APPLIED STATISTICS FOR THE BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES Contents Introduction Meaning of Statistics Role of Statistics Variables A Hierarchy of measurement

scales Nominal scale Ordinal scale Interval scale Ratio scale Populations and samples Descriptive statistics and inferential statistics Summary Organizing Data for Meaningful Representation Frequency distributions Graphic representation of frequency distributions Differences in the shapes of frequency distributions Percentiles Cumulative Frequency Distributions Percentiles Percentile Rank Summary Exercises Describing Distributions: Measures of Central Tendency and Dispersion Summation Notation and Operation Measures of Central Tendency Mode Median Mean Comparison of the Mode the Median and the Mean The Mean of Combined Groups Measures of Dispersion Range The Semi-Interquartile Range Standard Deviation Summary Exercises Standard Scores and Normal Curve Standard Scores Computing Standard Scores Properties of standard Normal Curve Using the Standard Normal Curve Summary Exercise

Standard Scores and the Normal Curve Standard Scores Computing Standard Scores Properties of Standard Scores The Normal Curve The Standard Normal Curve Using the Standard Normal Curve Summary Exercises Correlation: the Measure of Relationship The Correlation Coefficient and the Meaning of Correlation Direction and Magnitude of the Relationship Computing the Correlation Coefficient Computational Formula for r Factors Affecting the Size of the Pearson r Linearity Homogeneity of the Group Size of the Group Interpretation of the Correlation Coefficient The Scale of r Interpreting r in Terms of Variance Correlation and Causality Appropriate Correlation Coefficients for Various Combinations of Scales Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Coefficients Point-Biserial Phi Spearman Rho () Non-Product- Moment Coefficient The Contingency Coefficient {c} Kendalls Tau {T} Biserial Coefficient Rank-Biserial Coefficient Undefined Correlation Coefficients Coefficient of Nonlinear Relationship between Two Variables Eta () or Correlation Ratio Summary Exercises Introduction to inferential Statistics: part 1 Role of Sampling in Inferential statistics Random Sampling Methods Role of Probability in Inferential statistics Probability and the Concept of the Sample Mean Hypothesis Testing Testing Hypotheses When Population Characteristics Are Unknown The Underlying Distribution of Sample Means When is Unknown

Stating Hypotheses Testing the Example Hypotheses ( = 90 and = 68) Level of Significance Estimation of a parameter Point Estimation Interval Estimation Summary Exercises Introduction to Inferential Statistics: part 11 Testing Hypotheses Hypotheses: one-Sample and Two-Sample Case Nondirectional Alternative Hypotheses Directional Alternative Hypotheses Errors in Hypothesis Testing and Interval Estimation Type 1 and Type 11 Errors Level of Significance Region of Rejection: Nondirectional Alternative Hypotheses Region of Rejection: Directional Alternative Hypotheses Level of Confidence Data Needed for Hypothesis Testing and Interval Estimation Summary Exercises Hypothesis Testing: One-Sample Case The Chi-Square (X) Distribution Statistical Precision Statistical Significance versus Practical Importance Summary Exercises Hypothesis Testing: Two-Sample Case Assumptions for the Two-Sample Case Assumption of Independent Samples Assumption of Homogeneity of Variance Statistical Significance vs. Practical Importance: A Return to Reality Summary Exercises Hypothesis Testing: k-Sample Case Analysis of Variance-one-way Classification Problems with Multiple t-Tests The variables in ANOVA Intuitive Approach to Partitioning the Variation The Linear Model Partitioning the Sun of Squares Two Estimates of the Population Variance Testing the Null Hypothesis Expected Mean Square Between: E (MS) Expected Mean Square Within: E (MSw) The F-Ratio

Summary Table for ANOVA Computational Formulas for Sums of Squares Assumptions Underlying the Analysis of Variance Consequence of Violating the Assumptions The Relationship of ANOVA to the t-test Summary Exercises Multiple Comparison Procedures Post Hoc Multiple Comparison Tests Type 1 Error Rates The Tukey Method The Newman-Keuls Method Comparison of the Tukey and Newman-Keuls Methods Post Hoc Test for Unequal n The Scheff Method The Scheff Method for Pair-Wise Comparisons A Priori Planned Tests Planned Orthogonal Contrast Relationship of Orthogonal Contrast and the between Sum of Squares One-Tailed Test Using Orthogonal Contrast Trend Analysis Orthogonal Polynomials: Contrast Used in Trend Analysis Summary Exercises Analysis of Variance-Two-Way Classification Factorial Design Advantages of a Factorial Design The Variables in Two-Way ANOVA Partitioning the Variation in a Two-Factor Design Patitioning the Sum of Squares Testing the Null Hypothesis Computational Formulas for Sums of Squares The Meaning of the Main Effects The Meaning of Interaction Reduction of Error Variance in Two-Way ANOVA Assumptions of Two-WAY ANOVA The Linear Model Models for ANOVA, Two-Way Classification Expected Mean Squares for the ANOVA Models Multiple Comparison Procedures for Two-Way ANOVA Two-Way ANOVA with Disproportionate Cell Frequencies Summary Exercises Selected Nonparametric Tests of Significance The X -Distribution The Critical Values of the X Distributions

Nominal Data: One-Sample Case Nominal Data: Two-Sample Case Determination of the Expected Frequencies Determination of the Degrees of Freedom The 2x4 Contingency Table The 2x2 Contingency Table Nominal Data: Two-Sample Case-Dependent Samples Ordinal Data: Two-Sample Case The Median Test The Mann-Whitney U-Test Ordinal Data: k-Sample Case Tied Ranks Ordinal Data: Two-Sample Case-Dependent Samples Summary Exercises Linear Regression: Prediction and Estimation Concepts of Prediction The Predictive Relationship between Two Variables Determining the Regression Line The second Regression Line Predicted Scores and their Distributions Errors in Prediction The Estimated Standard Error Prediction Assumptions Underlying the Regression Line The Relationships Correlation and Prediction Partitioning the Variance of the Predicted Variable (Y) Correlation and the Regression Coefficients Probability Associated with Regression and Prediction Confidence Intervals in Prediction Summary Exercises Multip0le Correlation and Prediction Concepts of Multiple Predictions The Geometry of Multiple Predictions Multiple Predictions in Standard Score Form Characteristics of Multiple R The Standard Error of Estimate Selecting Predictor Variables The Suppressor Variables Number of Predictor Variables Empirical Procedures for Selecting Predictor Variables The Use of Multiple R in Inferential Statistics Testing the Difference between Two Multiple Rs Multiple Regression and ANOVA Part and Partial Correlation Summary

Introduction to Multivariate Statistics Canonical Correlation Conceptual Meaning of a Trait or Construct Constructs and Canonical Correlation Canonical Variates and Canonical Weights Comments on the Computation of Canonical Correlation Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA) Underlying Concepts of MANOVA Information Obtained from a MANOVA Factor Analysis Geometrical Concepts The Concepts of Communality Types of factors Uses of Factor Analysis Summary Exercises Types of Correlation Coefficient Scales of Measurement Nominal-Discrete Dichotomy Ordinal Interval or Ratio