DP

Dynamic positioning
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Offshore Support Vessel Toisa Perseus with, in the background, the fifth-generation deepwater drillship Discoverer Enterprise, at the Thunder Horse location. Both are equipped with DP systems. Dynamic positioning (DP) is a system to automatically maintain a ships position and heading by using her own propellers and thrusters. This allows operations at sea where mooring or anchoring is not feasible due to deep water, congestion on the sea bottom (pipelines, templates) or other problems. Dynamic positioning may either be absolute in that the position is locked to a fixed point over the bottom, or relative to a moving object like another ship or an underwater vehicle. One may also position the ship at a favourable angle towards wind, waves and current, called weathervaning. Dynamic positioning is much used in the offshore oil industry, for example in the North Sea, Persian Gulf, Gulf of Mexico, West Africa and off Brazil. Nowadays there are more than 1000 DP ships.
Contents
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1 History 2 Comparison between position-keeping options 3 Applications 4 Scope of dynamic positioning 5 Requirements for dynamic positioning 6 Reference systems o 6.1 Position reference systems o 6.2 Heading reference systems o 6.3 Reference systems 7 Control systems 8 Power and propulsion systems 9 Class Requirements 10 NMD 11 Redundancy 12 DP Operator 13 IMCA 14 References
15 External links
[edit] History
Dynamic positioning started in the 1960s for offshore drilling. With drilling moving into ever deeper waters, Jack-up barges could not be used any more and anchoring became less economical.
Cuss 1 In 1961 the drillship Cuss 1 was fitted with four steerable propellers, in an attempt to drill the first Moho well. It was possible to keep the ship in position above the well off La Jolla, California, at a depth of 948 meter. After this, off the coast of Guadalupe, Mexico, five holes were drilled, the deepest at 183 m (601 ft) below the sea floor in 3,500 m (11,700 ft) of water, while maintaining a position within a radius of 180 meter. The ship's position was determined by radar ranging to buoys and sonar ranging from subsea beacons. Whereas the Cuss 1 was kept in position manually, later in the same year Shell launched the drilling ship Eureka that had an analogue control system interfaced with a taut wire, making it the first true DP ship. While the first DP ships had analogue controllers and lacked redundancy, since then vast improvements have been made. Besides that, DP nowadays is not only used in the oil industry any more, but on various other types of ships. In addition, DP is not limited to maintaining a fixed position any more. One of the possibilities is sailing an exact track, useful for cablelay, pipelay, survey and other tasks.
[edit] Comparison between position-keeping options

Other methods of position-keeping are the use of an anchor spread and the use of a jack-up barge. All have their own advantages and disadvantages. Comparison position-keeping options
Jack-up Barge
Anchoring
Dynamic Positioning
Advantages:
No complex systems with thrusters, extra generators and controllers. No chance of running off
Advantages: Advantages: No complex systems with Manoeuvring is excellent; it thrusters, extra generators is easy to change position. and controllers. No anchor handling tugs are No chance of running off required. position by system failures or Not dependent on waterdepth.
position by system failures or blackouts.

blackouts. No underwater hazards from thrusters.
Quick set-up. Not limited by obstructed seabed.
No underwater hazards from thrusters.
Disadvantages: No manoeuvrability once positioned.
Limited to water depths of ~150 meters.
Disadvantages: Limited manoeuvrability once anchored. Anchor handling tugs are required. Less suitable in deep water. Time to anchor out varies between several hours to several days.
Disadvantages: Complex systems with thrusters, extra generators and controllers. High initial costs of installation. High fuel costs. Chance of running off position by system failures or blackouts. Underwater hazards from Limited by obstructed seabed thrusters for divers and (pipelines, seabed). ROVs.
Higher maintenance of the mechanical systems.
Although all methods have their own advantages, dynamic positioning has made many operations possible that were not feasible before. The costs are falling due to newer and cheaper technologies and the advantages are becoming more compelling as offshore work enters ever deeper water and the environment (coral) is given more respect. With container operations, crowded ports can be made more efficient by quicker and more accurate berthing techniques. Cruise ship operations benefit from faster berthing and non-anchored "moorings" off beaches or inaccessible ports.
[edit] Applications
SBX underway Important applications include:

Servicing Aids to Navigation (ATON) Cable-laying
Crane vessels Cruise ships Diving support vessels Dredging Drillships FPSOs Flotels Landing Platform Docks Maritime research Mine sweepers Pipe-laying Platform supply vessels Rockdumping Sea Launch Sea-based X-band Radar Shuttle tankers Survey ships
[edit] Scope of dynamic positioning

A ship can be considered to have six degrees of freedom in its motion, i.e. it can move in any of six axes. Three of these involve translation:

surge (forward/astern) sway (starboard/port) heave (up/down)
and the other three rotation:

roll (rotation about surge axis) pitch (rotation about sway axis) yaw (rotation about heave axis)
Dynamic positioning is concerned primarily with control of the ship in the horizontal plane, i.e. the three axis surge, sway and yaw.
[edit] Requirements for dynamic positioning

A ship that is to be used for DP requires:

to maintain position and heading, first of all the position and heading need to be known. a control computer to calculate the required control actions to maintain position and correct for position errors. thrust elements to apply forces to the ship as demanded by the control system.
For most applications, the position reference systems and thrust elements must be carefully considered when designing a DP ship. In particular, for good control of position in adverse weather, the thrust capability of the ship in three axes must be adequate. The main manufacturers of DP systems are Kongsberg Maritime, Converteam (formerly a part of Alstom), L-3 Communications (formerly Nautronix), Rolls-Royce Marine, Marine Technologies and Navis Engineering OY.
[edit] Reference systems

[edit] Position reference systems There are several means to determine a ship's position at sea. Most traditional methods used for ships navigation are not accurate enough. For that reason, several systems have been developed during the past decades. The availability depends on the type of work and water depth. The most common Position reference systems (PRS) are:
GPS satellite in orbit, image courtesy NASA DGPS, Differential GPS. The position obtained by GPS is not accurate enough for use by DP. The position is improved by use of a fixed ground based reference station (differential station) that compares the GPS position to the known position of the station. The correction is sent to the DGPS receiver by long wave radio frequency. For use in DP an even higher accuracy and reliability is needed. Companies as Fugro supply differential signals via satellite, enabling the combination of several differential stations. The advantage of DGPS is that it is almost always available. Disadvantages are degrading of the signal because of sunspots or atmospheric disturbances, blockage of satellites by cranes or structures and deterioration of the signal at high altitudes.[1] Hydroacoustic Position Reference, HPR. This system consists of one or more transponders placed on the seabed and a transducer placed in the ship's hull. The transducer sends an acoustic signal (by means of piezoelectric elements) to the transponder, which is triggered to reply. As the velocity of sound through water is known (preferably a soundprofile is taken regularly), the distance is known. Because there are many elements on the transducer, the direction of the signal from the transponder can be determined. Now the position of the ship relative to the transponder can be calculated. Disadvantages are the vulnerability to noise by thrusters or other acoustic systems. Furthermore, the use is limited in shallow waters because of ray bending that occurs when sound travels through water horizontally. Main manufacturers are Kongsberg Maritime, Sonardyne and Nautronix. Three types of HPR systems are commonly used: o Ultra- or Super- Short Base Line, USBL or SSBL. This works as described above. Because the angle to the transponder is measured, a correction needs to be made for the ship's roll and pitch. These are determined by Motion Reference Units. Because of the nature of angle measurement, the accuracy deteriorates with increasing water depth. o Long Base Line, LBL. This consists of an array of at least three transponders. The initial position of the transponders is determined by USBL and/ or by measuring the baselines between the transponders. Once that is done, only the ranges to the transponders need to be measured to determine a relative position. The position should theoretically be located at the intersection of imaginary spheres, one around each transponder, with a radius equal to the time between transmission and reception multiplied by the speed of sound through water. Because angle measurement is not necessary, the accuracy in large water depths is better than USBL. o Short Baseline, SBL. This works with an array of transducers in the ship's hull. These determine their position to a transponder, so a solution is found in the same way as with LBL. As the array is located on the ship, it needs to be corrected for roll and pitch.[2] Riser Angle Monitoring. On drillships, riser angle monitoring can be fed into the DP system. It may be an electrical inclinometer or based on USBL, where a riser angle monitoring transponder is fitted to the
riser and a remote inclinometer unit is installed on the Blow Out Preventer (BOP) and interrogated through the ships HPR. Light Taut Wire, LTW. The oldest position reference system used for DP is still very accurate in relative shallow water. A clumpweight is lowered to the seabed. By measuring the amount of wire paid out and the angle of the wire by a gimbal head, the relative position can be calculated. Care should be taken not to let the wire angle become too large to avoid dragging. For deeper water the system is less favourable, as current will curve the wire. There are however systems that counteract this with a gimbal head on the clumpweight. Horizontal LTWs are also used when operating close to a structure. Objects falling on the wire are a risk here. Fanbeam/ CyScan. Both are laser based position reference systems. A very straightforward system, as only a small prism needs to be installed on a nearby structure. Risks are the fanbeam locking on other reflecting objects and blocking of the signal. Range depends on the weather, but is typically more than 500 meters. CyScan has the added advantage of an Auto-Tilt mechanism which compensates for waves motion by the use of actuators and gyro's.[3] Artemis. A radar based system. A unit is placed on a nearby structure and aimed at the unit on board the ship. The range is several kilometres. The disadvantage of this method is that the unit is rather heavy.[4] DARPS, Differential, Absolute and Relative Positioning System. Commonly used on shuttle tankers while loading from a FPSO. Both will have a GPS receiver. As the errors are the same for the both of them, the signal does not need to be corrected. The position from the FPSO is transmitted to the shuttle tanker, so a range and bearing can be calculated and fed into the DP system. RADius. A radar based system, but no moving parts as Artemis. Another advantage is that the transponders are much smaller than the Artemis unit. Disadvantage is the short range of 100-200 meters and a limited 90 degree coverage. The manufacturer is Kongsberg Seatex a subsidiary of Kongsberg Maritime. RadaScan. A radar based system similar to RADius. Advantage is the target tracking distance up to 1000 meter and 360 degree coverage. Inertial navigation is used in combination with GPS (Seapath) and Hydroacoustics (HAIN).
[edit] Heading reference systems
Gyrocompasses are normally used to determine heading.
More advanced methods are:

Ring-Laser gyroscopes Fibre optic gyroscopes Seapath, a combination of GPS and inertial sensors.
[edit] Reference systems Besides position and heading, other variables are fed into the DP system through sensors:

Motion Reference Units, MRUs, determine the ship's roll, pitch and heave. Wind sensors are fed into the DP system feed-forward, so the system can anticipate wind gusts before the ship is blown off position. Draught sensors, since a change of draught influences the effect of wind and current on the hull. Other sensors depend on the kind of ship. A pipelay ship may measure the force needed to pull on the pipe, large crane vessels will have sensors to determine the cranes position, as this changes the wind model, enabling the calculation of a more accurate model (see Control systems).
[edit] Control systems
In the beginning PID controllers were used and today are still used in the simpler DP systems. But modern controllers use a mathematical model of the ship that is based on a hydrodynamic and aerodynamic description concerning some of the ship's characteristics such as mass and drag. Of course, this model is not entirely correct. The ship's position and heading are fed into the system and compared with the prediction made by the model. This difference is used to update the model by using Kalman filtering technique. For this reason, the model also has input from the windsensors and feedback from the thrusters. This method even allows not having input from any PRS for some time, depending on the quality of the model and the weather. The accuracy and precision of the different PRSs is not the same. While a DGPS has a high accuracy and precision, a USBL can have a much lower precision. For this reason, the PRSs are weighed. Based on variance a PRS receives a weight between 0 and 1.
[edit] Power and propulsion systems

To maintain position azimuth thrusters, bow thrusters, stern thrusters, water jets, rudders and propellors are used. DP ships are usually at least partially diesel-electric, as this allows a more flexible set-up and is better able to handle the large changes in power demand, typical for DP operations. The set-up depends on the DP class of the ship. A Class 1 can be relatively simple, whereas the system of a Class 3 ship is quite complex. On Class 2 and 3 ships, all computers and reference systems should be powered through a UPS.
[edit] Class Requirements

Based on IMO (International Maritime Organization) publication 645[5] the Classification Societies have issued rules for Dynamic Positioned Ships described as Class 1, Class 2 and Class 3.
Equipment Class 1 has no redundancy. Loss of position may occur in the event of a single fault. Equipment Class 2 has redundancy so that no single fault in an active system will cause the system to fail. Loss of position should not occur from a single fault of an active component or system such as generators, thruster, switchboards, remote controlled valves etc. But may occur after failure of a static component such as cables, pipes, manual valves etc. Equipment Class 3 which also has to withstand fire or flood in any one compartment without the system failing. Loss of position should not occur from any single failure including a completely burnt fire sub division or flooded watertight compartment.
Classification Societies have their own Class notations: Description IMO LR DnV Equipment Equipment Equipment Class Class Class GL ABS Equipment Equipment Class Class
Manual position control and automatic heading control under specified maximum environmental conditions
DP(CM)
DNV-T
DPS-0
Automatic and manual position and heading control under specified maximum environmental conditions
Class 1
DP(AM)
DNV-AUT DP 1 DNV-AUTS
DPS-1
Automatic and manual position and heading Class 2 control under specified maximum environmental conditions, during and following any single fault excluding loss of a compartment. (Two independent computer systems).
DP(AA)
DNV-AUTR DP 2
DPS-2
Automatic and manual position and heading Class 3 control under specified maximum environmental conditions, during and following any single fault including loss of a compartment due to fire or flood. (At least two independent computer systems with a separate backup system separated by A60 class division).
DP(AAA) DNVAUTRO
DP 3
DPS-3
[edit] NMD
Where IMO leaves the decision of which Class applies to what kind of operation to the operator of the DP ship and its client, the Norwegian Maritime Directorate (NMD) has specified what Class should be used in regard to the risk of an operation. In the NMD Guidelines and Notes No. 28, enclosure A four classes are defined:

Class 0 Operations where loss of position keeping capability is not considered to endanger human lives, or cause damage. Class 1 Operations where loss of position keeping capability may cause damage or pollution of small consequence. Class 2 Operations where loss of position keeping capability may cause personnel injury, pollution, or damage with large economic consequences. Class 3 Operations where loss of position keeping capability may cause fatal accidents, or severe pollution or damage with major economic consequences.
Based on this the type of ship is specified for each operation:

Class 1 DP units with equipment class 1 should be used during operations where loss of position is not considered to endanger human lives, cause significant damage or cause more than minimal pollution. Class 2 DP units with equipment class 2 should be used during operations where loss of position could cause personnel injury, pollution or damage with great economic consequences. Class 3 DP units with equipment class 3 should be used during operations where loss of position could cause fatal accidents, severe pollution or damage with major economic consequences.
+[edit] Redundancy
Redundancy is the ability to cope with a single failure without loss of position. A single failure can be, amongst others:

Thruster failure Generator failure Powerbus failure (when generators are combined on one powerbus) Control computer failure Position reference system failure Reference system failure
For certain operations redundancy is not required. For instance, if a survey ship loses its DP capability, there is normally no risk of damage or injuries. These operations will normally be done in Class 1. For other operations, such as diving and heavy lifting, there is a risk of damage or injuries. Depending on the risk, the operation is done in Class 2 or 3. This means at least three Position reference systems should be selected. This allows the principle of voting logic, so the failing PRS can be found. For this reason, there are also three DP control computers, three gyrocompasses, three MRUs and three wind sensors on Class 3 ships. If a single fault occurs that jeopardizes the redundancy, i.e. failing of a thruster, generator or a PRS, and this cannot be resolved immediately, the operation should be abandoned as quickly as possible. To have enough redundancy, enough generators and thrusters should be on-line so the failure of one does not result in a loss of position. This is to the judgement of the DP operator. For Class 2 and Class 3 a Consequence Analyses should be incorporated in the system to assist the DPO in this process. Disadvantage is that a generator can never operate at full load, resulting in less economy and fouling of the engines.3d52ba
The redundancy of a DP ship should be judged by a FMEA study and proved by FMEA trials.[6] Besides that, annual trials are done and normally DP function tests are completed prior to each project.
[edit] DP Operator
The DP operator judges whether there is enough redundancy available at any given moment of the operation. IMO issued MSC/Circ.738 (Guidelines for dynamic positioning system (DP) operator training) on 24-06-1996. This refers to IMCA (International Marine Contractors Association) M 117[7] as acceptable standard. To qualify as a DP operator the following path should be followed: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. a DP Induction course a minimum of 30 days seagoing DP familiarisation a DP Advanced course a minimum of 6 months watchkeeping on a DP ship a statement of suitability by the master of a DP ship
When the watchkeeping is done on a Class 1 DP ship, a limited certificate will be issued; otherwise a full certificate will be issued.
[edit] IMCA
The International Marine Contractors Association was formed in April 1995 from the amalgamation of AODC (originally the International Association of Offshore Diving Contractors), founded in 1972, and DPVOA (the Dynamic Positioning Vessel Owners Association), founded in 1990.[8] It represents offshore, marine and underwater engineering contractors. Acergy, Allseas, Heerema Marine Contractors, Helix Energy Solutions Group, Saipem, Subsea 7 and Technip have representation on IMCA's Council and provide the president. Previous presidents are:

1995-6 - Derek Leach, Coflexip Stena Offshore 1997-8 - Hein Mulder, Heerema Marine Contractors 1999/2000 - Donald Carmichael, Coflexip Stena Offshore 2001-2 - John Smith, Halliburton Subsea/Subsea 7 2003-4 - Steve Preston, - Heerema Marine Contractors 2005 - Frits Janmaat, Allseas Group (2005 Vice-President - Knut Boe, Technip)
While it started with the collection and analysis of DP Incidents,[9] since then it has produced publications on different subjects to improve DP standards. It also works with IMO and other regulatory bodies.
[edit] References
1. ^ IMCA M 141, Guidelines on the Use of DGPS as a Position Reference in DP Control Systems. 2. ^ IMCA M 151, The Basic Principles and Use of Hydroacoustic Position Reference Systems in the Offshore Environment. 3. ^ IMCA M 170, A Review of Marine Laser Positioning Systems. 4. ^ IMCA M 174, A Review of the Artemis Mk V Positioning System. 5. ^ IMO MSC/Circ.645, Guidelines for vessels with dynamic positioning systems. 6. ^ IMCA M 166, Guidelines on Failure Modes & Effects Analyses (FMEAs). 7. ^ IMCA M 117, The training and experience of key DP personnel.
8. ^ IMCA DP History. 9. ^ IMCA M 181, Analysis of Station Keeping Incident Data 1994-2003.
[edit] External links

Nautical Portal IMO, International Maritime Organization IMCA, International Marine Contractors Association IMCA DP Intro NMD, Norwegian Maritime Directorate OPL Oilfield Seamanship Series - Volume 9: Dynamic Positioning - 2nd Edition by David Bray Kongsberg Maritime Symmetry, Ltd. IDP - Intelligent Dynamic Positioning
Diving support vessel

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search A diving support vessel is a ship that is used as a floating base for professional diving projects. Commercial Diving Support Vessels emerged during the 1960's and 1970's when the need arose for diving operations to be performed below and around oil production platforms and associated installations in open water in the North Sea and Gulf of Mexico. Until that point most diving operations were from mobile oil drilling platforms, pipe-lay or crane barges. The diving system tended to be modularised and craned on and off the vessels as a package. As permanent oil and gas production platforms emerged, the owners and operators were not keen to give over valuable deck space to diving systems because after they came on-line the expectation of continuing diving operations was low. However, equipment fails or gets damaged and there was regular if not continuous need for diving operations in and around oil fields. The solution was to put diving packages on ships. Initially these tended to be oilfield supply ships or fishing vessels, however keeping this kind of ship "on station" particularly during uncertain weather made the diving dangerous, problematic and seasonal. Equally seabed operations usually entailed the raising and lowering of heavy equipment and most vessels like this were not equipped. This is when the dedicated commercial diving support vessel emerged. These were often built from scratch or heavily converted pipe carriers or other utility ships. The key components of the diving support vessel are:
Dynamic Positioning - controlled by a computer with input from position reference systems (DGPS, Transponders, Light Taut Wires or RadaScan)it will maintain the ships position over a dive site by using multi-directional thrusters, other sensors would compensate for swell, tide and prevailing wind. Saturation diving system - for diving operations below 50m a mixture of helium and oxygen is required to eliminate the narcotic effect of nitrogen under pressure. For extended diving operations at depth, saturation diving is the preferred approach. A saturation system would be installed within the ship. A diving bell would transport the divers between the saturation system and the work site lowered through a
"moon-pool" in the bottom of the ship, usually with a support structure "cursor" to support the diving bell through the turbulent waters near the surface. There are a number of support systems for the saturation system on a Diving Support Vessel that usually includes a Remote Operated Vehicle ROV plus heavy lifting equipment.
[edit] Uncle John

One of the most successful diving support vessels of the 1980s was the SSSV Uncle John operated by Comex Houlder diving. For 10 years this ship completed numerous underwater pipe joints (hyperbaric tie-ins) and other maintenance work in and around the Shell operated Brent oilfield in the Northern North Sea. The Uncle John was a semi-submersible platform design with a 16 man saturation system, 2 diving bells in separate moon pools, 2 cranes and the ability to stay on station and working in fairly extreme weather. The semi-submersible design was very useful for hyperbaric tie-ins becuse the significant deck space allowed the transportation and manipulation of a 75 tonne welding habitat and pipe manipulation equipment that had the capability of maneuvering 36" diameter 1.5" thick steel pipe. Typical working depths in the Brent Field was 140m however in 1983 the Uncle John and it's crew successfully completed the Deep Fjord Diving Program in Onarheims Fjord, Norway where a successful 36" hyperbaric tiein was completed at a depth of 300m.
This article related to water transport is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. This diving-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diving_support_vessel"
Saturation diving
Jump to: navigation, search Saturation diving is a diving technique that allows divers to remain at great depth for long periods of time. "Saturation" refers to the fact that the diver's tissues have absorbed the maximum partial pressure of gas possible for that depth due to the diver being exposed to breathing gas at that pressure for prolonged periods. This is significant because once the tissues become saturated, the time to ascend from depth, to decompress safely, will not increase with further exposure. Commonly, saturation diving allows professional divers to live and work at depths greater than 50 metres / 165 feet for days or weeks at a time. This type of diving allows for greater economy of work and enhanced safety for the divers. After working in the water, they rest and live in a dry pressurized habitat on or connected to a diving support vessel, oil platform or other floating work station, at the same pressure as the work depth. The diving team is only compressed to the working pressure once and decompressed to surface pressure once over the entire work period of days or weeks. The "Saturation System" typically comprises a living chamber, transfer chamber and submersible decompression chamber, which is commonly referred to in commercial diving and military diving as the diving
bell, PTC, Personnel Transfer Capsule or SDC, Submersible Decompression Chamber. The system incorporates various sub-systems, such as hydraulics, pneumatics, electrics, electronics and other mechanical systems. The entire system is managed from a control room (van), where depth, chamber atmosphere and other system parameters are monitored and controlled. The diving bell is the elevator or lift that transfers divers from the system to the work site. Typically, it is mated to the system utilizing a removable clamp and is separated from the system tankage bulkhead by a trunking space, a kind of tunnel, through which the divers transfer to and from the bell. At the completion of work or a mission, the saturation diving team is decompressed gradually back to atmospheric pressure by the slow venting of system pressure, at an average of 30 metres/96 feet per day, travelling 20 hours per day and resting for 4 hours (schedules vary). Thus the process involves only one ascent, thereby mitigating the time-consuming and comparatively risky process of in-water, staged decompression normally associated with non-saturation ("bounce diving") operations. The divers use surface supplied umbilical diving equipment, utilizing deep diving breathing gas, such as helium and oxygen mixtures, stored in large capacity, high pressure cylinders. The gas supplies are plumbed to the control room, where they are routed to supply the system components. The bell is fed via a large, multi-part umbilical that supplies breathing gas, electricity, communications and hot water. The bell also is fitted with exterior mounted breathing gas cylinders for emergency use. Saturation diving (or more precisely, long term exposure to high pressure) can potentially cause aseptic bone necrosis, although it is not yet known if all divers are affected or only especially sensitive ones. The joints are most vulnerable to osteonecrosis. The connection between high-pressure exposure and osteonecrosis is not fully understood. Increased use of underwater ROVs and AUVs for routine or planned tasks means that saturation dives are becoming less common, though complicated underwater tasks requiring complex manual actions remain the preserve of the deep-sea saturation diver. For saturation diving in fiction, see The Abyss (1989), or Sphere (1998). Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturation_diving"
Differential GPS
(Redirected from DGPS) Jump to: navigation, search Differential Global Positioning System (DGPS) is an enhancement to Global Positioning System that uses a network of fixed ground based reference stations to broadcast the difference between the positions indicated by the satellite systems and the known fixed positions. These stations broadcast the difference between the measured satellite pseudoranges and actual (internally computed) pseudoranges, and receiver stations may correct their pseudoranges by the same amount. The term can refer both to the generalized technique, as well as specific implementations using it. It is often used to refer specifically to systems that re-broadcast the corrections from ground-based transmitters of shorter range. For instance, the United States Coast Guard runs one such system in the US and Canada on the longwave radio frequencies between 285 kHz and 325 kHz. These frequencies are commonly used for marine radio, and are broadcast near major waterways and harbors. Australia runs a similar service for land and air navigation, broadcasting their signal on commercial AM radio stations.
The European Geostationary Navigation Overlay Service, Japan's Multi-Functional Satellite Augmentation System, Canada's CDGPS and the commercial VERIPOS, StarFire and OmniSTAR systems are all Satellite Based Augmentation Systems that transmit their corrections from orbiting satellites instead of ground-based transmitters.
Contents
[hide]

1 History 2 Operation 3 Accuracy 4 Variations o 4.1 European DGPS Network o 4.2 United States NDGPS o 4.3 Canadian DGPS 5 See also 6 References 7 External links
[edit] History
When GPS was first being put into service, the military was concerned about the possibility of enemy forces using the globally-available GPS signals to guide their own weapon systems. To avoid this, the main "coarse acquisition" signal (C/A) was deliberately degraded by offsetting its clock signal by a random amount, equivalent to about 100 metres of distance. More accurate guidance was possible, but only for users that had the proper decryption keys. Known as "Selective Availability", or SA for short, the system seriously degraded the usefulness of the GPS signal for non-military users. This presented a problem for civilian users who relied upon ground-basesd radio navigation systems such as LORAN C, VOR and NDB systems costing millions of dollars each year to maintain. The advent of GNSS could provide greatly improved accuracy and performance at a fraction of the cost. The accuracy inherent in the S/A signal was however too poor to make this realistic. The military received multiple requests from the FAA, USCG and DOT) to set S/A aside to enable civilian use of GNSS, but remained steadfast in its objection on grounds of security. Through the early to mid 1980s, a number of agencies developed a solution to the SA "problem". Since the SA signal was changed slowly, the effect of its offset on positioning was relatively fixed that is, if the offset was "100 meters to the east", that offset would be true over a relatively wide area. This suggested that broadcasting this offset to local GPS receivers could eliminate the effects of SA, resulting in measurements closer to GPS's theoretical performance, around 15 meters. Additionally, another major source of errors in a GPS fix is due to transmission delays in the ionosphere, which could also be measured and corrected for in the broadcast. This offered an improvement to about 5 meters accuracy, more than enough for most civilian needs.[1] The US Coast Guard was one of the more aggressive proponents of the DGPS system, experimenting with the system on an ever-wider basis through the late 1980s and early 1990s. These signals are broadcast on marine longwave frequencies, which could be received on existing radiotelephones and fed into suitably equipped GPS receivers. Almost all major GPS vendors offered units with DGPS inputs, not only for the USCG signals, but also aviation units on either VHF or commercial AM radio bands.
They started sending out "production quality" DGPS signals on a limited basis in 1996, and rapidly expanded the network to cover most US ports of call, as well as the Saint Lawrence Seaway in partnership with the Canadian Coast Guard. Plans were put into place to expand the system across the US, but this would not be easy. The quality of the DGPS corrections generally fell with distance, and most large transmitters capable of covering large areas tend to cluster near cities. This meant that lower-population areas, notably in the midwest and Alaska, would have little coverage by ground-based GPS. Instead, the FAA (and others) started studies for broadcasting the signals across the entire hemisphere from communications satellites in geostationary orbit. This has led to the Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS) and similar systems, although these are generally not referred to as DGPS, or alternately, "wide-area DGPS". WAAS offers accuracy similar to the USCG's ground-based DGPS networks, and there has been some argument that the latter will be turned off as WAAS becomes fully operational. By the mid-1990s it was clear that the SA system was no longer useful in its intended role. DGPS would render it ineffective over the US, precisely where it was considered most needed. Additionally, experience during the Gulf War demonstrated that the widespread use of civilian receivers by military users meant that SA was ostensibly "hurting" its own troops more than if it were turned off.[citation needed] After many years of pressure, the GPS operators agreed to turn off SA permanently in 2000[citation needed]. Nevertheless, by this point DGPS had evolved into a system for providing more accuracy than even a non-SA GPS signal could provide on its own. There are several other sources of error that share the same characteristics as SA in that they are the same over large areas and for "reasonable" amounts of time. These include the ionospheric effects mentioned earlier, as well as errors in the satellite position ephemeris data and clock drift on the satellites. Depending on the amount of data being sent in the DGPS correction signal, correcting for these effects can reduce the error significantly, the best implementations offering accuracies of under 10 cm. In addition to continued deployments of the USCG and FAA sponsored systems, a number of vendors have created commercial DGPS services, selling their signal (or receivers for it) to users that require better accuracy than the nominal 15 meters GPS offers. Almost all commercial GPS units, even hand-held units, now offer DGPS data inputs, and many also support WAAS directly. To some degree, a form of DGPS is now a natural part of most GPS operations.
[edit] Operation
A reference station calculates differential corrections for its own location and time. Users may be up to 200 nautical miles (370 km) from the station, however, and some of the compensated errors vary with space: specifically, satellite ephemeris errors and those introduced by ionospheric and tropospheric distortions. For this reason, the accuracy of DGPS decreases with distance from the reference station. The problem can be aggravated if the user and the station lack "inter visibility"when they are unable to see the same satellites.
[edit] Accuracy
The United States Federal Radionavigation Plan and the IALA Recommendation on the Performance and Monitoring of DGNSS Services in the Band 283.5325 kHz cite the United States Department of Transportation's 1993 estimated error growth of 0.67 m per 100 km from the broadcast site but measurements of accuracy in Portugal suggest a degradation of just 0.22 m per 100 km.[2]
[edit] Variations
DGPS can refer to any type of Ground Based Augmentation System (GBAS). There are many operational systems in use throughout the world, according to the US Coast Guard, 47 countries operate systems similar to the US NDGPS.
[edit] European DGPS Network

The European DGPS network has been mainly developed by the Finnish and Swedish maritime administrations in order to improve safety in the archipelago between the two countries.
[edit] United States NDGPS

The United States Department of Transportation, in conjunction with the Federal Highway Administration, the Federal Railroad Administration and the National Geodetic Survey appointed the Coast Guard as the maintaining agency for the U.S. Nationwide DGPS network. The system is an expansion of the previous Maritime Differential GPS (MDGPS) which the Coast Guard began in the late 1980's and completed in March 1999. MDGPS only covered coastal waters, the Great Lakes, and the Mississippi River inland waterways, while NDGPS expands this to include complete coverage of the continental United States. [1] The centralized Command and Control unit is USCG Navigation Center, based in Alexandria, VA. The USCG has carried over its NDGPS duties after the transition from the Department of Transportation to the Department of Homeland Security. There are 82 currently broadcasting NDGPS sites in the US network, with plans for up to 128 total sites to be online within the next 15 years.
[edit] Canadian DGPS

The Canadian system is similar to the US system and is primarily for maritime usage covering the Atlantic and Pacific coast as well as the Great Lakes and Saint Lawrence Seaway.
[edit] See also

Global Positioning System Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS) - A Space Based Augmentation System (SBAS) primarily for aviation usage o European Geostationary Navigation Overlay Service (EGNOS) and Multi-functional Satellite Augmentation System (MSAS) Local Area Augmentation System - Another type of Ground Based Augmentation System (GBAS), but designed primarily for aviation usage
[edit] References

^ Department of Transportation and Department of Defense (March 25, 2002). 2001 Federal Radionavigation Plan (PDF). Retrieved on November 27, 2005. ^ Department of Transportation and Department of Defense (March 25, 2002). 2001 Federal Radionavigation Systems (PDF). Retrieved on November 27, 2005. Monteiro, Lus Sardinha; Moore, Terry and Hill, Chris. 'What is the accuracy of DGPS?', The Journal of Navigation (2005) 58, 207-225. United States Coast Guard Navigation Center, Alexandria, VA; Standard Operating Procedures (2002)

US NDGPS fact sheet US coverage maps
Canadian Coast Guard DGPS information (English) Canadian Coast Guard DGPS information (French)
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_GPS"
Transponder
An Ontario Highway 407 toll transponder In telecommunication, the term transponder (short-for Transmitter-responder and sometimes abbreviated to XPDR, XPNDR or TPDR) has the following meanings:

An automatic device that receives, amplifies, and retransmits a signal on a different frequency (see also broadcast translator). An automatic device that transmits a predetermined message in response to a predefined received signal. A receiver-transmitter that will generate a reply signal upon proper electronic interrogation.
Contents
[hide]

1 Satellite communications 2 Aviation 3 Road 4 Underwater 5 See also
[edit] Satellite communications

A communications satellites channels are called transponders, because each is a separate transceiver or repeater. With digital video data compression and multiplexing, several video and audio channels may travel through a single transponder on a single wideband carrier. Original analog video only has one channel per transponder, with subcarriers for audio and automatic transmission identification service ATIS. Nonmultiplexed radio stations can also travel in single channel per carrier (SCPC) mode, with multiple carriers (analog or digital) per transponder. This allows each station to transmit directly to the satellite, rather than
paying for a whole transponder, or using landlines to send it to an earth station for multiplexing with other stations.
[edit] Aviation
For more details on this topic, see Transponder (aviation). Another type of transponder occurs in identification friend or foe systems in military aviation and in air traffic control secondary surveillance radar (beacon radar) systems for general aviation and commercial aviation. Primary radar works best with large all-metal aircraft, but not so well on small, composite aircraft. Its range is also limited by terrain and rain or snow and also detects unwanted objects such as automobiles, hills and trees. Furthermore it cannot estimate the altitude of an aircraft. Secondary radar overcomes these limitations but it depends on a transponder in the aircraft to respond to interrogations from the ground station to make the plane more visible. Depending on the type of interrogation, the transponder sends back a transponder code (or "squawk code") (Mode A) or altitude information (Mode C) to help air traffic controllers to identify the aircraft and to maintain separation. Another mode called Mode S (Mode Select) is designed to help air traffic control in busy areas and allow automatic collision avoidance. Mode S tranponders are 'backwards compatible' with Modes A & C. Mode S is mandatory in controlled airspace in many countries. Some countries have also required, or are moving towards requiring, that all aircraft be equipped with Mode S, even in uncontrolled airspace. However in the field of general aviation, there have been objections to these moves, because of the cost, size, limited benefit to the users in uncontrolled airspace, and, in the case of balloons and gliders, the power requirements during long flights.
[edit] Road
The E-ZPass system in the eastern United States is one of many systems for paying bridge and road tolls by a RFID transponder in the car.
[edit] Underwater
Sonar transponders operate under water and are used to measure distance and form the basis of underwater location marking, position tracking and navigation.
[edit] See also

Transceiver Secondary surveillance radar (Identification friend or foe) Transponding with DCC - Transponding in model railroading. RFID - low-cost transponder tags for asset tracking and telemetry.
Diving bell
Diving bell A diving bell is a cable-suspended airtight chamber, open at the bottom, that is lowered underwater to operate as a base or a means of transport for a small number of divers. Unlike a submarine it is not designed to move under the control of its occupants, nor to operate independently of its tether.
Contents
[hide]

1 Mechanics 2 History 3 In nature 4 Underwater habitats 5 Diving chambers 6 References 7 See also 8 External links
[edit] Mechanics
Occupied diving bell illustrated
Diving bells are used as underwater rescue vessels and by working divers doing underwater work and salvage. The bell is lowered into the water by cables from a crane attached to a ship or dock. The bell is ballasted so as to remain upright in the water and to be negatively buoyant so that it sinks even when completely full of air. Hoses, fed by pumps on the surface, provide compressed breathing gas to the bell, serving two functions:
Fresh gas is available for breathing by the occupants. Exhaled gas is expelled under the lip of the wet bell, where it rises naturally to the surface. As a wet bell is lowered, the extra pressure from the water compresses the gas in the bell. If the gas pressure inside the bell were not raised by adding gas to compensate for the outside water pressure the bell would partially fill with water as the gas is compressed. Adding pressurized gas ensures that the usable workspace within the bell remains constant as the bell descends in the water as well as refreshing the air, which would become saturated with a toxic level of carbon dioxide and depleted of oxygen by the respiration of the occupants.
A similar principle to that of the wet bell is used in the diving helmet of standard diving dress, where compressed air is provided to a helmet carried on the diver's shoulders. Additional weights are carried on the waist and feet to prevent overturning. The modern equivalent of this diving equipment is used in surface supplied diving. A wet sub may also provide a dry viewing chamber for the operator's head, acting as would a diving helmet.
[edit] History
The diving bell is one of the earliest types of equipment for underwater work and exploration. Its use was first described by Aristotle in the 4th century BC:"...they enable the divers to respire equally well by letting down a cauldron, for this does not fill with water, but retains the air, for it is forced straight down into the water."[1] In 1535, Guglielmo de Lorena created and used what is considered to be the first modern diving bell. The earliest applications were probably for commercial sponge fishing. A diving bell was used to salvage a cannon from the Swedish warship Vasa in the period immediately following its sinking in 1628. In 1690 Edmund Halley completed plans for a diving bell capable of remaining submerged for extended periods of time, and fitted with a window for the purpose of undersea exploration. In Halley's diving bell, atmosphere is replenished by sending weighted barrels of air down from the surface.
[edit] In nature
The diving bell spider, Argyroneta aquatica, is a spider which lives entirely under water, even though it could survive on land. Since the spider must breathe air, it constructs from silk, a diving bell which it attaches to an underwater plant. The spider collects air in a thin layer around its body, trapped by dense hairs on its abdomen and legs. It transports this air to its diving bell to replenish the air supply in the bell. This allows the spider to remain in the bell for long periods, where it waits for its prey.
[edit] Underwater habitats

A further extension of the wet bell concept is the underwater habitat, where divers may spend long periods in dry comfort while acclimated to the increased pressure experienced underwater. By not needing to return to the
surface they can avoid the necessity for decompression (gradual reduction of pressure), required to avoid problems with nitrogen bubbles releasing from the bloodstream (the bends, also known as caisson disease). Such problems occur at a pressure over two atmospheres, experienced below a depth of 32 feet. By not requiring a pressure resistant structure the habitat can be constructed at lower cost.
[edit] Diving chambers

Simple wet diving bells have been largely replaced now with more sophisticated diving chambers (sometimes erroneously called diving bells) which may resist underwater pressures and which are for use in underwater work involving saturation diving and submarine rescue operations. These may comprise a single chamber designed for attachment to a submarine's rescue hatch, or may be composed of two sealed chambers, an upper chamber at normal or greater atmospheric pressure and an entrance lock. These often carry large diving cylinders to provide emergency breathing gas supplies and can be used as a base for surface supplied diving operations.
[edit] References
1. ^ Arthur J. Bachrach, "History of the Diving Bell", Historical Diving Times, Iss. 21 (Spring 1998)
[edit] See also

Timeline of underwater technology Bathysphere Benthoscope

Historical Diving Society: The History of the Diving Bell Historic diving bells Modern diving bells
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diving_bell"
Remotely operated vehicle

(Redirected from ROV) Jump to: navigation, search
Variety of ROVs: Work Class, General, Mini Remotely operated underwater vehicles (ROVs) is the common accepted name for tethered underwater robots in the offshore industry. ROVs are unoccupied, highly maneuverable and operated by a person aboard a vessel. They are linked to the ship by a tether (sometimes referred to as an umbilical cable), a group of cables that carry electrical power, video and data signals back and forth between the operator and the vehicle. High power applications will often use hydraulics in addition to electrical cabling. Most ROVs are equipped with at least a video camera and lights. Additional equipment is commonly added to expand the vehicles capabilities. These may include sonars, magnetometers, a still camera, a manipulator or cutting arm, water samplers, and instruments that measure water clarity, light penetration and temperature.
Contents
[hide]

1 History 2 Construction 3 Science ROVs 4 Classification 5 Naming Conventions 6 See also 7 External links
[edit] History
ROV at work in an underwater Oil& Gas field. The ROV manipulator is about to operate a lever on the subsea structure. The US Navy funded most of the early ROV technology development in the 1960s. This created the capability to perform deep-sea rescue operations and recover objects from the ocean floor. Building on this technology base; the offshore oil & gas industry created the work class ROVs to assist in the development of offshore oil fields. More than a decade after they were first introduced, ROVs became essential in the 1980s when much of the new offshore development exceeded the reach of human divers. During the mid 1980s the marine ROV industry suffered from serious stagnation in technological development caused in part by a drop in the price of oil and a global economic recession. Since then, technological development in the ROV industry has accelerated and today ROVs perform numerous tasks in many fields. Their tasks range from simple inspection of subsea structures, pipeline and platforms to connecting pipelines and placing underwater manifolds. They are used extensively both in the initial construction of a sub-sea development and the subsequent repair and maintenance.
ROV on its way to work Submersible ROVs have been used to locate many historic shipwrecks, including that of the RMS Titanic, the Bismarck, USS Yorktown, and SS Central America. In some cases, such as the SS Central America, ROVs have been used to recover material from the sea floor and bring it to the surface.
However, there is a lot of work that remains to be done. More than half of the earths ocean is deeper than 3000 meters, which is the current working depth of most of the ROV technology. As of the writing of this article, the deeper half of the ocean has never been explored. This vast area has the potential to meet much of humanitys needs for raw materials. As the industry advances to meet these challenges, we will undoubtedly see further improvements in these complicated robots. While the oil & gas industry uses the majority of ROVs; other applications include science, military and salvage. Science usage is discussed below, the military uses ROV for tasks such as mine clearing and inspection. Approximately a dozen times per year ROVs are used in marine salvage operations of downed planes and sunken ships.
[edit] Construction
Conventional ROVs are constructed with a large flotation pack on top of a steel or alloy chassis, to provide the necessary buoyancy. Syntactic foam is often used for the flotation. A tool sled may be fitted at the bottom of the system and can accommodate a variety of sensors. By placing the light components on the top and the heavy components on the bottom, the overall system has a large separation between the center of buoyancy and the center of gravity, this provides stability and the stiffness to do work underwater. Electrical cables may be run inside oil-filled tubing to protect them from corrosion in seawater. Thrusters are usually located in all three axes to provide full control. Cameras, lights and manipulators are on the front of the ROV or occasionally in the rear for assistance in maneuvering. The majority of the work class ROVs are constructed as described above, however this is not the only style in ROV building. Specifically the smaller ROVs can have very different designs each geared towards their own task. One company's ROV even has wings that allow the vehicle to move more efficiently, while being towed and/or operating on thruster power in high currents.
[edit] Science ROVs
Image taken by a ROV under the ice of Antarctica. In the spring krill can scrape off the green lawn of ice algae from the underside of the pack ice in Antarctica. In this image most krill swim in an upside down position directly under the ice. Only one animal (in the middle) is hovering in the open water. ROVs are also used extensively by the science community to study the ocean. A number of deep sea animals and plants have been discovered or studied in their natural environment through the use of ROVs: examples include the jellyfish Bumpy and the eel-like halosaurs. In the USA, cutting edge work is done at several public
and private oceanographic institutions, including the Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute (MBARI), the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (WHOI), and the University of Rhode Island / Institute for Exploration (URI/IFE). The picture to the right shows a the behavior and microdistribution of krill under the ice of Antarctica. Science ROV's take many shapes and sizes. Since good video footage is a core component of most deep-sea scientific research, research ROV's tend to be outfitted with high-output lighting systems and broadcast quality cameras. Depending on the research being conducted, a science ROV will be equipped with various sampling devices and sensors. Many of these devices are one-of-a-kind, state-of-the-art experimental components that have been configured to work in the extreme environment of the deep ocean. Science ROV's also incorporate a good deal of technology that has been developed for the commercial ROV sector, such as hydraulic manipulators and highly accurate subsea navigation systems.
A science ROV being launched from an oceanographic research vessel. While there are many interesting and unique science ROV's, there are a few larger high-end systems that are worth taking a look at. MBARI's Tiburon vehicle cost over $6 million US dollars to develop and is used primarily for midwater and hydrothermal research on the West Coast of the US. WHOI's Jason system has made many significant contributions to deep-sea oceanographic research and continues to work all over the globe. URI/IFE's Hercules ROV is one of the first science ROV's to fully incorporate a hydraulic propulsion system and is uniquely outfitted to survey and excavate ancient and modern shipwrecks.
[edit] Classification
Submersible ROVs are normally classified into categories based on their size, weight, ability or power. Some common ratings are:
Micro - typically Micro class ROVs are very small in size and weight. Todays Micro Class ROVs can weigh less than 3 kg. These ROVs are used as an alternative to a diver, specifically in places where a diver might not be able to physically enter such as a sewer, pipeline or small cavity. Mini - typically Mini Class ROVs weigh in around 15 kg. Mini Class ROVs are also used as a diver alternative. One person may be able to transport the complete ROV system out with them on a small boat, deploy it and complete the job without outside help. Occasionally both Micro and Mini classes are referred to as "eyeball" class to differentiate them from ROV's that may be able to perform intervention tasks.
General - typically less than 5 HP (propulsion); occasionally small three finger manipulators grippers have been installed, such as on the very early RCV 225. These ROVs may be able to carry a sonar unit and are usually used on light survey applications. Typically the maximum working depth is less than 1,000 metres though one has been developed to go as deep as 7,000 m. Light Workclass - typically less than 50 hp (propulsion). These ROVs may be able to carry some manipulators. Their chassis may be made from polymers such as polyethylene rather than the conventional stainless steel or aluminium alloys. They typically have a maximum working depth less than 2000 m. Heavy Workclass - typically less than 220 hp (propulsion) with an ability to carry at least two manipulators. They have a working depth up to 3500 m. Trenching/Burial - typically more than 200 hp (propulsion) and not usually greater than 500 hp (while some do exceed that) with an ability to carry a cable laying sled and work at depths up to 6000 m in some cases.
Submersible ROVs may be "free swimming" where they operate neutrally buoyant on a tether from the launch ship or platform, or they may be "garaged" where they operate from a submersible "garage" or "tophat" on a tether attached to the heavy garage that is lowered from the ship or platform. Both techniques have their pros and cons; however very deep work is normally done with a garage.
[edit] Naming Conventions

ROV's that are manufactured following a standardised design are commonly named by a brand name followed by a number indicating the order of manufacture. Examples would be Sealion 1 or Scorpio 17. The design of a series of ROV's may have changed significantly over the life of an ROV series, however an ROV pilot will often be familiar with the idiosyncracies of a particular vehicle by name. ROV's that are one off or unique designs may be given a unique name similar to the style used for ships. ROV's are are not normally referred to in the female gender as ships may be, but in the neutral gender.
[edit] See also

Autonomous underwater vehicle Unmanned aerial vehicle Unmanned ground vehicle Scorpio ROV Remote control vehicle

ROV Committee of the Marine Technology Society Build your own ROV ! "What are Remotely Operated Vehicles (ROVs)?", ROVExchange.com Remotely Operated Vehicles (ROV), Ocean Explorer, NOAA.gov
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remotely_operated_vehicle"
Professional diving
Professional Diving is a type of diving where the diver is paid for their work. There are several branches of professional diving, the most well known of which is probably commercial diving. Any person wishing to become a professional diver normally requires specific training that satisfies legislation, such as that set by the United Kingdom Health and Safety Executive[1]. Due to the dangerous nature of some professional diving disciplines, specialized equipment such as a diver to surface communication system is often required by law.
Contents
[hide]
1 Equipment o 1.1 Diving Suit o 1.2 Breathing Apparatus 1.2.1 SCUBA 1.2.2 Surface Supplied 2 Branches of professional diving o 2.1 Commercial diving 2.1.1 Offshore diving 2.1.2 Inland / Onshore diving 2.1.3 Nuclear / HAZMAT diving o 2.2 Scientific diving o 2.3 Media Diving o 2.4 Military and Naval Diving o 2.5 Police Diving
o 2.6 Dive Instruction 3 Training 4 References 5 See Also
6 External links
[edit] Equipment
US Navy Diver using Kirby Morgan diving helmet
[edit] Diving Suit

Main article: Diving suit Depending on the water temperature and length of dive, the diver will either use a wetsuit, where neoprene provides thermal insulation but the diver gets wet, a hot water diving suit which is similar to a wetsuit but is flooded with warm water from the surface through an umbilical, or a drysuit, which keeps the diver totally dry and relies on either the suit material or the air trapped in thermal undergarments to insulate the diver. Certain applications require a specific type of dive suit; long dives into deep, cold water normally require a hot water suit, whilst diving into potentially contaminated environments requires a drysuit.[2]
[edit] Breathing Apparatus

A number of factors dictate the type of breathing apparatus used by the diver. Typical considerations include the length of the dive, water contamination, space constraints and vehicle access for support vehicles. Some disciplines will very rarely use surface supplied diving, such as military clearance divers, whilst commercial divers will rarely use SCUBA equipment. [edit] SCUBA Main article: Scuba diving SCUBA equipment is normally used by media and military divers, often utilizing specialized equipment such as rebreathers, which are closed circuit SCUBA equipment that recycles breathing gas instead of releasing it into the water. It is the "re-breathing" of gas that makes rebreathers ideal for long duration dives, efficient decompression when the gas mix is adjustable, and for the observation of animals in the wild due to the lack of noisy bubbles. These characteristics also make rebreathers ideal for military use, such as when military divers are engaged in covert action or when performing mine clearance where bubbles could potentially set off an explosion. Open circuit SCUBA equipment is occasionally used by commercial divers working on sites where surface supplied equipment is unsuitable, such as around raised structures like a water tower, or in remote locations
where it is necessary to carry equipment to the dive site. Normally, for comfort and for practicality, a full face mask such as those manufactured by Kirby Morgan will be used to allow torches and video cameras to be mounted onto the mask. The benefit of full-face masks is that they can normally be used with surface supplied equipment as well, removing the need for the diver or the company to have two sets of expensive equipment. [edit] Surface Supplied Main article: Surface supplied diving This is, perhaps, the most common type of equipment used in professional diving, and the one most recognised by the public, made familiar through films such as The Abyss.
US Navy tender with umbilical - A typical surface supplied diving situation Surface Supplied equipment can be used with full face masks or diving helmets. Helmets are normally to be found fitted with diver to surface communication equipment, and often with light sources and video equipment. The use of a full-face mask or a full diving helmet is down to requirements and personal preference, however the impact protection and warmth offered by a full diving helmet makes it popular for underwater construction sites and cold water work. Breathing gas for the diver is piped down from the surface, through a long, flexible hose, called an umbilical. In addition to breathing gas, the umbilical may have additional hoses and cables for such things as communications equipment or hot water should the diver be using a hot water suit. The diver's breathing gas can is pumped down from either high pressure tanks or through a gas compressor. If the diver is to be working at extreme depths for a long period, the diver may live in a special underwater habitat called a diving chamber. This type of surface supplied diving is known as saturation diving. The same technique for supplying breathing gas as regular surface supplied diving is used, with the diving bell receiving breathing gas and electricity from a diving support vessel on the surface. Due to the often extreme depths the diver is working at, specialised helium-based breathing gas mixtures are often used to prevent both nitrogen narcosis and oxygen toxicity which occurs at these extreme depths.
[edit] Branches of professional diving

[edit] Commercial diving
[edit] Offshore diving Offshore diving is the most well known branch of commercial diving, with divers working in support of the exploration and production sector of the oil and gas industry in places such as the Gulf of Mexico in the United States and the North Sea in the United Kingdom and Norway. The work in this area of the industry typically revolves around the maintenance of oil platforms and the building of underwater structures used in the production process.
For many newly qualified divers, this is the entry point to the industry, the lack of experienced divers and the excess of qualified divers within the industry push down wages for younger, less experienced divers beginning their careers.[1] The low wages, relative inexperience of the workforce combined with difficult and dangerous operating conditions make offshore diving the most dangerous area of employment for professional divers. Equipment used for offshore diving tends to be surface supplied equipment but this does vary depending on the nature of the work and location, for instance Gulf of Mexico based divers may use wetsuits whilst North Sea divers need drysuits or even hot water suits due to the temperature of the water. [edit] Inland / Onshore diving Inland or onshore diving is very similar to offshore diving in terms of the nature of work and the equipment used, the work often being in support of land based civil engineering projects, with the majority of the work either underwater survey or engineering work. The number of dive sites this covers is varied however, and divers can be found working in harbours and lakes, in rivers and around bridges and pontoons, with the bulk of this work being undertaken in freshwater. Onshore divers typically earn less per hour than their colleagues who work offshore, but the ability to work from home for many divers is an advantage. The equipment used does depend on the nature of the work and location, but normally a mixture of SCUBA and Surface supplied diving equipment is used by divers and their employers. [edit] Nuclear / HAZMAT diving
US Navy Diver being decontaminated after a dive. HAZMAT diving is widely regarded as the most dangerous branch of the commercial diving industry, employing highly skilled and experienced staff. Typical work involves diving into raw sewage or dangerous chemicals, such as paper pulp, liquid cement or oil sludge, to do this, divers need to be vaccinated against diseases such as hepatitis and tetanus, the dive company needs to have specialist plans in place for decontamination of the diver and equipment following a dive, and procedures for recovery of the diver if something goes wrong. The main tasks a diver can be found to be doing include essential maintenance of underwater valves and sluice gates, repairs to damaged pipelines, and pollution control work to contain, control and clean up after a pollution incident. Some divers are required to dive into landfill sites in order to maintain the pumping equipment, vital in
preventing landfill sites from filling up with rainwater and contaminating the water table, other divers can be found welding inside live sewers or working in septic tanks. Sewer diving is often considered the most dangerous of all the HAZMAT jobs due to the diseases contained in raw sewage coupled with the fact syringes and glass find their way into the raw sewage, creating risks of both contracting diseases should the diver be injured by a needle, and also damaging the drysuit. Divers working in an environment harmful to their health will always wear a full drysuit with thick gloves which are attached directly to the suit, the helmet and boots will also attach directly to the drysuit, this allows the gloves, boots, suit and helmet to be pressured in order to prevent ingress of liquid should a puncture occur. Normally, to achieve this, a diver will use a free flow diving helmet which continually supplies enough air for the diver to breathe plus an additional amount to pressurise the suit, a free flow helmet has a much lower chance of leakage through the exhaust valve compared with a demand helmet where the exhaust valve is dormant during the inhalation stage of the diver breathing. The drysuit will be made from a material resistant to whatever hazard the diver faces, normally this will see the diver wear a vulcanised rubber drysuit, but occasionally a neoprene or tri-laminate suit is required. Often, a diver will wear additional protection over their drysuit to decrease the chance of a puncture, leather, PVC and nylon coveralls are used for this purpose. Nuclear diving is similar to HAZMAT diving, the difference is the exposure to radiation instead of a water borne contaminant. To this end certain different precautions are required for nuclear diving, mainly the use of equipment which will not absorb radiation and pose a disposal problem after multiple dives. Heat stress can also be a danger for the diver, in which case a cold water suit may be used, the cold water suit is a special canvas coverall which floods the outside of the divers drysuit with chilled water, countering the dangerously high ambient water temperature. A dosimeter is used to ensure the diver doesn't receive a dangerous dose of radiation during the dive, assisting in calculating the maximum length of the dive. In addition the dosimeter can also be used to find radiation hotspots, which can indicate areas in need of repair.
[edit] Scientific diving
A scientific diver at work Scientific diving is the use of diving techniques by scientists to study underwater what would normally be studied by scientists on land. Scientific divers are normally qualified scientists first and divers second, who use diving equipment and techniques as their way to get to the location of their fieldwork. Underwater archaeology, marine biology and geology are examples of sciences pursued underwater. Some scientific diving is carried out by universities in support of undergraduate or postgraduate research programs, with a few universities offering scientific diving modules as part of their degree courses.[3] In the United States scientific diving is exempted
from regulation by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration and is permitted to operate under a consensual standard of practice that is maintained by the American Academy of Underwater Sciences. Exempted scientific diving must meet four tests: 1. The Diving Control Board consists of a majority of active scientific divers and has autonomous and absolute authority over the scientific diving program's operations. 2. The purpose of the project using scientific diving is the advancement of science; therefore, information and data resulting from the project are non-proprietary. 3. The tasks of a scientific diver are those of an observer and data gatherer. Construction and trouble-shooting tasks traditionally associated with commercial diving are not included within scientific diving. 4. Scientific divers, based on the nature of their activities, must use scientific expertise in studying the underwater environment and, therefore, are scientists or scientists in training. Government bodies such as the United States Environmental Protection Agency and the UK Environment Agency carry out scientific diving to recover samples of water, marine organisms and sea, lake or riverbed material to examine for signs of pollution. Equipment used varies widely in this field, but surface supplied equipment though quite uncommon in the UK is growing in popularity in the U.S. The short number of dives made by scientific divers in normally quite shallow water, and the UK governmental regulations that make surface supplied equipment cumbersome, when combined with a need for easy transportation make surface supplied gear uneconomic and undesirable for UK scientists to use.
[edit] Media Diving

Media Diving is a term that covers underwater photography and underwater filming. Media Diving is often carried out in support of television documentaries, such as the BBC series Planet Earth or Hollywood blockbusters, with feature films such as Titanic and The Perfect Storm featuring underwater photography or footage. Media divers are normally highly trained camera operators who use diving as a method to reach their workplace, although some underwater photographers may start as recreational divers and move on to make a living from their hobby. Equipment in this field is varied with SCUBA and surface supplied equipment used, depending on requirements, but rebreathers are often used for wildlife related work as they are normally quiet, release few or no bubbles and allow the diver a lengthy bottom time with a reduced risk of frightening off the subject at hand.
[edit] Military and Naval Diving
US Navy Clearance Divers training to defuse a mine Main article: Clearance Diver Military Diving covers all types of diving carried out by military personnel. There are a number of different specialisations for a military diver to choose, some depend on which branch of the military they've joined or where the military needs more divers. Typical offensive activities include underwater demolition, infiltration and sabotage, this being the type of work elite regiments such as the UK Special Boat Service or the USA Navy Seals carry out. Defensive activities are centered around countering the threat of enemy special forces and enemy anti-shipping measures, and typically involve defusing mines, searching for explosive devices attached to the hulls of ships, and locating enemy frogmen in the water. Military divers need equipment which hides their position and prevents explosives from being set-off, and to this end, they use rebreathers which produce few or no bubbles on the surface, and which contain no magnetic components, this continues down to the design of their diving suit, which will normally have a non-magnetic zip, and the face-mask may be fitted with special anti-reflective glass. Some navies have gone further and given their divers special contact lenses instead of large face-masks to cut down on the risk of a reflection. Naval diving is the military term for commercial diving, and is drastically different to military diving. Naval divers work to support maintenance and repair operations on ships and military installations. Typical tasks include changing propellers or fitting replacement anodes. Naval divers may also work to recover downed aircraft, submarines, missiles and other military hardware. Their equipment is derived from commercially available equipment, with the US Navy using versions of the Kirby Morgan helmets and full-face masks amongst other equipment. Experimental diving, is conducted by the US Navy's Experimental Diving Unit (NEDU) and involves meeting military needs through the research and development of diving practices and diving equipment, testing new types equipment and finding new and safer ways to perform dives and related activities. The US NEDU was responsible for much of the early experimental diving work to calculate decompression tables and has since worked on such developments as heated diving suits powered by radioactive isotopes and mixed gas diving equipment, while the British equivalent (The Admiralty Experimental Diving Unit) perfected the Mark 10 submarine escape suits utilized by both the Royal Navy and the US Navy.[4]
[edit] Police Diving

Main article: Police diving Police divers are normally police officers who have been trained in the use of diving techniques to recover evidence and occasionally bodies from rivers, canals and the sea. They may also be employed in searching shipping for contraband substances fitted to the outside of hulls to avoid detection. The equipment they use
depends on requirements, but the requirement for communications at some sites does often require the use of full-face masks with communication equipment, either with SCUBA or surface supplied equipment.
[edit] Dive Instruction

There are two differing types of dive instructor. Some train recreational divers while others train professional divers. Recreational dive instructors differ from other types of professional divers as they normally don't require a professional level qualification, but a relevant recreational qualification from a recognised training agency such as PADI or BSAC, which permits them to teach. Dive instructors teach a wide variety of skills from entry-level diver training for beginners, to diver rescue for intermediate level divers and technical diving for more experienced divers. They often operate from dedicated dive centres at coastal sites or through hotels in popular holiday resorts or simply from local swimming pools. Initial training is carried out mainly on conventional SCUBA equipment but with the increasing use of rebreathers, their use is also taught. Not all dive instructors are professionals; most BSAC instructors are amateurs with careers outside the diving industry. Commercial dive instructors normally required to have professional diving qualifications. They typically teach trainee commercial divers how to operate types of diving equipment and typical underwater tools they will use in the course of their work. Commercial dive instructors will use similar equipment to commercial divers in the course of their work.
[edit] Training
Training to become a professional diver is expensive, with courses around 10,000 (around $20,000)[5] although the earning potential is broadly in-line with that of university graduates and the overall cost of training is substantially lower (taking into account tuition fees and debt in the UK). In the UK, any person diving at work is required to hold a relevant qualification approved by the Health and Safety Executive (HSE). In the UK, diving schools work towards a standard HSE approved qualification, whilst divers who have trained overseas may find their existing qualifications meet the necessary HSE standards, if not, additional training may be required. HSE approved qualifications are well known around the world and due to the stringent requirements of HSE qualifications, most diving qualifications around the world are designed to meet HSE standards, allowing any trained diver to work in the UK, an important location due to the North Sea oil industry. The stringent requirements of the HSE qualifications make then a common requirement around the world for employers looking for new staff. There are several different HSE qualifications, each focusing on a different type of equipment or type of diving activity, for instance the HSE Scuba qualification allows the holder to use only SCUBA equipment. Training usually takes place at a residential school, with courses taking anything between 9 and 13 weeks[5] although divers with existing qualifications, such as former military divers can take 'Top Up' courses which build on their existing knowledge and experience. During training, divers will be taught how to use common types of diving equipment (nearly every school trains divers to use the Kirby Morgan equipment) and how to carry out underwater construction techniques such as welding and cutting. In addition to physical training, there is a large amount of classroom work, with divers being trained subjects such as basic gas laws and decompression tables. First Aid courses are normally also a requirement for trainee divers, with the emphasis placed on dealing with decompression and other diving related injuries.
[edit] References
1. ^ a b UK Government LearnDirect Dive Career Information 2. ^ US Environmental Protection Agency Guidance For Contaminated Environment Diving 3. ^ Plymouth University 4. ^ US Navy History Site 5. ^ a b The Underwater Centre, UK
[edit] See Also

For scientific and archaeological applications for which diving is needed see:

Underwater archaeology Marine ecology
For other diving activities
Diving activities

UK Health and Safety Executive Website (UK Government) Diving Heritage Life of a nuclear diver Sea Research Society Diving Diseases Research Centre
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Professional_diving"
Platform supply vessel

Jump to: navigation, search Platform supply vessel (often abbreviated as PSV) is a ship specially designed to supply offshore oil platforms. These ships range from 65 to 350 feet in length and accomplish a variety of tasks. The primary function for most of these vessels is transportation of goods and personnel to and from the offshore oil platforms. The cargos are as diverse as the tasks that they accomplish. Drilling mud, pulverized cement, diesel fuel, potable and nonpotable water, and chemicals used in the drilling process make most of the below decks cargo. Common and specialty tools are carried on the large decks of these vessels. Most carry a combination of above and below deck cargoes, allowing for the stability of the vessel. Some of these ships are constructed (or re-configured) to accomplish a particular job. This could include deploying, monitoring, and retreiving siesmic cable for mapping geologic formations that may possibly hold hydrocarbons. Other vessels are equipped with tools, chemicals and personnel to "work-over" existing oil wells for the purpose of increasing the wells' production. Many other specialty jobs are regularly accomplished every day in the oilfields of the world.
Contents
[hide]
1 Vessel Crews
o 1.1 Daily Operations 2 See also
3 External links
[edit] Vessel Crews

Crews on the smaller ships can number as few as three or four. Some of the larger vessels carry 20 to 30 people, as many as half of them could be crew, the remainder being specialist such as scientist, geologists, or people involved in any of the many jobs related to operations on the oil rig.
[edit] Daily Operations
[edit] See also
Anchor handling tug supply vessel

PSV web page at Farstad Shipping Ulstein - designing and constructing advanced vessels Dundee Shipping - owner and operator of PSVs in Brazil Great Offshore - owner and operator of PSVs in India
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platform_supply_vessel"
Degrees of freedom (engineering)

Jump to: navigation, search For other meanings, see Degrees of freedom or Degree In mechanics, degrees of freedom (DOF) are the set of independent displacements that specify completely the displaced or deformed position of the body or system. This is a fundamental concept relating to systems of moving bodies in mechanical engineering, aeronautical engineering, robotics, structural engineering, etc. In chemical engineering, degrees of freedom are used to determine if a material balance is possible for a given process. It takes into account the number reactions, temperature, pressure, heat transfer, percent yield, mols entering/exiting, and various other pieces of additional information. A particle that moves in three dimensional space has three translational displacement components as DOFs, while a rigid body would have at most six DOFs including three rotations. Translation is the ability to move without rotating, while rotation is angular motion about some axis.
[edit] Motions and Dimensions
In general, a rigid body in d-dimensions has d(d+1)/2 degrees of freedom (d translations + d(d-1)/2 rotations). One line of reasoning for the number of rotations goes that rotational freedom is the same as fixing a coordinate frame. Now, the first axis of the new frame is unrestricted, except that it has to have the same scale as the original - so it has (d-1) DOFs. The second axis has to be orthogonal to the first, so it has (d-2) DOFs. Proceeding in this way, we get d(d-1)/2 rotational DOFs in d dimensions. In 1-, 2- and 3- dimensions then, we have one, three, and six degrees of freedom. A non-rigid or deformable body may be thought of as a collection of many minute particles (infinite number of DOFs); this is often approximated by a finite DOF system. When motion involving large displacements is the main objective of study (e.g. for analyzing the motion of satellites), a deformable body may be approximated as a rigid body (or even a particle) in order to simplify the analysis. In three dimensions, the six DOFs of a rigid body are sometimes described using these nautical names: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Moving up and down (heaving); Moving left and right (swaying); Moving forward and backward (surging); Tilting up and down (pitching); Turning left and right (yawing); Tilting side to side (rolling).
See also: Euler angles.
[edit] Systems of Bodies
An articulated robot with a 7 DOF in a kinematic chain (including surge at the end of the arm). A system with several bodies would have a combined DOF that is the sum of the DOFs of the bodies, less the internal constraints they may have on relative motion. A mechanism or linkage containing a number of connected rigid bodies may have more than the degrees of freedom for a single rigid body. Here the term degrees of freedom is used to describe the number of parameters needed to specify the spatial pose of a linkage.
A specific type of linkage is the open kinematic chain, where a set of rigid links are connected at joints; a joint may provide one DOF (hinge/sliding), or two (cylindrical). Such chains occur commonly in robotics, biomechanics and for satellites and other space structures. A human arm is considered to have seven DOFs. A shoulder gives pitch, yaw and roll, an elbow allows for pitch, and a wrist allows for pitch, yaw and roll. Only 3 of those movements would be necessary to move the hand to any point in space, but people would lack the ability to grasp things from different angles or directions. A robot (or object) that has mechanisms to control all 6 physical DOF is said to be holonomic. An object with fewer controllable DOF than total DOF is said to be non-holonomic, and an object with more controllable DOF than total DOF (such as the human arm) is said to be redundant. In mobile robotics, a car-like robot can reach any position and orientation in 2-D space, so it needs 3 DOFs to describe its pose, but at any point, you can move it only by a forward motion and a steering angle. So it has two control DOFs and three representational DOFs - i.e. it is non-holonomic. An airplane, with 3-4 control DOFs (forward motion, roll, pitch - and to a limited extent, yaw) in a 3-D space, is also non-holonomic. In electrical engineering, degrees of freedom is often used to describe the number of directions in which a phased array antenna can either form beams or nulls. It is equal to one less than the number of elements contained in the array, as one reference element is used as a reference against which either constructive or destructive interference may be applied using each of the remaining antenna elements. Applications exist for the concept in both radar practice as well as for communication link practice, with beam steering being more prevalent for radar applications and null steering being more prevalent for interference suppression in communication links.
Drillship
Jump to: navigation, search See also: Drill ship
Offshore Support Vessel Toisa Perseus with in the background the fifth generation deepwater drillship Discoverer Enterprise. A drillship is a maritime vessel that has been fitted with drilling apparatus. It is most often used for exploratory drilling of new oil or gas wells in deep water but can also be used for scientific drilling. It is often built on a modified tanker hull and outfitted with a dynamic positioning system to maintain its position over the well. Drillships are able to drill in water depths of over 2000 meters. In order to drill, a Marine Riser is lowered to the seabed with a Blow Out Preventer (BOP) at the bottom. Drillships are just one way to perform exploratory drilling. This function can also be performed by Semisubmersibles, jackups, barges, or platform rigs.
The first drillship was the Cuss 1. Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drillship"
Floating Production Storage and Offloading

Terra Nova FPSO A Floating Production, Storage and Offloading vessel (FPSO; also called a "unit" and a "system") is a type of floating tank system used by the offshore oil and gas industry and designed to take all of the oil or gas produced from a nearby platform (s), process it, and store it until the oil or gas can be offloaded onto waiting tankers, or sent through a pipeline. A FSO is a similar system, but without the possibility to do any processing of the oil or gas. Oil has been produced from offshore locations since the 1950s. Originally, all oil platforms sat on the seabed, but as exploration moved to deeper waters and more distant locations in the 1970s, floating production systems came to be used. Oil produced from offshore production platforms can be transported to the mainland either by pipeline or by tanker. When a tanker solution is chosen, it is necessary to accumulate oil in some form of tank such that an oil tanker is not continuously occupied while sufficient oil is produced to fill the tanker. Often the solution is a decommissioned oil tanker which has been stripped down and equipped with facilities to be connected to a mooring buoy. Oil is accumulated in the FPSO until there is sufficient amount to fill a transport tanker, at which point the transport tanker connects to the stern of the floating storage unit and offloads the oil. An FPSO has the capability to carry out some form of oil separation process obviating the need for such facilities to be located on an oil platform. FPSOs are particularly effective in remote or deepwater locations where seabed pipelines are not cost effective. FPSOs eliminate the need to lay expensive long-distance pipelines from the oil well to an onshore terminal. They can also be used economically in smaller oil fields which can be exhausted in a few years and do not justify the expense of installing a fixed oil platform. Once the field is depleted, the FPSO can be moved to a new location. The world's largest FPSO is the Kizomba A, with a storage capacity of 2.2 million barrels. Built at a cost of over US$800 million by Hyundai Heavy Industries in Ulsan, Korea, it is operated by Esso Exploration Angola
(ExxonMobil). Located in 1200 meters (3,940 ft) of water at Deepwater block 15,200 statute miles (320 km) offshore in the Atlantic Ocean from Angola, West Africa, it weighs 81,000 tonnes and is 285 meters long, 63 meters wide, and 32 meters high ((935 ft by 207 ft by 105 ft).
[edit] Current FPSOs

FPSO Vessel Name SeaRose FPSO Terra Nova FPSO Petrojarl Banff FPSO Anasuria FPSO White Rose Terra Nova Banff Teal, Teal South and Guillemot A Grand Banks of Newfoundland Grand Banks of Newfoundland North Sea North Sea North Sea - West of Shetland North Sea - West of Shetland North Sea North Sea North Sea North Sea North Sea South Africa North Sea Husky Energy Petro-Canada CNR Shell BP BP Shell Maersk Maersk ConocoPhillips Shell Bluewater Talisman Energy 1993 2006 April 1997 1999 2003 March 1999 2005 2002
Schiehallion FPSO Schiehallion Petrojarl Foinaven Maersk Curlew Gryphon FPSO Foinaven Curlew Gryphon
Global Producer III Dumbarton MacCulloch FPSO Hwene Brim FPSO Glas Dowr Bleo Holm

MacCulloch Pierce Sable Ross
Texaco (Now Chevron) Captain oil field FPSO December 1996 North Sea Bluewater FPSOs Uisge Gorm (1995 Fife Field, North Sea), Bleo Holm (leased to Talisman on the Ross Field above), Glas Dowr (off Durban, South Africa) and Haewen Brim (North Sea), Munin (Lufeng Field, China Sea), Aoka Misu (Ettrick Field), Jotun A (Norwegian sector, operated by ExxonMobil but 55% owned by Bluewater), Hanne Knutsen (a tanker awaiting conversion 2006). Amerada Hess Triton - Bittern, Guillemot West & North West oil fields FPSO March 2000 North Sea Norne FPSO, offshore Norway Sea Eagle FPSO, offshore Nigeria Bonga FPSO, 2005, off the coast of the Niger Delta, Africa Kizomba A, offshore Angola, West Africa Kizomba B, offshore Angola, West Africa Girassol, offshore Angola, West Africa
Marlim Sul, offshore Brazil Capixaba, offshore brazil BHP Billiton Griffin FPSO , offshore northwest Australia Woodside Energy Northern Endeavour, Timor sea Woodside Energy Cossack Pioneer, Northwest Australia Woodside Energy Berge Helene (Bergesen offshore) Mauritania Woodside Energy Nganhurra, Exmouth Northwest Australia ENI Four Vanguard , Barrow Is , North West Australia
[edit] FPSO builders

Acergy [1] Aker Kvrner Bluewater [2][3] Chicago Bridge & Iron [4] Daewoo Shipbuilding & Marine Engineering (DSME) [5] Hyundai Heavy Industries KBR (Halliburton) Keppel Shipyard Larsen & Toubro Mitsubishi Heavy Industries Mitsui Engineering & Shipbuilding (Mitsui) [6] MODEC NORTECHS FPSO [7] Saipem [8] SBM Offshore[9] Samsung Heavy Industries (Samsung) [10] Tanker Pacific [11] Technip [12] Vetco Aibel [13]
FPSO diagram

FPSO FAQ's at the United Kingdom Offshore Operators Association FPSOs at the U.S. Department of the Interior's Minerals Management Service - Gulf of Mexico OCS Region FPSO pages at Offshore-Technology o Kizomba o Petrojarl 1 o Terra Nova o White Rose FPSO pages at Ship-Technology o Anasuria o Bonga o Ramform Banff o White Rose/Searose 2004 worldwide survey of Floating Production, Storage and Offloading (FPSO) Units (Adobe Acrobat *.PDF) Mustang Engineering and BHP Billiton. http://www.exxonmobileurope.com/Corporate/Newsroom/Publications/TheLamp_3_2005/story2.asp http://www.exxonmobil.com/Corporate/Newsroom/Newsreleases/xom_nr_110804.asp http://www.sbmoffshore.com/ Floating Production, Storage & Offloading Systems 2007
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floating_Production_Storage_and_Offloading"
Dredging
Jump to: navigation, search For other uses, see Dredge (disambiguation).
The 'business end' (excavator) of an Alaskan dredge.
Profile view of above dredge tied up to a quay, note the size. The dredge conveys the spoils to the rear (left side) into a receiving vessel such as a barge. Dredging is an excavation activity or operation usually carried out at least partly underwater, in shallow seas or fresh water areas with the purpose of gathering up bottom sediments and disposing of them at a different location. A dredge is a device for scraping or sucking the seabed, used for dredging. A dredger is a ship or boat equipped with a dredge (though in American usage, there is no added letter). Main reasons for dredging include:

Increasing / maintaining the depth of water in a navigation channel Spot excavations preparatory to major waterfront construction (bridges, piers, or dock foundations) Harvesting sand (for usage in concrete production or for beach restoration) Waterways management and maintenance for flood and erosion control
The process of dredging creates spoils (excess material), which are conveyed to a location different from the dredged area. Dredging can produce materials for land reclamation or other purposes (usually constructionrelated), and has also historically played a significant role in gold mining. Dredging can create disturbance in aquatic ecosystems, often with adverse impacts.
Contents
[hide]

1 Relevance 2 Usage 3 Types o 3.1 Suction 3.1.1 Trailing suction 3.1.2 Cutter suction 3.1.3 Auger suction 3.1.4 Jet-lift 3.1.5 Air-lift o 3.2 Bucket o 3.3 Grab o 3.4 Backhoe/dipper o 3.5 Water injection o 3.6 Pneumatic o 3.7 Bed leveler o 3.8 Krabbelaar
4 Other types o 4.1 Amphibious o 4.2 Submersible o 4.3 Fishing o 4.4 Police drag 5 Disposal of materials 6 Environmental impacts 7 Images 8 See also 9 External links
[edit] Relevance
Without the many and almost non-stop dredging operations world wide, much of the world's commerce would be impaired, often within a few months, since much of world's goods travel by ship, and need to access harbours or seas via channels. Recreational boating also would be constrained to the smallest vessels. The majority of marine dredging operations (and the disposal of the dredged material) will require that appropriate licences are obtained from the relevant regulatory authorities, and dredging is usually carried out by (or for) harbour companies or corresponding government agencies.
[edit] Usage
Capital dredging: carried out to create a new harbour, berth or waterway, or to deepen existing facilities in order to allow larger ships access. This process is usually carried out with a cutter-suction dredge. Maintenance dredging: deepening navigable waterways which have become silted with the passage of time, due to sand and mud deposited by water currents, until they may become too shallow for navigation. This is often carried out with a trailing suction hopper dredge. Most dredging is for this purpose. Land reclamation: mining sand, clay or rock from the seabed and using it to construct new land elsewhere. This is typically performed by a cutter-suction dredge or trailing suction hopper dredge. Beach nourishment: mining sand offshore and placing on a beach to replace sand eroded by storms or wave action. This is done to enhance the recreational and protective function of the beaches, which can be eroded by human activity or by storms. This is typically performed by a cutter-suction dredge or trailing suction hopper dredge. Removing trash and debris: often done in combination with maintenance dredging, this process removes non-natural matter from the bottoms of rivers and canals and harbors. Seabed mining: a possible future use, recovering natural metal ore nodules from the sea's abyssal plains. Contaminant remediation: to reclaim areas affected by chemical spills, storm water surges (with urban runoff), and other soil contaminations. Disposal becomes an proportionally large factor in these operations.
Anti-eutrophication: Dredging is an expensive option for the remediation of eutrophied (or deoxygenated) water bodies. However, as artificially elevated phosphorus levels in the sediment aggravate the eutrophication process, controlled sediment removal is occasionally the only option for the reclamation of still waters.
[edit] Types
Example of a trailing suction dredger: the Orisant in the port of Ijmuiden, Netherland.
[edit] Suction
These operate by sucking through a long tube, like some vacuum cleaners. A plain suction dredger has no tool at the end of the suction pipe to disturb the material. [edit] Trailing suction A trailing suction hopper dredger (TSHD) trails its suction pipe when working, and loads the dredge spoil into one or more hoppers in the vessel. When the hoppers are full the TSHD sails to a disposal area and either dumps the material through doors in the hull or pumps the material out of the hoppers. [edit] Cutter suction A cutter-suction dredger's (CSD) suction tube has a cutter head at the suction inlet, to loosen the earth and transport it to the suction mouth. The cutter can also be used for hard surface materials like gravel or rock. The dredged soil is usually sucked up by a wear resistant centrifugal pump and discharged through a pipe line or to a barge. In recent years dredgers with more powerful cutters have been built in order to excavate harder and harder rock without blasting. The two largest cutter suction dredgers in the world are Deme's D'Artagnan (28,200 kW total installed power), and Jan De Nul's J.F.J. DeNul (27,240 kW). [edit] Auger suction This process functions like a cutter suction dredger, but the cutting tool is a rotating Archimedean screw set at right angles to the suction pipe. [edit] Jet-lift This uses the Venturi effect of a concentrated high-speed stream of water to pull the nearby water, together with bed material, into a pipe. [edit] Air-lift
An airlift is a type of small suction dredge. It is sometimes used like other dredges. At other times, often an airlift is used handheld underwater by a diver. It works by blowing air into the pipe, and dragging water with it.
[edit] Bucket
A bucket dredger is a dredger equipped with a bucket dredge, which is a device that picks up sediment by mechanical means, often with many circulating buckets attached to a wheel or chain. Some bucket dredgers and grab dredgers are powerful enough to work through coral reefs to make a shipping channel.
[edit] Grab
A grab dredger picks up seabed material with a clam shell grab, which hangs from an onboard crane, or is carried by a hydraulic arm, or is mounted like on a dragline. This technique is often used in excavation of bay mud.
[edit] Backhoe/dipper
A backhoe/dipper dredge has a backhoe like on some excavators. A crude but usable backhoe dredger can be made by mounting a land-type backhoe excavator on a pontoon. The two largest backhoe dredgers in the world are Tauracavor and New York.[citation needed] Both feature a barge mounted excavator.
[edit] Water injection

A water injection dredger injects water in a small jet under low pressure (low pressure because the sediment should not explode into the surrounding waters, rather it is carefully moved to another location) into the seabed to bring the sediment in suspension, which then becomes a turbidity current, which flows away down slope, is moved by a second burst of water from the WID or is carried away in natural currents. Opposition claims that Water Injection Dredging is not a natural way of dredging while the side of the WID claims otherwise. As a side note: Water injection results in a lot of sediment in the water which makes measurement with most hydrographic equipment (for instance: singlebeam echosounder) difficult and should make use of filtering to produce better results.
[edit] Pneumatic
These dredgers use a chamber with inlets, out of which the water is pumped with the inlets closed. It is usually suspended from a crane on land or from a small pontoon or barge. Its effectiveness depends on depth pressure.
[edit] Bed leveler

This is a bar or blade which is pulled over the seabed behind any suitable ship or boat. It has an effect similar to that of a bulldozer on land.
[edit] Krabbelaar
This is an early type of dredger which was formerly used in shallow water in the Netherlands. It was a flatbottomed boat with spikes sticking out of its bottom. As tide current pulled the boat, the spikes scraped seabed material loose, and the tide current washed the material away, hopefully to deeper water. Krabbelaar is Dutch for "scratcher".
[edit] Other types
[edit] Amphibious
Some of these are any of the above types of dredger, which can operate normally, or by extending legs so it stands on the seabed with its hull out of the water. Some forms can go on land. Some of these are land-type backhoe excavators whose wheels are on long hinged legs so it can drive into shallow water and keep its cab out of water. Some of these may not have a floatable hull and, if so, cannot work in deep water.
Oliver Evans (1755-1819) in 1804 invented an amphibious dredger which was America's first steampowered road vehicle.
[edit] Submersible
These are usually used to recover useful materials from the seabed. Many of them travel on caterpillar tracks. This link describes a type intended to walk on legs on the seabed. It is a summary of the article "Concept of a mathematical model for prediction of major design parameters of a submersible dredger/miner" by Sritama Sarkar, Neil Bose, Mridul Sarkar, and Dan Walker, in "3rd Indian National Conference on Harbour and Ocean Engineering, National Institute of Oceanography", Dona Paula, Goa 403 004 India, 7 - 9 December 2004: see http://www.nio.org for more information about publisher etc.
[edit] Fishing
There are types of dredges used for collecting scallops or oysters from the seabed. They tend to have the form of a scoop made of chain mesh. They are towed by a fishing boat. Scallop dredging is very destructive to the seabed, and nowadays is often replaced by scuba diving to collect the scallops.
[edit] Police drag

In some police departments a small dredge (sometimes called a drag) is used to find and recover objects and bodies from underwater. The bodies may be murder victims, or people who committed suicide by drowning, or victims of accidents. It is sometimes pulled by men walking on the bank.
[edit] Disposal of materials

In a "hopper dredger", the dredgings end up in a big onboard hold called a "hopper", which has doors in its bottom. The excess water in the dredgings is spilled off by sedimentation: as the mud and sand settle to the bottom of the hopper, the water is siphoned from the top and returned to the sea to reduce weight and increase the amount of dredgings that can be carried in one load. When the hopper is filled with slurry, the dredger stops dredging and goes to a dump site and opens the bottom hopper doors, dumping the slurry out. Or the hopper can be emptied from above. A suction hopper dredger is usually used for maintenance dredging. Sometimes with a suction dredger the slurry of dredgings and water is pumped straight into pipes which deposit it on nearby land by pipes; or in barges (also called scows), which deposit it in the deep sea or on land. When contaminated (toxic) sediments are removed, or large volume inland disposal sites are unavailable, dredge slurries are reduced to dry solids via a process known as dewatering. Current dewatering techniques employ either centrifuges, large textile based filters or polymer flocculant/congealant based apparatus. In many projects, slurry dewatering is performed in large inland settling pits, although this is becoming less and less common as mechanical dewatering techniques continue to improve.
Similarly, many groups (most notable in east Asia) are performing research towards utilizing dewatered sediments for the production of concretes and construction block, although the high organic content (in many cases) of this material is a hindrance toward such ends.
[edit] Environmental impacts

Dredging can create disturbance to aquatic ecosystems, often with adverse impacts. In addition, dredge spoils may contain toxic chemicals that may have an adverse effect on the disposal area; futhermore, the process of dredging often dislodges chemicals residing in benthic substrates and injects them into the water column. The activity of dredging can create the following principal impacts to the environment:

Release of toxic chemicals (including heavy metals and PCB) from bottom sediments into the water column. Short term increases in turbidity, which can affect aquatic species metabolism and interfere with spawning. Secondary effects from water column contamination of uptake of heavy metals, DDT and other persistent organic toxins, via food chain uptake and subsequent concentrations of these toxins in higher organisms including humans. Secondary impacts to marsh productivity from sedimentation Tertiary impacts to avafauna which may prey upon contaminated aquatic organisms Secondary impacts to aquatic and benthic organisms' metabolism and mortality Possible contamination of dredge spoils sites
[edit] Images
Bucket dredging
Stuyvesant
Essayons
[edit] See also
WT Preston

Nautical Portal Directory of Dredgers (private photography series of dredgers) Dredging News (blog about dredging) Dredging and Spoil Disposal Policy (pdf)(from the Australian Government)
Minesweeper (ship)
USS Pivot (AM-276), United States Navy World War II Admirable-class minesweeper shown in the Gulf of Mexico on sea trials 12 July 1944.
Auerbach/Oberpfalz (M1093), a modern German Navy Ensdorf-class vessel. A minesweeper is a naval warship designed to counter the threat posed by naval mines. The dedicated, purpose-built minesweeper first appeared during World War I with the Flower-class minesweeping sloop.
Contents
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1 Operation and requirements 2 Minesweeping aircraft 3 Notable minesweepers 4 See also 5 External links
[edit] Operation and requirements

Minesweepers are equipped with mechanical or influence sweeps to detonate mines. The modern minesweeper is designed to reduce the chances of it detonating mines itself; it is soundproofed to reduce its acoustic signature
and often constructed using wood, glass-reinforced plastic (GRP) or non-ferrous metal, or is degaussed, to reduce its magnetic signature. Mechanical sweeps are devices designed to cut the anchors of moored mines, and preferably attach a tag to help the subsequent localization and neutralization. They are towed behind the minesweeper, and use a towed body (e.g. oropesas, paravanes) to maintain the sweep at the desired depth and position. Influence sweeps are equipment, often towed, that emulates a particular ship signature, thereby causing a mine to actuate. The most common such sweeps are magnetic and acoustic generators. There are two modes of operating an influence sweep: MSM (mine setting mode) and TSM (target setting mode). MSM sweeping is founded on intelligence on a given type of mine, and produces the output required for detonation of this mine. If such intelligence is unavailable, the TSM sweeping instead reproduces the influence of the friendly ship that is about to transit through the area. TSM sweeping thus clears mines directed at this ship without knowledge on the mines. However, mines directed at other ships might remain. The minesweeper is distinct from a minehunter; the minehunter actively detects and neutralises individual mines. Minesweepers are in many cases complementary to minehunters, depending on the operation and the environment; a minesweeper is, in particular, better suited to clearing open-water areas of a large number of mines. Both kinds of ships are collectively called MCMVs (mine countermeasure vessels), a term also applied to a vessel that combines both roles in a single hull. The first such ship was HMS Wilton, also the first warship to be constructed from GRP.
[edit] Minesweeping aircraft
A U.S. Navy MH-53E minesweeping helicopter of HM-15 on USS Nassau. Aircraft may also be used for minesweeping. For instance, during World War II, fifteen British Vickers Wellington DWI Mk.1 bombers were modified to carry a large magnetic induction loop and an electrical generator. The DWI (Directional Wireless Installation, a cover story for the true purpose of the magnetic loop) was used successfully on May 10, 1940 to sweep a path for the escape of the Dutch Royal Family to the U.K. The DWI was used most successfully in the Mediterranean Theatre, particularly over the Suez Canal and Alexandria Harbour. Their use revealed the limitations of the technique, in that it only works effectively in very shallow water (such as canals and harbours). From about 1943, German Junkers Ju 52 transports were similarly converted. Helicopters are used by the United States Navy for minesweeping, in the form of the MH-53E Sea Dragon, which tows a minesweeping sled.
[edit] Notable minesweepers
HNLMS Abraham Crijnssen famous for her escape from Surabaya, in 1942, disguised as a tropical island. HMS Bronington (M1115) formerly commanded by HRH Prince Charles, Prince of Wales. Calypso research vessel of Jacques-Yves Cousteau; the ex-Royal Navy BYMS-class vessel J826. USS Hazard (AM-240) museum ship at Omaha, Nebraska. HMS Wilton, the first combined MCMV and the first warship constructed from GRP.
[edit] See also

Minehunter Naval mine List of mine warfare vessels of the United States Navy List of mine countermeasure vessels of the Royal Navy
Pewter Aircraft | Vickers Wellington DWI of 1 GRU used to clear magnetic mines.
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Dynamic positioning

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[edit] Comparison between position-keeping options

position by system failures or blackouts.

blackouts. No underwater hazards from thrusters.

Quick set-up. Not limited by obstructed seabed.

No underwater hazards from thrusters.

Disadvantages: No manoeuvrability once positioned.

Limited to water depths of ~150 meters.

Higher maintenance of the mechanical systems.

SBX underway Important applications include:

Servicing Aids to Navigation (ATON) Cable-laying

[edit] Scope of dynamic positioning

surge (forward/astern) sway (starboard/port) heave (up/down)

and the other three rotation:

[edit] Requirements for dynamic positioning

[edit] Reference systems

[edit] Heading reference systems

Gyrocompasses are normally used to determine heading.

More advanced methods are:

[edit] Control systems

[edit] Power and propulsion systems

[edit] Class Requirements

Based on this the type of ship is specified for each operation:

[edit] External links

Diving support vessel

[edit] Uncle John

[edit] European DGPS Network

[edit] United States NDGPS

[edit] Canadian DGPS

[edit] See also

[edit] External links

US NDGPS fact sheet US coverage maps

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_GPS"

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1 Satellite communications 2 Aviation 3 Road 4 Underwater 5 See also

[edit] Satellite communications

[edit] See also

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Occupied diving bell illustrated

[edit] Underwater habitats

[edit] Diving chambers

[edit] See also

Timeline of underwater technology Bathysphere Benthoscope

[edit] External links

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diving_bell"

Remotely operated vehicle

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[edit] Science ROVs

[edit] Naming Conventions

[edit] See also

[edit] External links

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o 2.6 Dive Instruction 3 Training 4 References 5 See Also

US Navy Diver using Kirby Morgan diving helmet

[edit] Diving Suit

[edit] Breathing Apparatus

[edit] Branches of professional diving

[edit] Scientific diving

[edit] Media Diving

[edit] Military and Naval Diving

[edit] Police Diving

[edit] Dive Instruction