Pergamon J. Biomechanics, Vol. 29, No. 2, pp. 221.

-234, 1996
Copyright 0 1995 Elsevim Science Ltd
0@21-929o(!n)ooo39-9 Printed in Great Britain. All rights r%wed
M)Zl-9290/96 $15.00 + 00

A MODEL OF BLAST OVERPRESSURE INJURY TO THE LUNG

JamesH. Stuhmiller,* Kevin H.-H. Ho,* Michael J. Vander Vorst,* Kenneth T. Dodd,? Thomas
Fitzpatrick? and Maria Mayorgat
*Applied Science and Engineering Technology Group, JAYCOR, 9775 Towne Center Drive San Diego,
CA, 92121-1999, U.S.A. and tDepartment of Respiratory Research, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research,
Washington, DC, U.S.A.

Abstract-Despitedecades of animalexperiments, data on blast injury to the lung cover only a limited number of
circumstances and are in a fragmented form. This paper develops a mathematical model of the chest wall dynamics
and the subsequent generation of strong pressure waves within the lung, which havebeen hypothesized as the
mediator of injury. The model has been compared to an extensive database of observed pathologies from animal
tests. The incidence of injury and lethality is found to follow a log-normal correlation with the computed total
energy in these waves and, when the energy is normalized by the lung volume, the lethality correlation applies to all
large animal species. Small animals also correlate with the normalized energy, but at a different value, and it is
speculated that structural differences, other than lung volume, may be involved. This relatively simple model
allows the potential for blast injury to the lung to be determined from measured or computed pressure traces
without additional animal testing. Improved occupational exposure criteria should follow from this methodology.
Keywords: Lung; Blast injury; Injury.

INTRODUCTION ducted under the sponsorshipof the U.S. Army Medical

Research& DevelopmentCommandat its BlastTest Site
Violent explosionsproduce blast waveswhich travel at in Albuquerque, New Mexico. The animal testing has
hundreds of meters per secondin air. Primary blast concentrated on a single species,sheep,and careful
injury arisesfrom the overpressureof the wave which measurementsof blast-pressuretime-histories and a
crushesthe body and damagesthe air containing organs comprehensivepathological scoring systemhave been
directly, and other organsindirectly. The military recog- employed. These test results have been compiled by
nizes blast injury as a factor in combat casualty care JAYCOR in electronicformat so that evaluation of in-
(Phillips and Richmond, 1991),but it is in the area of jury patterns and testing of theoretical modelscan be
occupationalexposurewhere it is emergingas a signifi- accomplished.
cant concern. Modern field weaponsuse such highly There have beenseveralhazard estimatesdeveloped
energeticmunitions that their blastscan exceedcurrent (Dodd et al., 1990;Military Standard1474C,1990,White
exposurestandardsresultingin restrictedtraining on the et al., 1971)basedon peak pressureand duration, but
weapons,which is undesirablefor preparing the soldier experiencehasshownthat suchcriteria are very sensitive
for combat. On the civilian front, automobileaccidents to often hard to measuredetailsof the pressuretrace. In
have historically resultedin severehead injury and rib addition to empirical relations,there have been several
fracture, however,soft tissueinjury can occur well before mechanicallybasedmathematicalmodels(Bowen et al.,
it would be expectedbasedon accelerationor compres- 1968;Viano and Lau, 1988)that usea combinationsof
sion tolerances(Viano and Lau, 1988).This soft tissue springs,masses, and dampersto simulatethe responseof
injury bearsa striking clinical resemblanceto blast in- the thorax. Each model has many parameters,someof
jury, suggestingthat similar biomechanicalprocesses which cannot be determinedphysiologicallyand noneof
may be at work. the modelsoffersa mechanisticexplanation of the injury
Most of the animal air blast tests conducted before processitself.Chuong (1985)and Stuhmilleret al. (1988)
1970were concernedwith lethality and are discussed in describea FEM modelthat capturesboth the anatomical
Bowenet al. (1968)and White et al. (1971).Simplewave geometry of the sheepand the wave nature of the lung
forms were considered,but a wide range of peak pres- compression.Regionsof large compressionand tension
suresand durations and a wide rangeof animal species were observedin the vicinity of the tip of the lobes,the
were employed.Clemedsenprovided much of the early heart, and the spinal process.Each of theseare areas
systematicstudiesof blast injuries, including the effects where hemorrhagingis observedin animal tests.Fung
on pulmonary gas exchange(Clemedson,1953),gene- et al. (1988)provided a hypothesisfor injury basedon the
ration of air emboli(Clemedsonand Hultman, 1954),and alveolar responseto the compressionwave generatedby
a generalreview (Clemedson,1956).The most compre- the chestwall motion.
hensivestudiesof blast injury, however,have beencon- Despite decadesof animal experiments,the existing
blastinjury data cover only a limited numberof circum-
stancesand are in a fragmentedform. In this paper we
Received in final form 27 December 1994. present a systematicorganization of these data. The
227
228 J. H. Stuhmiller et a/.

growing military and civilian concernsabout primary lated to the piston velocity time history, has beencon-
blast injury involve so many possiblecombinationsof firmed in tests using a foam lung simulant (Yu et al..
factorsthat the costsof directly evaluatingnewsituations 1990a)and in computational analysesof the lung re-
have becomeprohibitive. Uncertainty about the extra- sponse(Vander Vorst et al., 1989).
polation betweenspeciesfurther cloudsthe applicability Usingthe relationshipconnectingthe chestwall veio-
of animal test results.This paper developsa mathemat- city to the pressurewave generatedin the lung paren-
ical modelthat connectsexternal blast conditionsof the chyma, we can construct a single degree of freedom
chestwall dynamicsand the generationof compression modelfor the pleural surfacedynamicsand derive a for-
waveswithin the lung for a variety of species.A correla- mula for the amount of energydeliveredto the lung. For
tion is madebetweenthe energy density of thosewaves simplicity, we assumethat the thoracic responseto blast
and observedinjury. The resultingformulation can pro- resultsis dominated by the chest wall inertia and the
vide a rational criterion for blast overpressurehazard to external pressureloading, Pioad,so we can ignore the
man. stresses arisingfrom the rib structure. As a corollary, we
assumethat different sectionsof the thorax act indepen-
dently to the external loading. Finally, we ignore the
METHODS effectsof internal reflectionsof the wave on the motion of
the thorax.
Stuhmilleret al. (1991)gave a review of the physicsof
If we apply Newton’slaw to the local thorax surface,
blast and its injury mechanisms. A completeunderstand- imaginingthat the chestwall andlung form a rectangular
ing mustincorporate the complexity of the blast loading
region,seeFig. 1, then weobtain the equationof motion
to the body, the biomechanicalresponseof the body, and
the mechanicalfailure of the tissues.The bioengineering dv
m - = Plead @)--PO 1
approach replacesempirical correlations, that can be dt (
situation and speciesdependent,with modelsthat are
(4)
anatomically and mechanicallycorrect and derive their
parametervalues from direct measurementof material where v is the velocity, x is the displacement,
m is the
properties.An application to the tympanic membraneis mass/chestwall area,and L is the ratio of the volume of
found in Stuhmiller (1989). the lung/chestwall area.The motion of the chestwall can
The motion of the chestwall into the underlying lung be determinedoncethe external blast loading, &,,d(t), is
material resultsin a compressionwave. Clemedsonand given.
Pettersson(1970)were among the first to observelow If the velocity and displacementaresmall,the equation
speedpressurewavesin animalsexposedto blast. The can be linearizedto the form
role of rate-dependent injury mechanismshas been
studied by many researcherssince that time and the
readeris referredto the work of Jonssonet al. (1979)and
other contained in the review by Stuhmiller (1991).Yen Finally, the normalized work, W*, definedastotal work
et al. (1986)quantified the phenomenaby measuringthe done to produce the wave divided by the volume of the
pressurewave through isolated rabbit and goat lung lung and the ambient pressure,can be computed using
and found that the wave speedvariedfrom 31to 64m s-l the velocity found from equation (5):
as the transpulmonary pressure varied from 0 to
20 cm HzO. W* = I= -!m. l; po~,v2&.
Sincethe lung behavesasa compressible material, we POV POL
can use the derivation of Landau and Lifshitz (1959), Injury is causedby a local excessstrain of the tissue,
which relatesthe pressurewave in a compressible gasto whosedetailsare not describedby this model.A correlate
the motion of a piston. The pertinent result is of grosspathology, however,may be related to the aver-

1); >$i 9
age energy dissipatedin the lung tissue, that is, the
P(t)=Po
( l+&- (1) normalizedwork.

wherepo, pO,and c0 are the pressure,density,and speed

of soundin the undisturbedlung, v is the velocity of the
piston, and y is the ratio of specificheats.If the piston
velocity is smallcomparedwith the speedof sound,then
the equationcan be expandedto give the linearizedform
p(t) 2 PO+ POCOV, (2)
where we have usedthe adiabatic relation

Fig. 1. Pleuraldynamicsmodel.Themodelconsiders theforces

(3) on the chestwall dueto the externalblastload,the internal
pressure arisingfromthebulkcompression of thelung,andthe
Relationship(2), that the wave generatedis linearly re- compression wavegeneratedby the chestmotion.
 Model of blast overpressure injury to the lung 229

Assumingthat the anatomical structuresare similar, RESULTS

the variation with speciescan be studiedby considering
variations with body mass.First, we formulate the dy- The extensive observationsof blast injury to sheep
namicsequation in termsof the dimensionless variables made at the Albuquerque test site, have been classified
X and T basedon a time scaler, where based on area1extent: slight (up to 10%); moderate
(lo-50%); and severe(above 50%). Since 1985a thre-
3 T2 x(t) = ; X(T). shold category, trace, has beenadded that denotesthe
z’ appearanceof smallpetechia.Lung weightincreases have
(7) also been recorded and can be usedas an injury marker.
Over 1000 animalshave been recorded in the patho-
The dynamicsequation becomes logy database.The testsconducted vary from free field
exposuresto explosions in rooms and vehicles and
$+2(3+(3X=/(Th (8) simulationsof weaponfire. The blastoverpressuretrace(s)
associated with eachanimalhasbeenstoredelectronically.
where Usingthe measuredpressureloadson all four sidesof
the body in complexblast environments,the normalized
mL
fd = Irr t,= -. (9) work hasbeencalculatedfor eachof the animalsin the
PC ’ J- PO databaseand correlated with observedpathology. To
Using the scalinglawssuggestedin Stahl (1967),we can determine injury incidence relations, the results are
expect both the chestwall massper unit area,m,and the groupedinto normalizedwork ranges,from which statis-
linear dimensionof the lung, L, to vary as Ml”, where tics on the frequencyand extent of injury are computed.
M is the body massof the animal. Inspection of the A log normal correlation of incidence of injury with
equationsabove showsthat if the scalingtime, r, also normalized work can be madefor eachlevel of injury:
variesasM”3, then the dynamicsare independentof the thresholdand greater; slight and greater;moderateand
body mass.That is, all dynamic results,including the greater;and severe(Fig. 3).The probability of occurrence
normalizedwork, will be invariant with body massif the of any injury level can be determined by taking the
time scalesare scaledby the cuberoot of the body mass. differenceof the appropriateincidencecurves.Thesecor-
Sincethe blast wave surroundsthe body, even in the relations form an orderly progressionas normalized
free field, it is necessaryto have a prescription for the work increases.If a particular level of incidenceis con-
distribution of blast loading. For the studiesconducted sidered,say 50%, then the area1extent of injury can be
by WRAIR, a standard Blast Test Device, consistingof determined(Fig. 4).
a cylinder with pressureinstrumentationon each quad- The computed normalizedwork hasalso beencorre-
rant (Yu et al., 1990b),isplacedat the position of the test lated with the total lung weight to body weight fraction.
animal and the loading recorded.The BTD is then re- While this quantity is the gold standardof many pathol-
movedand the test repeatedwith the animalin place.For ogy studies,it is not sensitiveto smallpathologiesunder
those experimentswhere the BTD has been used, the the circumstanceswhere the animalis sacrificedshortly
work generatedin each quadrant is calculatedand to- after exposure.Nonetheless, normalizedwork is an excel-
taled. For those experimentswhere only a single,inci- lent correlate and increasesfrom the uninjured popula-
dencepressurehasbeenmeasured,we assumed that each tion can be detected at levelswhereslightpathologiesare
of the quadrants is acted upon either by the incident first observed(Fig. 5). Also shown is the distribution of
pressureor the reflected value, dependingon the body lung weightfractionsfor the uninjuredpopulation.When
orientation. SeeFig. 2. the 95% rangesare superimposed on the work correlate,
we see that even the highly injured casesare en-
compassed,suggestingthat the scatter arisesfrom the
variation in the animalsbeforeexposure.
PS
pr 0 ps
pS Perpendicular
to Blast DISCUSSION

PS A modelhasbeendevelopedthat providesa meansof

ps
0 ps
ps
Parallel
to Blast
estimatingthe incidenceand severityof injury to the lung
from air blast.The parametersof the modelarephysiolo-
gically identified and measurable,so that resultscan be
pr extrapolated betweenspecies,and injury prediction can
General ‘r
0 ‘r
pr
Near Reflecting
Surface be madefor simpleand complex exposures.The mode1
predictsthe intensity of the compressionwave within the
lung which is believedto be the mediator of injury.
Fig. 2. Pressure loading distribution. When available, the meas- The geometryof the lung and thorax hasbeengreatly
ured pressure loads areused. Whenonly the staticpressure, P.,
ismeasured, thequadrants of thebodyareloadedwith P. or the simplifiedto consideronly the area of applied load and
reflected component, P,, depending on the body’s orientation to the total effectivevolume of the lung. Detailsof internal
the blast wave. wave propagation, interaction with internal organs, and
230 J. H. Stuhmiller et a/.

80

Fig. 3. Correlation of incidence of injury with normalized work [(A) trace or greater; (A) slight or greater;
(0) moderate or greater; and (0) severe]. The occurrence of injury above a certain level follows
a log-normal distribution. The probability of the occurrence of a particular level of injury has a bell-shaped
distribution that depends on the range of pathologies defined by that level and can be found by taking the
difference between the bounding cumulative curves.

1.0

0.9

0.8 m colEplexwawsludiss(1990-1991)
I I I I/lll/ll I dYIIIllI
0.7
c
* 0.6
2
2
s 0.5

0.4
t
*
0.3

0.2

0.1

0.0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Normallad Work

Fig. 4. Correlation of lung are injured with normalized work. The area is determined by averaging the
injured areas of individual animals. Each data point represents a number of test animals, so the vertical
error bars represent one standard deviation of the areas and the horizontal bars represent one standard
deviation of the calculated work.

viscoelastic forces arising from the thorax itself have been from fluid leakage are correlated with the total energy
ignored.Without suchfeaturesit is not possibleto pre- deposited into the compression wave.
diet the specificlocations of injury, however, the gross Viano and Lau (1988)proposeda viscoelasticmodalof
pathology of hemorrhageand the increaseof lung weight thorax forces, whose parameters were selected to capture
 Model of blast overpressure injury to the lung 231

3.5

q FresFiiSWdiis(1991-1991)
z 3.0
x CmplexWave~Sbdii1990&1991
E
s 2.5
-Injurycorreletll(
Mean
)
s
- -- lnjuryConelat~(Mean+3xS.D.)
0”
g 2.0 ----..lnjuryCorrelation(Mean-3xS.D.)
‘s
E
::
5 1.5
P
E
E, 1.0
5
L

3z 0.5

0.0
0.001 0.01

Fig. 5. Correlation of lung weight with normalized work. The increase in lung weight due to fluid leakage
correlates with the normalized work generated by the chest wall motion. The variability of lung weights
seen in control animals, shown as the dotted band, explains the variability seen under injury conditions.

the relatively largeforce-displacementobservedin blunt pond to W* = 2.08,while the smallanimalscorrespond

impact to cadavers.The responsemodelpresentedhereis
basedon forcesgeneratedin the lung and is appropriate
to the relatively small displacementsassociatedwith
blastloading.Viano and Lau alsoproposedasthe corre-
late of injury a quantity VC, which is the maximumof the
product of velocity and compression.They showedthat
for displacement-driven impact tests,the VC and the en-
ergy dissipatedin one of the damperelementsare nearly
equal.For load-driven motion, however,the two quantit-
iesvery differently with the length of the blast pulseand
scaledifferently with body mass.Furthermore, the two
quantities can differ significantly with multiple loading,
depending on the timing of the loads. Both models,
however, sharea key philosophicalperspective:that in-
jury is related to the energy expendedby non-elastic
forcesper organ mass.
White et al. (1971)providesa compendiumof lethality
resultsfrom testsconductedat the Albuquerquetest site.
Unfortunately, the pressuretime-history data have been
lost and only the peak valuesand positive phasedura-
tions have survived.The test wereconductedeither in the
free field, wherean exponentialwaveformwith a negative
phaseapplies(Baker, 1973),or in a shocktube,wherethe
shapetends to be triangular. In the absenceof specific
data, we shall bound our comparisonsby using both
formulations.
The peak pressureand duration data reported in
White et al. (1971)are usedto generatea triangular and
Friedlander wave shape,which are then used in the
dynamic model. For each case,we compute the nor-
malized work. The conditions producing 50% lethality
group into two classes(Fig. 6) the large animalscorres-
to W+ = 0.85.
The Bowen correlation, a fit to the 50% lethality data
in the coordinatesof peakpressureandpositive duration,
hasbeenusedasa standardfor estimatingcombat injury.
It was discoveredthat the data could be collapsedinto
a singlecurve if the time axiswasscaledby the cuberoot
of the body mass.This correlation can be interpreted as
the contour of the more universal criteria, W* = 2.08
[Fig. 7(a)]. A rangedevelopsbecauseof the uncertainty
of whetherthe wave is triangular or Friedlander-shaped.
A similarcorrelationcan beobtainedfor smallanimals
[Fig. 7(b)], but for a value of w* = 0.85. If the bio-
mechanicalstructures were truly similar, one would
expectthe normalizedwork value to be the same.Exam-
ination of the simulationsshowsthat the relative com-
pressionof the chestis much greaterfor lethality condi-
tions than for injury, suggestingthat the viscoelastic
forcesassociatedwith the thorax (ignoredin the model)
may be important. Sincethe larger animalshave a rela-
tively stiffer thorax, the amount of energy transformed
into lung wavesmay be over estimated.The inclusionof
viscoelasticforcesfrom the thorax, asdescribedby Viano
and Lau (1988)for example,and from the lung, as de-
scribedhere,might unify theseresults.
White et al. (1991) further report two effectsof the
pressurewave shapeon lethality. In the first, wavesthat
rise slowly to their peak value have lesslethality than
those characterized by a fast rising shock front. Nor-
malized work decreasessignificantly as the rise time
increases[Fig. 8(a)]. White alsoreports that wavesthat
reach their peak in steps are lesslethal. Again, nor-
malizedwork is decreasedfor steppedwaves[Fig. 8(b)].
232 J. H. Stuhmiller et al.

0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1c

Body waht (kg)

Fig. 6. Normalized work associated with 50% lethality for various species. Vertical bars represent the
uncertainty in the work due to uncertainty in the pressure data. Large and small mammal results group
around values 2.08 and 0.85, respectively.

64 Lvne
pOO
L -Ftiedfnndar 71 10000

----I
-Fh6landw
wave
Wave
.-~~~Triarigle Wave
*---.Ttim@eWava

ODog l fhuse
A &A
A Rat
1000 I

l GuineaPi

0 RabbII

100

1 10
0.1 1 10 loo loo0 loo00 0.1 1 10 loo loo0 loo00

Scaled A-Dumtton = Ta x (70iM)“’ x (Pd14.7)“’ (nmec)

Fig. 7. Blast characteristics producing 50% lethality in the free field. The 50% lethality conditions reported
by Bowen et al. (1968) can be correlated with a single normalized work value for large animals (2.08) and
a single value for small animals (0.85). The differences between large and small animals may be related to
thoracic forces not considered in the current model.

There is little actual data collected,but White inferred
trends of lethality with animal orientation to the blast.
Thosetrendscan be reproducedby the normalizedwork
criterion if the blast load distribution variations with
orientation are taken into account (Fig. 9).
We ooncludethat the compressionwave generatedby
rapid chest wall motion under blast loading is respon-
siblefor the lung pathologiesand lethality seenand that
a predictive correlation can be madebetweenquantitat-
ive measures of injury and the body-mass-weightedtotal
wave energy. Di&rences in smal animal response. and
the need for predicting location of injury suggestthat
inclusionof more of the physiologicalstructure may be
profitably added.
 Model of blast overpressure injury to the lung 233

(a) 3.0 (b) 3.0

2.5 63.1 2.5 63.1

2.0 2.0 47.

f z
P
P
I 1.5 27.6 1.5 27.6 z

E
0 \
* 1.0 9.1 1.0
\

0.5 0.5 0.5

0.0 0.0 0.0

0 12 3 4 5 6 7 0 0 2 4 6 0 10 12 14 16 16 20

Scaled 1, =I;, x(70.0/M)'" (mr) ScaiedT,,,, i5 T,,,.x( 7O.tYNl)‘” (mr)

Fig. 8. Effect of pressure waveform shape on lethality. Confirming trends reported in White et al. (1971), the
injury model predicts that normalized work and lethality are reduced when the pressure wave rises in steps
or rises with a finite slope.

Parallel to Blast

0.1 1 10 100 loo0

A-Duration of Trlrnglr Pressure Wave ( msac )

Fig. 9. Effects of body orientation on lethality. Curves depict conditions that produce 50% lethality levels
in man ( W* = 2.08) for three orientations of the body to the blast. The curves are nearly identical to those
proposed by White et al. (1971).

Acknowledgements-The authors acknowledgethe sup- Bowen,1. G., Fletcher, E. R., Richmond, D. R., Hirsch, F. G. and
oort of the U.S. Army Medical Researchand Develon- White, C. S. (1968) Biophysical mechanisms and scaling-_ pro-
cedures applicable in assessing responses of the thorax ener-
kent Commandunder contract DAMD17-93-C-3005: gized by air-blast overpressures or by nonpenetratina missiles.
Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. i52, 122-146.. - -
Chuong, C. J. (1985) Biomechanical modeling of thorax re-
sponse to blast loading. Final Report Contract DAMD-17-
REFERENCES 82-C-2062. JAYCOR, San Diego, California.
Clemedson, C. J. (1953) Respiratory and pulmonary gas ex-
Baker, W. E. (1973) Explosions in Air. University of Texas Press, change in blast injury. J. Appl. Physiol. 6, 213-220.
Austin, TX. Clemedson, C. J. (1956) Blast injury. Physiol. Rev. 36, 336-354.
234 J. H. Stuhmiller et al.
Clemedson, C. J. and H&man, H. (1954) Air embolism and the
cause of death in blast injury. Milit. Surg. 114, 424-437.
Clemedson, C.-J. and Pettersson, H. (1970) Propagation of high
explosive air shock wave through different parts of an animal
body. Am J. Physioi. 100, 24-30.
Dodd, K. T., Yelverton, J. T., Richmond, D. R., Morris, J. R. and
Ripple, G. R. (1990) Nonauditory injury threshold for repeat-
ed intense freefield impulse noise. J. Occup. Med. 32,260-266.
Fung, Y. C., Yen, R. T., Tao, Z. L. and Liu, S. Q. (1988)
A hypothesis on the mechanism of trauma of lung tissue
subjected to impact load. J. Biomech. Engng 110, 50-56.
Jonsson, A., Clemedson, C. J., Jonsson, A., Clemedson, C. J.,
Sundquist, A. B. and Avvebo, E. (1979). Dynamic factors
influencing the production of lung injury in rabbits subjected
to blunt chest wall impact. Auiat. Space Enu. Med. 50,
325-337.
Landau, L. D. and Lifshitz, E. M. (1959) Fluid Mechanics.
Pergamon Press, London.
Military Standard 1474C (1990) Noise Limits for Army
Material.
Phillips, Y. Y. and Richmond, D. R. (1991) Primary blast injury
and basic research: a brief history. In Textbook of Military
Medicine, Conventional Warfare: Ballistic, Blast and Burn In-
juries (Edited by Bellamy, R. F. and Zajtchuk, R.). Office of the
Surgeon General, Department of the Army, Washington, DC.
Stahl, W. R. 1967. Scaling of respiratory variables in mammals.
J. Appl. Physiol. 22, 453-460.
Stuhmiller, J. H. (1989) Use of modeling in predicting tympanic
membrane rupture. Ann. Otol. Rhinol. Laryngol. 98, 53-60.
Stuhmiller, J. H., Chuong, C. J. Phillips, Y. Y. and Dodd, K. T.
(1988) Computer modeling of thoracic response to blast.
J. Trauma 28, S132-142.
Stuhmiller, J. H.. Phillips, Y. Y. and Richmond, D. R. (1991) Tht:
physics and mechanisms of primary blast injury. In Textbook
of Military Medicine, Conoentional Warfare: Ballistic, Blasr
and Burn Injuries (Edited by Bellamy, R. F. and Zajtchuk, R.).
Office of the Surgeon General. Department of the Army,
Washington, DC.
Vander Vorst, M. J., Dodd, K. T., Stuhmiller J. H. and Phillips
Y. Y. (1989) Calculation of the internal mechanical response of
sheep to blast loading. In Proc. 10th Inr. Symp. on Military
Applications of Blast Simulation (Edited by Reichenbach, H.
and Ackerman, J. H.). Oberjettenber. Germany.
Viano. D. C. and Lau. I. V. (19881 A viscous tolerance criterion
for soft tissue injury assessment: J. Biomechanics 21, 387-399.
White, C. S., Jones, R. K., Damon, E. G.. Fletcher, E. R. and
Richmond, D. R. (1971) The biodynamics of airblast. Tech-
nical Report DNA2738T, Defense Nuclear Agency, Washing-
ton, DC.
Yen, R. T., Fung, Y. C., Ho, H. H. and Butterman, G. (1986)
Speed of stress wave propagation in lung. J. Appl. Physiol. 61,
701-70s.
Yu, J. H.-Y., Ho, H. H. and Stuhmiller, J. H. (1990a) A surrogate
model of thoracic responses to blast loading. Final report for
USAMRDC Contract DAMD17-85-C-5238. JAYCOR. San
Diego, CA.
Yu, J. H.-Y., Vasel, E. J. and Stuhmiller, J. H. (1990b) Design and
field test of a blast overpressure test module. Final report for
USAMRDC Contract DAMD17-85-C-5238, JAYCOR, San
Diego, CA.