect and decision not made collaboratively. A conflict is destructive if it negatively affects those involved. If not resolved it can cause anger, fear and resentment. Decreases self-esteem, selfconfidence and affects the groups ability to function.

Resolution and management of conflict: Negotiation: Process of discussion between two or more individuals who seek to find a solution to a common problem. E.g. when a parent and child negotiate pocket money in payment for chores around the house.

Mediation:

Method of conflict resolution carried by an unbiased individual who works with disputing parties to help them improve their communication and analysis of the conflict situation.

Agreement Resolution:

Refers to settlement of conflict or the arrangement or deal the involved parties have agreed upon to manage or minimise the conflict. Refers to the process of resolving a dispute or a conflict by providing the needs of disputing parties.

Conflict resolution outcomes Win-win: Results in all members winning or having their needs satisfied. Outcome is result of using compromise and collaboration as a strategy. Means one/some members win, while others lose. Some members needs are met at the expense of others. Competition and accommodation strategies result in a win-lose outcome; competitors win, accommodators lose.

Win-lose:

15

Lose-lose:

All members lose, or do not have their needs met. Avoidance can lead to this outcome; competition and accommodation can also result in a lose-lose situation. Although, one/some members get what they want, if the group becomes fragmented and further problems arise, then nobody really wins.

Approaches of conflict resolution: Assertive: Stands up for their own rights and consider rights of others Express their needs, ideas and feelings and respect those of others Able to cope with problems and anxiety Have self-confidence and control. Cooperative: Keep in mind the common goal of the group Maintain good relationships with each other Recognises that there is more than one good way of doing something. Passive: Ignore their own rights Supress feelings of anger and resentment Fee helpless and lack self-confidence. Aggressive: Ignore their rights and feelings of others and do not listen to others Are determined to get their own way Manipulate, dominate or humiliate others using threats, nagging and bullying. Have difficulty expressing positive feelings. Case study as a research method: A case study is a detailed investigation of an issue. Data is collected from various sources e.g. newspaper, questionnaire, observation, interviews and reports. About one topic Results are subjective Provided greater evidence of a point.

Advantages Collect information from various sources. Provides greater evidence Generalises about one topic

Disadvantages Limited amount of time time consuming results are subjective

Different research methods include: Interviews, reports, case studies, surveys

16